Classical Conditioning and Operant Conditioning PDF

Classical Conditioning ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., bell in Pavlov's study). ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that n...

Classical Conditioning ○ Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response (e.g., bell in Pavlov's study). ○ Unconditioned Stimulus (US): A stimulus that naturally triggers a response without prior conditioning (e.g., food). ○ Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the previously neutral stimulus (e.g., salivation in response to the bell). ○ Stimulus Generalization: Responding similarly to stimuli that resemble the conditioned stimulus (e.g., fear of all dogs after being bitten by one). ○ Stimulus Discrimination: Learning to respond differently to similar stimuli (e.g., dog salivates only to a specific bell sound). ○ Conditioned Tolerance: Reduced response to a drug in the presence of associated environmental cues (e.g., a person requires more of a drug in the presence of cues that are typically associated with drug use). ○ Systematic Desensitization: A therapeutic technique involving gradual exposure to a feared stimulus while practicing relaxation techniques to reduce anxiety. Pavlov's Study: ○ CS: Bell ○ US: Food ○ CR: Salivation in response to the bell. Operant Conditioning ○ Positive Punishment: Adding an unpleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., receiving a speeding ticket for driving too fast). ○ Negative Reinforcement: Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., fastening a seatbelt to stop the annoying beeping in a car). ○ Positive Reinforcement: Adding a pleasant stimulus to increase a behavior (e.g., giving a dog a treat for sitting). ○ Negative Punishment: Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease a behavior (e.g., taking away a toy when a child misbehaves). Neural Structures ○ Sensory Neurons: Transmit sensory information (e.g., from the skin, eyes, ears) to the central nervous system (CNS). ○ Motor Neurons: Send signals from the CNS to muscles, enabling movement. ○ Interneurons: Facilitate communication within the CNS, connecting sensory and motor neurons. ○ Relay Neurons: Transmit signals between different parts of the nervous system, helping coordinate responses. Brain Regions Temporal Lobe: ○ Responsible for auditory processing, memory formation, and language comprehension. Frontal Lobe: ○ Involved in decision-making, planning, and voluntary movement coordination. Occipital Lobe: ○ Specializes in visual processing and interpreting visual stimuli. Parietal Lobe: ○ Integrates sensory information, including touch, temperature, and pain, while also contributing to spatial awareness and navigation. Other Key Areas Thalamus: ○ Acts as a sensory relay station, processing and transmitting sensory information to appropriate areas of the cerebral cortex. Hypothalamus: ○ Regulates homeostasis, including hunger, thirst, temperature control, and emotional responses. Medulla Oblongata: ○ Controls vital autonomic functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. Cerebral Cortex: ○ Responsible for higher cognitive processes, including thought, reasoning, and voluntary actions. Language Areas Broca's Area: ○ Located in the left frontal lobe, responsible for speech production and language processing. Damage to this area leads to difficulty in speech production (Broca's aphasia), characterized by slow, effortful speech with relatively preserved comprehension. Wernicke's Area: ○ Found in the left temporal lobe, involved in language comprehension and meaningful speech. Damage results in Wernicke's aphasia, where individuals produce fluent but nonsensical speech and exhibit poor comprehension. Sleep Theories of Sleep Deprivation: Sleep deprivation can impair cognitive and physical health, affecting memory, attention, and overall well-being. Adaptive Theory: Suggests that sleep evolved as a survival mechanism, providing protection from predators and conserving energy. Immunology Theory: Proposes that sleep enhances immune function, promoting better health and resilience against illness. Restorative Theory: Argues that sleep is crucial for the body to repair and rejuvenate, allowing for recovery from daily activities. Sleep Disorders Narcolepsy: Characterized by sudden, uncontrollable episodes of sleep, often accompanied by cataplexy (loss of muscle tone). Sleep Apnea: Involves breathing interruptions during sleep, leading to disrupted sleep patterns and potential health complications. Epilepsy: A neurological disorder that can cause seizures, which may also affect sleep quality and patterns. Sleep Phenomena Hypnagogic Hallucinations: Vivid images or sensations that occur during the transition from wakefulness to sleep. Paradoxical Sleep: Refers to REM sleep, where the brain is active and dreaming, but the body's muscles are temporarily paralyzed. Restorative Sleep: Deep stages of NREM sleep that are crucial for physical recovery and memory consolidation. Myoclonic Jerk: A sudden muscle spasm or twitch that occurs when falling asleep, often causing a brief awakening. Freud's Sleep Theory Manifest Content: The literal storyline and details of a dream as experienced by the dreamer. Latent Content: The hidden meaning or underlying significance of a dream, reflecting the dreamer’s unconscious desires and thoughts. Cognitive Content: The mental processes and activities that occur during sleep, including problem-solving and memory consolidation. Psychology Basics Levels of Analysis Brain: Focuses on biological and neurological processes that influence behavior and mental functions. Person: Examines individual behavior, thoughts, and mental processes, emphasizing personal experiences. Group: Studies interpersonal interactions, relationships, and dynamics within groups and communities. Culture: Analyzes social norms, values, beliefs, and how they shape behavior and psychology. Goals of Psychology Describe: Observe and document behavior, noting specific details and patterns. Explain: Understand and identify the causes behind observed behavior. Predict: Anticipate future behavior based on previous observations and patterns. Control: Influence or change behavior through various psychological interventions or strategies. Hypotheses Null Hypothesis: Assumes no effect or relationship exists between variables being studied. Alternative Hypothesis: Predicts that an effect or relationship does exist between variables. Operational Definitions Clear and precise definitions of variables in measurable terms, ensuring clarity in research and experiments. Variables Identified Variables: Key aspects or factors being studied within the research. Continuous Variables: Measured along a continuum, allowing for a range of values (e.g., age, height). Dependent Variables: Outcomes that are affected by changes in the independent variable. Qualitative Variables: Non-numerical data that describe characteristics or qualities (e.g., emotions, opinions). Quantitative Variables: Numerical data that can be measured and counted (e.g., test scores, weight). Freud's Components Id: Represents instinctual desires and drives, operating on the pleasure principle. Ego: Balances the demands of the id and the constraints of reality, operating on the reality principle. Superego: Incorporates morality, societal rules, and ethical standards, guiding behavior according to these principles. Archetypes + Personality Tests Jung Archetypes Definition: Universal, symbolic representations found in the collective unconscious that shape human experiences and behaviors. Examples: ○ The Hero: Represents courage and the quest for identity. ○ The Shadow: Embodies the darker, hidden aspects of the self. Personality Tests Rorschach Inkblot Test: ○ Appearance: Comprises a series of 10 inkblot cards, some in black-and-white and others in color. ○ How It Works: Participants describe what they see in each inkblot; their responses reveal unconscious thoughts, feelings, and conflicts. ○ Purpose: To explore unconscious processes and assess psychological functioning. Thematic Apperception Test (TAT): ○ Appearance: Features black-and-white pictures depicting ambiguous scenes. ○ How It Works: Participants create stories about each scene; the themes and characters in their stories provide insights into motivations and emotions. ○ Purpose: To assess personality traits and interpersonal dynamics ○  Minnesota Multiphasic Personality Inventory (MMPI): ○ Appearance: A comprehensive questionnaire with over 500 true/false statements (e.g., "I feel nervous most of the time"). ○ How It Works: Responses are scored to evaluate psychological traits and potential disorders. ○ Purpose: To diagnose mental health conditions and assess personality structure. OCEAN (Big Five Personality Traits): ○ Appearance: Surveys containing statements rated on a scale (e.g., 1 = strongly disagree to 5 = strongly agree). ○ Purpose: Measures five key personality traits: