Final Exam Study Guide PDF

Final Exam Definition of Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology focused on the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, language, problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making. It examines how people understand, think, and learn by investiga...

Final Exam Definition of Cognitive Psychology: Cognitive psychology is the branch of psychology focused on the study of mental processes such as perception, memory, language, problem-solving, reasoning, and decision-making. It examines how people understand, think, and learn by investigating internal processes that govern behavior and cognition. Behaviorism: Behaviorism is a psychological approach that focuses solely on observable behaviors, emphasizing the role of environmental stimuli and reinforcement. It rejects the study of mental processes, arguing that psychology should rely only on objective, measurable phenomena. Pioneered by researchers like John Watson and B.F. Skinner, behaviorism dominated psychology in the early 20th century but was later challenged by the cognitive revolution. Early 20th Century: Dominance of behaviorism, which limited focus on internal mental processes. 1940s–1950s: WWII research on attention and problem-solving prompted interest in mental processes. Cognitive Revolution (1950s–1960s): Advances in artificial intelligence (e.g., Turing Machines) and linguistics (e.g., Noam Chomsky’s critique of behaviorism) reignited interest in studying cognition. Key Figures: Ulric Neisser, often called the “father of cognitive psychology,” formalized the field in his 1967 book Cognitive Psychology. Hermann Ebbinghaus: Conducted pioneering research on memory and forgetting curves using nonsense syllables. Wilhelm Wundt: Established the first psychology lab; used introspection to study consciousness. Frederic Bartlett: Investigated reconstructive memory, emphasizing the role of schemas. Jean Piaget: Studied cognitive development in children, introducing stages of cognitive growth. Cognitive Neuroscience: Cognitive neuroscience bridges cognitive psychology and neuroscience, studying how brain activity underpins mental processes. It uses techniques like brain imaging (e.g., fMRI, EEG) to link neural structures to functions such as memory, language, and decision-making. Dendrites: Receive signals from other neurons. Cell Body (Soma): Processes incoming information. Axon: Transmits electrical signals (action potentials). Synapse: Gap between neurons where neurotransmitters facilitate communication. Functioning: Neurons communicate via electrochemical signals, with action potentials enabling transmission along the axon and neurotransmitters crossing synapses. Localization: Localization refers to the idea that specific areas of the brain are responsible for particular functions. This principle contrasts with the notion of distributed processing. Distributed Representation: Distributed representation posits that cognitive processes are supported by patterns of activity across multiple brain regions, rather than isolated areas. For example, recognizing a face involves interactions among the visual cortex, amygdala, and prefrontal regions. EEG (Electroencephalography): Measures electrical brain activity. fMRI (Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging): Tracks blood flow changes to infer brain activity. TMS (Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation): Temporarily disrupts brain regions to study their roles. Lesion Studies: Examine behavioral changes following brain damage. Perception: Perception involves interpreting sensory information to create an understanding of the environment. It integrates sensory input (bottom-up processing) with existing knowledge (top-down processing). Sensory Store:The sensory store is a brief storage system for sensory information. Iconic Memory: Visual sensory memory lasting milliseconds. Echoic Memory: Auditory sensory memory lasting a few seconds. Assumptions from the Environment: Perception relies on assumptions about the world, often unconsciously. Light-from-above Assumption: Interpreting shadows as depth cues, assuming light comes from above. Contextual Assumptions: Interpreting objects based on surrounding information. Gestalt Principles of Organization: Gestalt principles explain how we perceive unified patterns. Principle of Proximity: Grouping nearby objects together. Principle of Similarity: Grouping similar elements. Principle of Closure: Filling in gaps to perceive complete forms. Principle of Continuity: Perceiving connected patterns. Bottom-Up Processing: Perception starts with sensory input, building up to complex recognition. Top-Down Processing: Uses prior knowledge and expectations to interpret sensory input. The Stroop Effect: Reading words (top-down processing) interferes with naming ink colors.  Contextual Effects: Ambiguous images are interpreted based on context (e.g., “THE CAT”). Perception and Action: Perception guides action. Mirror Neurons: Activate during both performing and observing actions. Action Affordances: Perceiving objects in terms of potential uses. Attention: Attention involves focusing mental resources on specific stimuli while ignoring others. Selective Attention: Focusing on one stimulus while excluding others. Divided Attention: Splitting focus between tasks. Sustained Attention: Maintaining focus over time. Dichotic Listening Tasks: Participants focus on one auditory stream while ignoring another. Visual Search Tasks: Identifying a target among distractors. Broadbent’s Filter Model: Early selection filters irrelevant stimuli before processing. Treisman’s Attenuation Model: Irrelevant stimuli are attenuated, not entirely filtered. Late Selection Models: Processing occurs before filtering. Inattentional Blindness: Failing to notice visible objects when attention is focused elsewhere. Change Blindness: Failing to detect changes in a visual scene. Automatic Processing: Unconscious, effortless, and fast. Controlled Processing: Conscious, effortful, and slower. Development of Automaticity: Automaticity develops through practice, as tasks become habitual and require less cognitive effort. Driving and Cell Phones: Using a cell phone while driving reduces attention to the road, leading to slower reaction times and increased likelihood of accidents. Research shows hands-free devices do not eliminate cognitive distraction. Short Term Memory: A temporary storage system that holds a limited amount of information for a brief period (approximately 15–30 seconds without rehearsal). STM acts as a buffer for incoming information, either transferring it to long-term memory (LTM) or discarding it. Working Memory: A cognitive system that actively holds and manipulates information in STM for complex tasks like reasoning, learning, and comprehension.Includes multiple subsystems, as described in Baddeley’s Working Memory Model. Rate of Forgetting: The speed at which information is lost over time without rehearsal. Forgetting Curve: Ebbinghaus demonstrated that forgetting occurs rapidly at first and then levels off over time. Decay Theory: Memory traces fade due to lack of use. Interference Theory: Competing information disrupts recall. Retrieval Failure: Memory exists but cannot be accessed without proper cues. Proactive Interference: Older memories interfere with new information. Retroactive Interference: New information disrupts recall of older memories. Miller’s Law: STM can hold about 7 ± 2 items. Chunking: Grouping information into larger units improves STM capacity. Central Executive: Manages attention and coordinates subsystems. Phonological Loop: Processes verbal and auditory information. Visuospatial Sketchpad: Handles visual and spatial data. Episodic Buffer: Integrates information across domains and links to LTM. Working Memory vs. Short-Term Memory: STM: Primarily stores information temporarily. Working Memory: Includes storage and processing functions, actively manipulating information for cognitive tasks. Long Term Memory: A system for storing vast amounts of information over extended periods, potentially a lifetime. Capacity: Virtually unlimited. Transferring Information from STM to LTM Mechanisms: Rehearsal, elaboration, and encoding strategies (e.g., forming associations). Role of Attention: Critical for effective transfer. Encoding Theories of Memory: How information is transformed into a storable format. Dual Coding Theory: Encoding through both verbal and visual representations improves memory. Levels of Processing: The depth of processing affects memory retention. Shallow Processing: Focuses on surface features (e.g., appearance). Deep Processing: Involves meaningful analysis (e.g., semantic understanding). Generation Effect: Information is better remembered when self-generated rather than passively received.  Sleep and Memory: Consolidation: Sleep facilitates memory stabilization and integration. REM and slow-wave sleep are crucial for memory consolidation. Handwritten Notes: Encourage deeper processing and better retention. Typing Notes: May lead to verbatim transcription, reducing engagement. Spaced Practice: Studying over intervals enhances retention. Massed Practice: Cramming is less effective for long-term memory. Testing Effect: Retrieving information during tests enhances retention better than rereading material. Evidence for the Role of Retrieval Processes Cues: Retrieval is enhanced by strong, relevant cues. Context-Dependent Memory: Recall is better in the context where learning occurred. Transfer-Appropriate Processing: Memory improves when encoding and retrieval tasks match. Encoding Specificity Principle: Retrieval is most effective when cues match the initial encoding context. Recall Tests: Free recall or cued recall. Recognition Tests: Identifying previously learned items. Implicit Tests: Assess unconscious memory (e.g., priming). Memory Illusions: False or distorted memories that feel real. Factors Leading to Memory Illusions: Misleading information, Pre-existing schemas, and Errors in source monitoring. Source Monitoring Problems: Inability to determine the origins of a memory. Such as confusing imagination with actual events. Evidence for False Memories: Loftus’s Research: Demonstrated false memories could be implanted through suggestion (e.g., eyewitness testimony errors). Autobiographical Memory: Memories of personal experiences and events. Such as the “reminiscence bump” for ages 10–30. Self-Memory System Model: Memories are reconstructed based on goals and self-concept. Flashbulb Memories: Highly vivid but not necessarily accurate. Emotion enhances encoding but may distort details. Sensory Memory: Brief storage for sensory information. Types: Iconic (visual) and echoic (auditory). Explicit Memory: Conscious recall of facts and events. Subtypes: Episodic (life events) and Semantic memory (facts and concepts). Implicit Memory: Unconscious recall of skills and associations. Subtypes: Procedural memory (motor skills) and priming (response to previous exposure of stimulus).. Procedural Memory: Memory for motor skills and habits (e.g., riding a bike). Priming: Exposure to one stimulus influences response to another, often unconsciously. Retrograde Amnesia: Loss of past memories, typically due to brain injury. Anterograde Amnesia: Inability to form new memories after the onset of amnesia. Parkinson’s Disease: Affects procedural memory. Alzheimer’s Disease: A neurodegenerative disorder causing progressive memory loss. Involves amyloid plaques, tau tangles, and hippocampal shrinkage. Visual Imagery: The mental representation of visual information in the absence of direct sensory input. Enhances memory, problem-solving, and planning by simulating sensory experiences. Imagery and Memory: Visual imagery strengthens memory by creating dual representations (verbal and visual). Memory recall improves when imagery is incorporated during encoding (e.g., imagining scenes while reading). Dual-Coding Theory: A theory suggesting that information is better remembered when encoded both verbally and visually. Example: Associating a word with a mental picture improves recall. Improved Recall: Visualizing information enhances memory performance. Concrete Words: Easier to visualize (e.g., “apple”) are better remembered than abstract words (e.g., “justice”). Method of Loci: Associating items with locations in a familiar space. Peg-Word System: Linking items to rhyming pegs (e.g., “one is a bun”). Propositional Theory: Proposes that mental representations are abstract and language-like, rather than visual. Imagery can be encoded symbolically without resembling the physical appearance of objects. Spatial Theory: Suggests that mental imagery is spatial and map-like, preserving the structure of visual information.Mental rotation tasks show that people process imagery spatially. Behavioral Evidence for the Similarity Between Perception and Imagery: Tasks like mental rotation show similar reaction times for imagery and perception.  Neuroscientific Evidence for the Similarity Between Perception and Imagery: Brain areas activated during perception (e.g., visual cortex) are also active during imagery. Neuropsychological Evidence for the Difference Between Perception and Imagery: Brain damage can impair imagery but not perception, and vice versa. Resolution Differences: Perception is more detailed, whereas imagery is less vivid. Categorization: The mental process of grouping objects, events, or ideas into categories based on shared features. Facilitates understanding, communication, and memory. Concept: The mental representation of a category. Exemplar: A specific instance within a category. Superordinate Level of Categories: Broad categories (e.g., “Animal”). Basic Level of Categories: Intermediate, most used (e.g., “Dog”). Subordinate Level of Categories: Specific (e.g., “Golden Retriever”). Definitional Theory: Categories are defined by a set of necessary and sufficient features. Limitation: Does not account for fuzzy boundaries or exceptions (e.g., not all birds fly). Prototype Theory: Categories are formed around an average or ideal representation (prototype). Evidence: People are quicker to identify typical category members (e.g., “robin” as a bird). Template Theory: Categorization involves matching objects to stored templates of category members. Limitation: Cannot explain flexibility in recognizing novel or atypical members. Typicality Effect: Typical items are recognized faster (e.g., “apple” as a fruit vs. “olive”). Family Resemblance: Category members share overlapping features without all having every feature. Semantic Networks: Concepts are represented as nodes in a network, with relationships as links. Example: “Dog” is linked to “animal,” “barks,” and “pet.” Connectionist Models: Computational models that represent concepts as patterns of activation across networks. Emphasize distributed representation and learning through strengthening connections. Localization: Specific brain areas represent certain categories (e.g., faces in the fusiform face area). Distributed Representation: Concepts are represented across multiple brain regions. Language: A system of words, symbols and rules for communication. Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis: Language influences thought and perception. Evidence: Speakers of different languages may categorize colors or spatial relationships differently. Phonemes: The smallest unit of sound in a word (like the e in eat). Morpheme: Smallest unit of meaning in a word (un and happy in unhappy). Hierarchical Nature: Words combine into phrases, phrases into sentences. Syntax: Rules for sentence structure (e.g., grammar). Evidence: Sentences can be syntactically correct but semantically meaningless (e.g., “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”). Semantics: Meaning conveyed by words and sentences. Evidence: Sentences can be syntactically correct but semantically meaningless (e.g., “Colorless green ideas sleep furiously”). Broca’s Aphasia: Impaired speech production but intact comprehension. Wernicke’s Aphasia: Fluent but nonsensical speech with poor comprehension. Situational Model: Mental representations of the context described in a text. Example: Readers imagine spatial and causal relationships in a story. Coherence: Clear connections between ideas in text comprehension. Prior Knowledge: Facilitates integration of new information in text comprehention. Visualization: Enhances understanding of descriptive passages in text comprehention. Pragmatics: The study of how language is used in context. Examples: Understanding sarcasm, indirect requests, or cultural norms in communication. Ways Speakers and Listeners Make Adjustments in Communication: Common Ground: Speakers adjust based on shared knowledge., Clarifications: Listeners request explanations when needed and Grice’s Maxims: Speakers follow principles like clarity, relevance, and brevity.