Finals Anatomy And Physiology 2 PDF

Finatm Finals u  ▪ Chapter : Endocrine 17 System 1. What are hormones and where do they act? How peptide and steroid hormones differ in their chemical composition an...

Finatm Finals u  ▪ Chapter : Endocrine 17 System 1. What are hormones and where do they act? How peptide and steroid hormones differ in their chemical composition and action? Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by glands in the endocrine system that regulate various bodily functions. They act on target organs, tissues, or cells. Peptide hormones: Made of amino acids; water-soluble and cannot pass through cell membranes. They bind to receptors on the cell surface, triggering a signaling cascade (e.g., insulin). Steroid hormones: Derived from cholesterol; lipid-soluble and can pass through cell membranes to bind to intracellular receptors. They regulate gene expression (e.g., cortisol, estrogen). 2. Which organ acts as both neural and hormonal in function? What are its hormones and why are they called stimulatory and inhibitory? Organ: Hypothalamus ◦ It regulates both the nervous and endocrine systems. ◦ Hormones: Stimulatory: TRH (Thyrotropin-releasing hormone), CRH (Corticotropin-releasing hormone) Inhibitory: Somatostatin (inhibits growth hormone release), Dopamine (inhibits prolactin release) 3. What is cAMP? How is it formed and its action? cAMP: Cyclic adenosine monophosphate; a secondary messenger in cells. ◦ Formation: It’s produced from ATP by the enzyme adenylate cyclase when activated by a receptor on the cell surface (e.g., when a peptide hormone binds to its receptor). ◦ Action: cAMP activates protein kinase A (PKA), which then activates or inhibits proteins to elicit a cellular response (e.g., activating glycogen breakdown). 4. What are the hormones of adenohypophysis (anterior pituitary) and neurohypophysis (posterior pituitary), their control, target organ, and action? Adenohypophysis (Anterior Pituitary): ◦ Hormones: Growth hormone (GH), Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), Prolactin (PRL), Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), Luteinizing hormone (LH) ◦ Control: Regulated by releasing/inhibiting hormones from the hypothalamus. ◦ Target organs/actions: Vary depending on the hormone (e.g., GH acts on bones and muscles to stimulate growth). Neurohypophysis (Posterior Pituitary): ◦ Hormones: Oxytocin, Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) ◦ Control: Released directly from the hypothalamus. ◦ Target organs/actions: ADH acts on kidneys to reduce urine production, Oxytocin stimulates uterine contractions and milk release. 5. Hormonal conditions involved in dwarfism, rickets, gigantism, acromegaly, diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, hirsutism? Dwarfism: Caused by growth hormone deficiency. Rickets: Vitamin D deficiency, leading to weakened bones. Gigantism: Caused by excessive growth hormone during childhood. Acromegaly: Excessive growth hormone in adulthood, leading to enlargement of bones and tissues. Diabetes Insipidus: ADH deficiency, leading to excessive urination and thirst. Diabetes Mellitus: Insulin deficiency or resistance, leading to high blood sugar levels. Hirsutism: Excessive hair growth, often due to high levels of androgens. 6. Structure and function of thyroid gland. Its hormones and their function. Structure: Butterfly-shaped gland located in the neck. Hormones: ◦ Thyroxine (T4) and Triiodothyronine (T3): Regulate metabolism. ◦ Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium levels. 7. Structure and function of adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. Their hormones and their function. Adrenal Cortex: ◦ Hormones: Cortisol (stress response), Aldosterone (regulates sodium and potassium levels), Androgens (secondary sex hormones). Adrenal Medulla: ◦ Hormones: Epinephrine (adrenaline), Norepinephrine (noradrenaline), involved in the "fight or flight" response. 8. Endocrine organization of pancreas gland. Its cellular characteristics, hormones secreted by each type of cell, and the action of hormones. How are Type I and Type II diabetes different from each other? Endocrine cells in pancreas: ◦ Alpha cells: Secrete glucagon (raises blood glucose). ◦ Beta cells: Secrete insulin (lowers blood glucose). Type I Diabetes: Autoimmune disease where beta cells are destroyed, leading to insulin deficiency. Type II Diabetes: Insulin resistance, where cells don’t respond properly to insulin.  Chapter 18 : Blood 1. What are the functions of blood? Functions: Transport (oxygen, nutrients), regulation (body temperature, pH), protection (immune response, clotting). 2. What is hematocrit and its normal value? What are the effects of abnormal hematocrit values on body physiology? Hematocrit: Percentage of blood volume that is red blood cells. ◦ Normal value: 38-47% in females, 40-54% in males. ◦ Abnormal levels: Low hematocrit suggests anemia; high hematocrit suggests dehydration or polycythemia. 3. What is the normal range for different formed elements in blood? RBCs (Red Blood Cells): 4.5–5.5 million per µL WBCs (White Blood Cells): 4,000–11,000 per µL Platelets: 150,000–450,000 per µL 4. Composition of blood plasma? What are differences between plasma and serum? Blood Plasma: 55% of blood volume, made of water, proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen), electrolytes, nutrients, hormones. Plasma vs. Serum: Serum is plasma without fibrinogen (the clotting factor). 5. Different types of plasma protein and their percentage composition in plasma. Albumin: 60% (maintains osmotic pressure). Globulins: 35% (antibodies). Fibrinogen: 4% (clotting). 6. Relationship between blood volume and body weight of an individual. Blood volume is approximately 7-8% of body weight. ◦ Example: For a 70 kg individual, blood volume is around 4.9–5.6 liters. 7. Organs responsible for producing plasma proteins and formed elements. Which hormone and environmental conditions do initiate production of blood cells? Plasma proteins: Produced by the liver. Formed elements: Produced in the bone marrow (erythropoiesis, leukopoiesis, thrombopoiesis). Hormones: Erythropoietin (EPO), thrombopoietin, growth factors. 8. What are hemophilia, pernicious anemia, thrombocytopenia, leukocytosis, and jaundice? Hemophilia: Blood clotting disorder. Pernicious Anemia: Vitamin B12 deficiency. Thrombocytopenia: Low platelet count. Leukocytosis: High white blood cell count. Jaundice: Yellowing of skin due to high bilirubin. Chapter 19 : Heart 1. Draw the structure of the human heart and show the direction of blood flow. Diagram: Heart consists of 4 chambers: two atria and two ventricles. Blood flows through the heart in the following sequence: ◦ Right atrium → Right ventricle → Pulmonary artery → Lungs → Pulmonary veins → Left atrium → Left ventricle → Aorta → Body 2. What are differences between foramen ovale and fossa ovalis? Foramen Ovale: An opening in the fetal heart allowing blood to bypass the lungs. Fossa Ovalis: The remnant of the foramen ovale in adults after birth. 3. What are peculiarities of cardiac tissue? Cardiac tissue: Striated, branched, and interconnected with intercalated discs that facilitate synchronized contractions. 4. What do you mean by pulmonary and systemic circuit? Pulmonary circuit: Blood flow from the heart to the lungs and back. **Systemic circuit **: Blood flow from the heart to the body and back.  5. Role of papillary muscle and chordae tendineae and valves. Papillary muscles and chordae tendineae prevent the atrioventricular (AV) valves from inverting during ventricular contraction. 6. Which type of blood flows through pulmonary artery and veins? Pulmonary artery: Deoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs. Pulmonary veins: Oxygenated blood from the lungs to the heart. 7. Organization and functions of coronary vessels. Coronary arteries supply oxygenated blood to the heart muscle. Coronary veins return deoxygenated blood to the right atrium. 8. Course of conduction of electrical impulses in the heart. SA node → AV node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers ◦ Impulses trigger coordinated contractions of the heart. 9. What are tachycardia, bradycardia, cardiomyopathy, cardiac tamponade, angina, and infarction? Tachycardia: Fast heart rate. Bradycardia: Slow heart rate. Cardiomyopathy: Disease of the heart muscle. Cardiac Tamponade: Fluid accumulation around the heart. Angina: Chest pain due to reduced blood flow. Infarction: Tissue death due to lack of oxygen (heart attack). 10. Heart sounds and their association with valve functioning. What are Lubb, Dubb, and murmurs? Lubb: First heart sound (closure of AV valves). Dubb: Second heart sound (closure of semilunar valves). Murmurs: Abnormal sounds due to valve problems. 11. What do you mean by end-diastolic volume, end-systolic volume, stroke volume, cardiac output, and cardiac reserve? End-diastolic volume (EDV): Blood volume in the ventricles before contraction. End-systolic volume (ESV): Blood volume remaining after contraction. Stroke volume: EDV - ESV (amount of blood pumped per beat). Cardiac output: Stroke volume × heart rate (amount of blood pumped per minute). Cardiac reserve: Extra capacity of the heart to increase output during exercise or stress. : Cardiovascular Chapter 20 System 1. Name the blood vessels which keep branching/uniting to return to the heart: Heart → Elastic Artery → Muscular Artery → Arteriole → Capillaries → Venules → Small/Medium-sized Veins → Large Veins → Heart 2. Structural Organization of Arteries: Muscular Arteries: ◦ Tunica Intima: Innermost layer with endothelial cells. ◦ Internal Elastic Lamina: Elastic membrane separating tunica intima and media. ◦ Tunica Media: Smooth muscle and elastic fibers. ◦ External Elastic Lamina: Elastic membrane separating tunica media and externa. ◦ Tunica Externa: Outer layer with collagen and elastic fibers. 3. Function of Precapillary and Postcapillary Sphincters: Precapillary Sphincters: Control blood flow into capillaries based on tissue demand. Postcapillary Sphincters: Regulate blood flow out of capillaries, ensuring proper venous return. 4. Types of Capillaries: Continuous Capillaries: Have tight junctions, found in muscle, skin, and lungs. Fenestrated Capillaries: Have pores for filtration, found in kidneys and intestines. Sinusoidal Capillaries: Large pores, allow large molecules to pass, found in the liver, spleen, and bone marrow. 5. Dimensions of Venules and Veins: Venules: 20–100 µm in diameter, larger venules become veins. Veins: Vary in diameter; venules greater than 100 µm in diameter become veins. 6. Function of Valves in Veins: Function: Prevent backflow of blood, especially in lower limbs where blood is moving against gravity. Do all veins have valves?: No, veins in the brain and thoracic cavity usually lack valves. 7. Why are veins known as capacitance vessels? Veins store 70% of the body's blood, hence they are called capacitance vessels. ◦ 70% of blood is in systemic circulation, 12% in the heart, and 18% in pulmonary circulation. 8. Different Types of Anastomoses: Simple Pathway: One artery supplies, one vein drains (e.g., spleen). Alternative Pathways: Multiple arteries supplying an area (e.g., collateral circulation). Portal System: Blood flows through two capillary networks before returning to the heart (e.g., hepatic portal system). 9. Diffusion, Filtration, and Reabsorption: Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration (e.g., gas exchange in lungs). Filtration: Movement of fluid from blood to tissues due to hydrostatic pressure (e.g., at capillary beds). Reabsorption: Movement of fluid from tissues back into the blood due to osmotic pressure. 10. Blood Colloidal Osmotic Pressure: Function: Helps draw water back into the capillaries to maintain blood volume. Component: Maintained mainly by plasma proteins, particularly albumin. 11. Major Arteries and Veins Supplying or Draining Organs: Major Arteries: Aorta, subclavian, brachial, femoral, carotid, renal arteries, etc. Major Veins: Jugular veins, subclavian veins, femoral veins, renal veins, etc. Chapter 2) : Lymphatic System 1. What is lymph? Where does it flow? Chemical Composition of Lymph: Lymph: Clear fluid derived from interstitial fluid; contains water, proteins, lipids, lymphocytes, and waste products. Flow: Lymph flows through lymphatic capillaries, vessels, ducts, and trunks to the subclavian veins. 2. Route of Lymph Flow: Capillaries → Lymph Vessels → Lymph Ducts → Lymph Trunks → Bronchomediastinal Vein (etc.) ◦ Right side of abdomen drained by thoracic duct (not right lymphatic duct). ◦ Bronchomediastinal trunk drains deep thoracic structures. 3. Where do Lymphatic Capillaries Originate? Lymphatic capillaries originate in tissues and are similar to veins, with one-way valves preventing backflow. 4. Location of Red Bone Marrow & Lymph Nodes: Red Bone Marrow: Located in spongy bones (e.g., vertebrae, ribs). Lymph Nodes: Found throughout the body, especially in the neck, axilla, groin. 5. T and B Lymphocyte Generation: T Lymphocytes: Mature in the thymus. B Lymphocytes: Mature in bone marrow. Thymus Involution: Thymus starts to atrophy in adulthood. 6. MALT Locations: MALT (Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue) is found in mucosal linings of: ◦ Gastrointestinal tract, genital tract, respiratory tract, and urinary tract. 7. Functions of Tonsils and Lymph Nodes: Tonsils: Detect pathogens in inhaled air and ingested food. Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph, removing pathogens and debris. 8. Why Are Axillary Lymph Nodes Removed in Mastectomy? Axillary lymph nodes may be removed during mastectomy to check for the spread of cancer. 9. Structure and Function of Spleen: Structure: Divided into white pulp (immune function) and red pulp (filters blood). Function: White pulp fights infections, red pulp removes old RBCs. 10. Lymphatic Nodules in the Appendix: Lymphatic nodules are present in the appendix, aiding in immune responses. Chapter 22 : Immune System 1. What is Half-life Period? Half-life period: Time taken for the concentration of a substance to reduce by half in the body. 2. What are Cytokines? Are Interferons Types of Cytokines? Cytokines: Small proteins involved in cell signaling. Interferons: A type of cytokine released by virus-infected cells to alert neighboring cells. 3. What Facilitates Production of WBC and RBC? What are Colony Stimulating Factors? Colony Stimulating Factors (CSFs): Proteins that stimulate the production of white blood cells (WBCs) and red blood cells (RBCs). 4. Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity: Innate Immunity: Quick, nonspecific response (e.g., physical barriers, inflammation). Adaptive Immunity: Slower, specific immune response (e.g., T cells, B cells). 5. Specific vs. Non-specific Immunity: Specific Immunity: Targets specific pathogens (adaptive). Non-specific Immunity: General defense mechanisms (innate). 6. Lines of Defense: 1st line: External barriers (e.g., skin, mucous membranes). 2nd line: Internal innate immunity (e.g., phagocytes, inflammation). 3rd line: Adaptive immunity (e.g., T and B lymphocytes). 7. Functions of Different White Blood Cells: Eosinophils: Fight parasitic infections. Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Destroy abnormal or infected cells by inducing apoptosis. 8. What Are Complements? Complement proteins: Part of the immune system, they help antibodies to bind to foreign substances and destroy pathogens. 9. What is Chemotaxis? Chemotaxis: The movement of cells toward a chemical signal, usually during infection. 10. Cardinal Signs of Inflammation: Signs: Redness, heat, swelling, pain, and loss of function. Fever: Increases body temperature, inhibiting bacterial growth. 11. What Are Antigens? Antigens: Molecules on pathogens that trigger an immune response by binding to antibodies or T lymphocytes. 12. What is CD4? CD4: A glycoprotein on the surface of helper T cells, involved in immune signaling. 13. How Does Poison Ivy Trigger an Immune Response? Poison Ivy: Contains a hapten that binds to skin proteins, triggering an allergic response. 14. What Do Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs)Do?** APCs: Present antigens to T cells, activating the adaptive immune response. APCs use MHC class II molecules. 15. B Lymphocytes → Plasma Cells → Antibodies: B Cells: Differentiate into plasma cells, which produce antibodies. 16. Immunoglobulins (Ig) and Humoral Immunity: Antibodies: Proteins that bind to antigens. IgG: Most prevalent antibody in blood. IgA: Found in mucosal areas (e.g., saliva, tears). 17. Role of Cytotoxic T Cells, Helper T Cells, and Memory T Cells: Cytotoxic T Cells: Destroy infected cells. Helper T Cells: Activate B cells and cytotoxic T cells. Memory T Cells: Provide long-lasting immunity. 18. What is Opsonization? Opsonization: The process by which pathogens are marked for destruction by phagocytes. 19. Primary vs. Secondary Immune Response: Primary Response: Slower, first exposure to antigen. Secondary Response: Faster and stronger response due to memory cells. 20. Types of Immunity: Natural Active: Immunity from exposure to pathogens (e.g., infection). Natural Passive: Immunity from mother to child (e.g., breast milk). Artificial Active: Immunity from vaccination. Artificial Passive: Immunity from receiving antibodies (e.g., antivenom). 21. HIV and NK Cells: HIV attacks Helper T Cells. NK Cells respond to a variety of pathogens. Dendritic Cells: Antigen-presenting cells. Chapter 23 : 1. Parts of Pharynx and Location of Tonsils: Respiratory System Pharynx: Nasopharynx, oropharynx, and laryngopharynx. Tonsils: Palatine, pharyngeal (adenoids), and lingual tonsils. 2. Structure Connecting Pharynx to Trachea: Trachea is connected to the pharynx via the larynx. 3. Location, Shape, and Function of Tracheal Cartilage: Tracheal Cartilage: C-shaped, provides support to keep the airway open. 4. Types of Epithelium in Respiratory Tract: Pseudostratified Ciliated Columnar Epithelium lines the trachea, helps in mucociliary clearance. 5. Respiratory Zones: Respiratory Zones: Alveoli and respiratory bronchioles where gas exchange occurs. 6. Cellular Organization of Alveoli: Alveolar Cells: Type I (gas exchange) and Type II (produce surfactant). 7. What Makes the Respiratory Membrane? Respiratory Membrane: Consists of the alveolar epithelial cell, basement membrane, and capillary endothelial cell. 8. Pulmonary vs. Bronchial Blood Vessels: Pulmonary Vessels: Carry blood to and from lungs for gas exchange. Bronchial Vessels: Supply blood to lung tissue itself. 9. Parietal and Visceral Pleura: Visceral Pleura: Covers the lungs. Parietal Pleura: Lines the chest cavity. ◦ Intrapleural Pressure keeps the lungs inflated. 10. Normal Breathing Rate at Rest: Normal rate: 12 breaths per minute, controlled by the medullary respiratory centers. 11. Effects of Hyperventilation and Hypoventilation: Hyperventilation: Excessive CO2 loss, leading to alkalosis. Hypoventilation: Inadequate gas exchange, leading to acidosis. Chapter 24 : Digestion 1. Monomers and Polymers: Monomers: The smallest units of a molecule that can join to form a polymer (e.g., amino acids, sugars, fatty acids). Polymers: Larger molecules made from repeated monomer units (e.g., proteins, carbohydrates, lipids). Product of Digestion: Monomers are the end products of digestion (e.g., amino acids, glucose, fatty acids). 2. What is Chemical Digestion? Chemical digestion involves breaking down food molecules into smaller, absorbable components through the action of enzymes. Protein → Amino acids Polysaccharides → Simple sugars; Starch → Glucose Lipids → Fatty acids and glycerol Nucleic acids → Nucleotides 3. Enzymes of Digestion, Their Location, and Function: Protein Digestion: ◦ Pepsin (in the stomach) → Breaks proteins into peptides. ◦ Trypsin and Chymotrypsin (in the small intestine) → Break down proteins into smaller peptides. ◦ Peptidases (in the small intestine) → Further break down peptides into amino acids. Carbohydrate Digestion: ◦ Salivary amylase (in the mouth) → Breaks starch into maltose. ◦ Pancreatic amylase (in the small intestine) → Continues breaking down starch into maltose. ◦ Disaccharidases (e.g., sucrase, lactase) (in the small intestine) → Convert disaccharides into monosaccharides. Lipid Digestion: ◦ Lipase (in the stomach and small intestine) → Breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. ◦ Bile (from liver and gallbladder) → Emulsifies fats, aiding lipase action. Nucleic Acid Digestion: ◦ Nucleases (in the pancreas) → Break down nucleic acids into nucleotides. 4. Salivary Glands: Number of Pairs: 3 pairs (parotid, submandibular, sublingual). Enzymes in Saliva: ◦ Salivary amylase (digests starches). ◦ Lysozyme (antibacterial). 5. Secretions from Organs: Liver and Gallbladder: ◦ Bile (contains bile salts, helps emulsify fats). Pancreas: ◦ Pancreatic juice (contains digestive enzymes like amylase, lipase, trypsin, and bicarbonate). 6. Secretions of the Stomach: Mucous Cells: Secrete mucus to protect the stomach lining. Chief Cells: Secrete pepsinogen (inactive form of pepsin). Parietal Cells: Secrete hydrochloric acid (HCl) and intrinsic factor (for vitamin B12 absorption). 7. Membrane Bound Enzyme of Duodenum Mucosa: Enzyme: Enterokinase (enteropeptidase). Function: Activates trypsinogen to trypsin. 8. Nutrients that Do Not Need Digestion: Vitamins, minerals, water, and cholesterol do not require digestion. 9. Organ of Digestion and Absorption: Small Intestine: Main site for digestion and absorption. 10. Lacteals: Location: Found in the villi of the small intestine. Function: Absorb lipids and fat-soluble vitamins, which are transported via the lymphatic system. 11. Peristalsis: Definition: Rhythmic, wave-like contractions of smooth muscle that move food through the digestive tract. 12. Liver Malfunction (Cirrhosis) Causes: Increased Blood Clotting Time: Due to reduced production of clotting factors. Jaundice: Accumulation of bilirubin in the blood. Portal Hypertension: High blood pressure in the portal venous system. Lower Plasma Protein Concentration: Reduced production of proteins like albumin. 13. Pernicious Anemia: Caused by a deficiency of vitamin B12, typically due to lack of intrinsic factor (produced by parietal cells in the stomach), leading to impaired RBC production. 14. Villi and Microvilli: Villi: Finger-like projections in the small intestine, increase surface area for absorption. Microvilli: Small projections on villi epithelial cells, further increasing surface area. 15. Accessory Organs of the Digestive System: Liver, Pancreas, Gallbladder, Teeth, Tongue, Salivary glands. 16. Lactose Intolerance: Caused by a deficiency of lactase enzyme, preventing the digestion of lactose (milk sugar) into glucose and galactose. 17. Structure of Stomach and Small Intestine: Stomach: Has gastric pits, rugae (folds), and layers of smooth muscle for churning. Small Intestine: Divided into duodenum, jejunum, and ileum, with villi and microvilli for absorption. 18. Does Bile Contain Digestive Enzymes? No, bile does not contain enzymes but contains bile salts that emulsify fats, aiding digestion.  Chapter 25 : Metabolism 1. What is Metabolism? Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in the body, including both anabolism (building up molecules) and catabolism (breaking down molecules). Exergonic Reactions: Release energy (e.g., breaking down glucose). Endergonic Reactions: Require energy input (e.g., building proteins). 2. Major Steps of Carbohydrate Catabolism: Glycolysis: Occurs in the cytoplasm, breaks down glucose into 2 pyruvate molecules, producing 2 ATP and 2 NADH. Formation of Acetyl CoA: Occurs in the mitochondria, converts pyruvate into acetyl-CoA. Krebs Cycle: Occurs in the mitochondrial matrix, produces CO₂, NADH, FADH₂, and ATP. Electron Transport Chain: Occurs in the inner mitochondrial membrane, produces ATP and water using NADH and FADH₂. 3. Source and Function of Vitamins: Vitamin A: From carotenoids; important for vision, skin health, and immune function. Vitamin B: Involved in energy metabolism; includes B1 (thiamine), B2 (riboflavin), B3 (niacin), B12 (cobalamin). Vitamin C: From citrus fruits; antioxidant and aids in collagen synthesis. Vitamin D: From sunlight; important for calcium absorption. Vitamin E: Antioxidant, protects cell membranes. Vitamin K: Found in leafy greens; involved in blood clotting. 4. What is a Balanced Diet? Why are Some Nutrients Essential? Balanced Diet: A diet that includes appropriate amounts of carbohydrates, proteins, fats, vitamins, and minerals to maintain health. Essential Nutrients: Nutrients the body cannot synthesize and must be obtained from the diet (e.g., essential fatty acids, amino acids, vitamins). 5. Types of Lipids/Cholesterol and Their Role: HDL (High-Density Lipoprotein): "Good" cholesterol, removes excess cholesterol from tissues. LDL (Low-Density Lipoprotein): "Bad" cholesterol, can deposit in arteries. Triglycerides: Primary energy storage form in the body.  6. Iron Requirements in the Body: Iron is crucial for the synthesis of hemoglobin (in red blood cells), myoglobin (in muscles), and cytochromes (in the electron transport chain). 7. Nutrient with Most Energy Stored: Lipids store the most energy (9 kcal/g), compared to carbohydrates and proteins (both 4 kcal/g). 26 : Chapter Urinary System 1. Organs of the Urinary System: kidneys, uteters, bladder and urethra 2. Functions of the Urinary System: Removes wastes and excess materials. Regulates blood volume and pressure. Regulates pH and H⁺ concentration. Reabsorbs nutrients (like glucose). Produces RBCs via erythropoietin (EPO). 3. Parts of the Kidney: Cortex, Medulla, Renal Pelvis, Nephrons (functional units). 4. Cortical vs. Juxtamedullary Nephrons: Cortical Nephrons: 85% of nephrons, located in the outer cortex. Juxtamedullary Nephrons: 15% of nephrons, extend deep into the medulla. 5. Parts of a Nephron: Renal Corpuscle: Includes the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule. Renal Tubules: Proximal convoluted tubule, loop of Henle, distal convoluted tubule. 6. Blood Vessels for Glomerulus: Afferent arteriole brings blood to the glomerulus. Efferent arteriole carries blood away from the glomerulus. 7. Juxtaglomerular Complex: Consists of macula densa (in the distal tubule) and juxtaglomerular cells (in the afferent arteriole). They regulate glomerular filtration rate (GFR) and blood pressure. 8. Formation of Urea: Urea is formed in the liver from ammonia, a byproduct of protein metabolism. 9. Composition of Normal Urine: Water, urea, creatinine, electrolytes, and small amounts of ammonia, uric acid, and other wastes. 10. Pathway of Passage of Urine: Collecting duct → Minor calyx → Major calyx → Renal pelvis → Ureter → Bladder → Urethra. 11. Why Are Females Prone to UTI: Shorter urethra and proximity to the anal region increases the risk of infection. 12. NFP (Net Filtration Pressure): NFP = (Glomerular Hydrostatic Pressure) - (Colloid Osmotic Pressure + Capsular Hydrostatic Pressure). 13. Functions of ADH and Aldosterone: ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Increases water reabsorption in the kidneys. Aldosterone: Increases sodium reabsorption and potassium secretion in the kidneys. 14. Filtrate Production anda Reabsorption: Filtrate produced daily: Approximately 180 liters. Reabsorbed: About 99% of filtrate is reabsorbed. 15. Epithelial Tissue in the Urinary Bladder: Transitional epithelium, which allows for stretching. Chapter 27 : Fluid , Electrolyte 1. Intracellular, Extracellular, Interstitial Fluids: Intracellular Fluid (ICF): Fluid inside the cells. About 60-65% of the total body fluid is intracellular. Extracellular Fluid (ECF): Fluid outside the cells, consisting of: ◦ Interstitial Fluid: Fluid surrounding tissues and cells. ◦ Plasma: Fluid component of blood. Ionic Properties: ◦ Intracellular Fluid: High in potassium (K⁺), phosphate ions, and protein. ◦ Extracellular Fluid: High in sodium (Na⁺), chloride (Cl⁻), and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻). 2. Electrolytes, Osmoregulators, and Buffers: Electrolytes: Charged particles (ions) like sodium (Na⁺), potassium (K⁺), calcium (Ca²⁺), chloride (Cl⁻), and bicarbonate (HCO₃⁻), which are essential for various physiological functions. Osmoregulators: Organisms or systems (like kidneys) that control the concentration of solutes (especially electrolytes) and the balance of water. Buffers: Substances that help maintain the pH balance by neutralizing acids or bases. Examples: bicarbonate buffer in blood. 3. Roles of Hormones: ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Regulates water balance by promoting water reabsorption in the kidneys. Aldosterone: Increases sodium reabsorption in kidneys, which also leads to water retention. BNP (B-type Natriuretic Peptide): Reduces blood volume and pressure by promoting sodium excretion. ANP (Atrial Natriuretic Peptide): Reduces blood volume and pressure by promoting sodium and water excretion. Epinephrine: Increases heart rate and blood pressure, also acts on kidneys to influence sodium balance. 4. Percentage of Body Fluid: Lean Male: ~60-65% of body weight. Female: ~50-55% of body weight due to higher fat content. 5. Effect of Pure Water and High Salt Meal on Osmolarity: Pure Water: Decreases osmolarity, diluting body fluids. High Salt Meal: Increases osmolarity, as sodium ions raise the concentration of solutes in the body. 6. Loss in Vomiting and Diarrhea: Loss of water, electrolytes (especially sodium, potassium, and chloride), and bicarbonate. Diarrhea also causes loss of digestive enzymes and nutrients. 7. Hormone Causing Calcium Reabsorption by Kidneys: Parathyroid Hormone (PTH) increases calcium reabsorption in kidneys. 8. Kidneys and Hydrogen Ion Elimination: Yes, the kidneys help eliminate excess hydrogen ions (H⁺) to maintain acid-base balance. 9. Primary Role of the Carbonic-Acid-Bicarbonate Buffer System: Regulate pH by neutralizing excess hydrogen ions (acid) and hydroxide ions (base) in the blood, maintaining a pH of 7.35-7.45. 10. Acidosis and Alkalosis: Respiratory Acidosis: Caused by hypoventilation (CO₂ retention), corrected by increasing ventilation. Respiratory Alkalosis: Caused by hyperventilation (CO₂ loss), corrected by reducing ventilation. Metabolic Acidosis: Caused by excess acid (e.g., lactic acid, ketoacidosis), corrected by respiratory compensation (increased ventilation) and kidney excretion of H⁺. Metabolic Alkalosis: Caused by excessive loss of acid (e.g., vomiting), corrected by reduced ventilation and kidney retention of H⁺. Chapter 20 : Reproductive System Reproductive System 1. Labeled Structures of the Male Reproductive System: Key structures: Testes, Epididymis, Vas deferens, Seminal vesicles, Prostate gland, Penis. Functions: Spermatogenesis occurs in the testes; sperm are stored in the epididymis; sperm travel through the vas deferens during ejaculation. 2. Route of Sperm from Testis to Urethral Meatus: Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules of the testes, mature in the epididymis, travel through the vas deferens, mix with fluids from the seminal vesicles, prostate gland, and bulbourethral gland to form semen, and finally exit through the urethra. Movement Along Ductus Deferens: Propelled by peristaltic contractions and smooth muscle action. 3. Structural Organization of the Testis: Seminiferous Tubules (spermatogenesis), surrounded by Leydig cells (secrete testosterone) and Sertoli cells (support spermatogenesis). 4. Structures in the Spermatic Cord: Vas deferens, Testicular artery, Pampiniform plexus (veins), Nerves, and Lymphatics. 5. Sperm Production and Interstitial Cell Secretions: Sperm are produced in the seminiferous tubules. Interstitial (Leydig) cells secrete testosterone. 6. Spermatogenesis and Spermiogenesis: Spermatogenesis: Formation of spermatogonia into mature spermatozoa (takes ~64 days). Spermiogenesis: Final maturation of sperm, where they acquire the ability to swim and fertilize an egg. 7. Secretions of Prostate, Bulbourethral, Preputial, and Seminal Vesicles: Prostate Gland: Secretes alkaline fluid that helps neutralize vaginal acidity and activates sperm. Bulbourethral Gland: Secretes pre-ejaculate that lubricates the urethra. Preputial Gland: Secretes mucus for lubrication. Seminal Vesicles: Secrete fructose (energy for sperm), prostaglandins, and enzymes. 8. Sperm Count in Semen: Healthy, fertile males typically produce 20-150 million sperm/mL of semen. 9. Roles of Testosterone: Regulates spermatogenesis, promotes secondary sexual characteristics (e.g., facial hair, deep voice), and maintains bone density, muscle mass, and libido. Female Reproductive System 10. Structural and Functional Organization of Female Reproductive System: Ovary: Produces eggs (ova) and hormones like estrogen and progesterone. Uterus: Site of embryo implantation, composed of the endometrium, myometrium, and perimetrium. Ovum Transport: The ovum is released from the ovary (ovulation) and moves through the fallopian tube to the uterus. 11. Menstrual Cycle: Duration: Approximately 28 days. Phases: ◦ Follicular Phase: Egg maturation and estrogen production. ◦ Ovulation: Release of the mature egg. ◦ Luteal Phase: Corpus luteum secretes progesterone to prepare the uterus for pregnancy. 12. Proliferative and Secretory Phases: Proliferative Phase: Growth of the endometrial lining under the influence of estrogen. Secretory Phase: Endometrial glands secrete nutrients for a potential embryo under the influence of progesterone. 13. Clitoris as the Female Penis: Structurally similar to the male penis, the clitoris contains erectile tissue and is involved in sexual arousal. 14. Hormones Secreted by the Corpus Luteum and Granulosa Cells: Corpus Luteum: Secretes progesterone and estrogen to maintain the uterine lining. Granulosa Cells: Produce estrogen during follicular development. 15. Development of Mature Follicles: Stages: Primordial follicle → Primary follicle → Secondary follicle → Tertiary (Graafian) follicle. 16. Fertilization Location: Fertilization generally occurs in the fallopian tubes (oviducts). Chapter 29 : Development a Inheritance 1. Enzymes in Sperm Penetration: Acrosin and other acrosomal enzymes break down the zona pellucida to allow sperm penetration. 2. First Division After Fertilization: The first division (cleavage) occurs approximately 24-36 hours after fertilization. 3. Polyspermy: Polyspermy occurs when multiple sperm fertilize one egg, leading to an abnormal number of chromosomes. It is prevented by cortical granule release that alters the egg's membrane. 4. Amphimixis: The process of sperm nucleus fusing with the egg nucleus, forming a zygote with a full set of chromosomes. 5. Important Events by Trimester: First Trimester: Organogenesis, heartbeats, basic structure of the fetus. Second Trimester: Growth, refinement of organs, movement felt. Third Trimester: Continued growth, organ maturation, weight gain. 6. Definitions of Capacitation, Activation, Differentiation, Induction, and Predilection: Capacitation: Sperm undergo biochemical changes to be able to fertilize the egg. Activation: Activation of the egg following sperm entry. Differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized. Induction: Process where one group of cells influences the development of another group. Predilection: A genetic tendency toward a particular trait.