PSYC101: Learning Lecture Notes PDF

PSYC101: Learning Jay Hosking, PhD 1 Lecture outline A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Cognition in learning 2  Learning objectives 1. What information do we use in our learning? How does this manifest in the three types of lea...

PSYC101: Learning Jay Hosking, PhD 1 Lecture outline A. Classical conditioning B. Operant conditioning C. Cognition in learning 2  Learning objectives 1. What information do we use in our learning? How does this manifest in the three types of learning discussed in this lecture? 2. Define classical conditioning, including its properties (acquisition, expression, extinction, etc.). What is the purpose of this type of learning? In other words, how is this type of learning valuable for the individual? 3. Define operant conditioning, including its properties. In what key way does it differ from classical conditioning? What does operant conditioning tell us about our own everyday lives? 4. Clearly define and separate positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement. 5. If you wanted to maximize a certain behaviour in someone, what reinforcement schedule would you use? 6. Is punishment an effective teaching method? Support your answer with evidence. 7. In what ways do classical and operant conditioning fail to consider cognition in learning? Support your answer with evidence. 8. What is observational learning? Describe the potential positive and negative effects of observational learning. Finally, provide one brain mechanism that likely supports observational learning. 3 Basic Learning Concepts and Classical Conditioning What is learning? Process of acquiring, through experience, new information or behaviours We learn through: Association Consequences Acquisition of mental information Introduction 4 Classical Conditioning: An Example Introduction 5 Operant Conditioning: An Example Introduction 6 Pavlov’s Experiment http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hhqumfpxuzI&t=0m16s Classical 7 conditioning An example: auditory fear conditioning Unconditioned stimulus (US) Unconditioned response (UR) Neutral stimulus (NS) Conditioned stimulus (CS) Conditioned response (CR) Acquisition 8 Classical conditioning Higher-order conditioning AKA second-order conditioning Classical 9 conditioning And you ring the tuning fork again, the animal's like, oh, maybe today's the day, maybe today's it. And you'll see what we call spontaneous recovery. So the behavior will come back, right? So you'll see that the animal will start salivating again, not as strongly as it was previously, but like maybe I'm going to get fed now. And then if you don't pair it with the food again, then again, you'll see this extinction happen at a quicker timescale. So I like to think about this on the very human side or in the very human sort of scale of interpersonal relationships, right? And that's the best way to sort of understand or appreciate this. So I want you to think about falling in love, falling in love. That's the perfect classical conditioning, right? So as you fall in love, you get to know this person, you're like, you know, they're really great. They make me feel really, really good and happy. And you see this acquisition occur, these deep, strong feelings, associations, attachment. Life is going well, you have this strong learning. And then one day they start acting like a total jerk and they break up with you. And you're like, conflicted, right? On the one hand, they broke up with you. On the other hand, you have these good feelings about them. And so whenever you think of them, you're like, they're still good, but you realize that they're not actually giving you any of the things that they used to give you anymore. And so you see that over time, it's sort of, you're like, oh, they are more and more of a jerk. I don't like that person. And then you see them three weeks later and you're like, oh, maybe something's changed. They're like, no, no, they're still a jerk. They're still a jerk. And so you see this spontaneous recovery of your feelings, of your sense of like, maybe they're gonna be nice to me now, but you're like, no, no, they're still a jerk. So it doesn't just apply at this sort of food and salivation level. It seems to apply in a lot of ways in which we learn about the world which I love. So we call this event here extinction, this idea of the conditioned response disappearing when the unconditioned stimulus is removed. And then, like I said, we have this spontaneous recovery when there's a little bit of a gap or a pause, even in extinction. Extinction and recovery The tuning fork here. The tuning fork predicts that the food is coming. Now, look at this. I just started ringing the tuning fork, but I don't Extinction give the animal any food. First, the animal thinks, oh, the food is coming. The Spontaneous recovery food is coming. But then it doesn't come. It's like, well, that sucks. And then you ring it again. The animal thinks, not thinks, but the animal acts as if the food is coming. It salivates again. But this time, it salivates a little bit less. You do it again. Ring the tuning fork. The food doesn't come over and over and over. What you see is that salivation will decrease and decrease and decrease. That is, this behavior will be found extinguished or extinct. So we call this term extinction. When you remove the unconditioned stimulus, the conditioned response will decrease. Classical 10 conditioning Generalization and discrimination Generalization Discrimination Classical 11 conditioning Classical Conditioning’s Legacy Most psychologists agree that classical conditioning is a basic form of learning. Many nuances and additions over time Some exceptions to temporal contiguity (e.g. food) CR doesn’t mimic UR but rather is a preparatory response CR can be sophisticated We are evolutionarily predisposed for some types of learning over others (not truly a “blank slate”!) Classical 12 conditioning Behaviour leads to consequences Reinforcement à more of that action Punishment à less of that action Edward L. Thorndike Law of effect B. F. Skinner Operant chamber (Skinner box) The operant chamber, aka ”the Skinner box” 13 Operant conditioning Operant conditioning: a daily phenomenon Everyday behaviors are continually reinforced and shaped. Reinforcement Shaping 14 Operant conditioning Types of Reinforcers Positive reinforcement Negative reinforcement Primary reinforcer Conditioned (secondary) reinforcer Operant conditioning 15 Reinforcement Schedules Defines how often a desired response will be reinforced. Continuous reinforcement schedule Partial (intermittent) reinforcement Fixed-ratio schedule (FR) Variable-ratio schedule (VR) Fixed-interval schedule (FI) Variable-interval schedule (VI) Operant conditioning 16 Punishment Positive punishment Negative punishment Operant conditioning 17 Major Drawbacks of Physical Punishment Punished behaviour is suppressed, not forgotten. This temporary state may (negatively) reinforce parents’ punishing behaviour. Punishment teaches individuals to avoid the behaviour only in the presence of the authority figure. Punishment can teach fear. Physical punishment may increase aggression by modeling aggression as a way to cope with problems. Operant conditioning 18 Operant Conditioning’s Legacy In parenting, at school, in sports, at work Skinner Discounted the importance of both biological predispositions and cognition But plenty of evidence of cognitive processes… Operant conditioning 19 Contrasting Classical and Operant Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Basic idea Learning associations between events we do not Learning associations between our behavior control. and its consequences. Response Involuntary, automatic. Voluntary, operates on environment. Acquisition Associating events; NS is paired with US and Associating a response with a consequence becomes CS. (reinforcer or punisher). Extinction CR decreases when CS is repeatedly presented alone. Responding decreases when reinforcement stops. Spontaneous The reappearance, after a rest period, of The reappearance, after a rest period, of recovery an extinguished CR. an extinguished response. Generalization The tendency to respond to stimuli similar Responses learned in one situation occurring in to the CS. other, similar situations. Discrimination Learning to distinguish between a CS and other Learning that some responses, but not others, stimuli that do not signal a US. will be reinforced. Operant conditioning 20 Biological and Cognitive Influences on Conditioning Classical Conditioning Operant Conditioning Natural vs. Unnatural Behaviors: It’s easier for an Biological Natural predispositions Organisms most easily learn organism to learn behaviors influences constrain what stimuli behaviors similar to their natural that feel natural to them, like a dog learning to fetch and responses can behaviors; unnatural behaviors (something similar to easily be associated. instinctively drift back toward hunting). If you try to teach natural ones. an unnatural behavior, like walking on two legs, they might revert back to their Cognitive Organisms develop an Organisms develop an expectation natural habits over time. influences expectation that CS that a response will be reinforced Expectations and Latent signals the arrival of US. or punished; they also exhibit Learning: Organisms can latent learning, without predict whether their actions reinforcement. will lead to rewards or punishments. They can also learn by observing or exploring their environment without getting a reward, which is called latent learning Operant conditioning (e.g., a rat figuring out a maze but not showing its knowledge until there’s a 21 reward). Learning is more than simply conditioning Evidence of cognitive processes Animal’s responses to a fixed-interval reinforcement schedule Development of a cognitive map in rats (latent learning) Destruction of intrinsic motivation by excessive rewards 22 Cognition Learning by Observation Observational learning Higher animals learn without direct experience by watching and imitating others Modeling 23 Cognition Learning by observation: Bandura’s Famous Bobo Doll Experiment https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dmBqwWlJg8U 24 Cognition Mirror Neurons and Imitation in the Brain Likely the basis of mimicry, some learning Perhaps related to theory of mind, empathy 25 Cognition Positive Applications of Observational Learning Prosocial effects 26 Cognition