FIG 2 Anatomy 1 PDF

JAYDEN SARICH FIG 2 ONLINE LEARNING FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS REVIEW LEVEL 1 Bones are ridged organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store miner...

JAYDEN SARICH FIG 2 ONLINE LEARNING FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 INTRODUCTION TABLE OF CONTENTS REVIEW LEVEL 1 Bones are ridged organs that constitute part of the endoskeleton of vertebrates. They support and protect the various organs of the body, produce red and white blood cells and store minerals. The human skeleton is the internal framework of the body. It is composed of 270 bones at birth – these total decreases to 206 bones by adulthood after some bones have fused together. The bone mass in the skeleton reaches the maximum density around age 30 COMPACT BONE Compact bone, also known as cortical bone, is a denser material used to create much of the hard structure of the skeleton. Compact bone forms the cortex, or hard outer shell of most bones in the body. The remainder of the bone is formed by cancellous or spongy bone. SPONGY BONE Type of bone found at the ends of long bones and in the vertebrae. It has a honeycomb structure consisting of small needle-like or flat pieces of mineralized bars called trabeculae, in between which are spaces filled whit marrow and fat. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 BONE STRUCTURE A LONG BONE HAS 2 PARTS The diaphysis is the tubular shaft that runs between the proximal and distal ends of the bone. The wider section at each end of the bone is called the epiphysis (plural = epiphyses), which is filled with spongy bone. WHAT IS THE FINCTION OF THE EPIPHYSIS AND PIAPHYSIS The diaphysis is made up of cortical (compact) bone and usually contains the medulla of the bone, which houses bone marrow. The marrow is the primary tissue responsible to produce the erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. The epiphysis is the rounded end of a long bone, its primary function is to connect adjacent bones to form joints. HOW IS THE EPIPHYSIS FORMED After the spongy bone is formed in the diaphysis, osteoclast break down the newly formed bone to open the medullary cavity. The cartilage is the epiphysis continues to grow so the developing bone increases in length later, usually after birth, secondary ossification centres form in the epiphysis. WHAT IS EPIPHYSIS Epiphysis explained end of the long bones in animals, which ossifies separately from the bone shaft but becomes fixed to the shaft when full growth is attained. It is connected to the bone shaft by the epiphyseal cartilage or growth plate, which aids in the growth of bone length and is eventually replaced by bone. WHAT IS PERIOSTEUNM The periosteum is a membranous tissue that covers the surface of your bones. The only areas it doesn’t cover are those surrounded by cartilage and where tendons and ligaments attached to the bone. The periosteum is made up of two distinct layers and it’s very important for both repairing and growing bones. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 WHAT DOES THE PERIOSTEUM DO The periosteum is a complete structure composed of an outer fibrous layer that lens structural integrity and an inner cambium layer that possesses osteogenic (relating to the formation bone) potential. During growth development it contributes to bone elongation and modelling and when the bone is injured, participates in its recovery. Periosteum nourishes compact bones and provides sites for the attachment of tendons and ligaments while endosteum is important in the growth, repair, and remodelling of bones. WHERE IS THE ARTICULAR CARTLIAGE Articular cartilage is hyaline cartilage on the articular surfaces of bones, and lies inside the joint cavity of synovial joints, bathed in synovial fluid produced by the synovial membrane, which lines the walls of the cavity. WHAT IS THE ARTICULAR CARTILAGE Articular cartilage is the smooth, white tissue that covers the ends of bones where they come together to form joints. Healthy cartilage in our joints makes it easier to move. WJAY IS THE FUNCATION OF THE ARTICULAR CARTILAGE The function of articular cartilage is to absorb shock and provide an extremely smooth surface to make movement easier. It allows the bones to glide over each other with little friction. SYNTHESIS FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 GROWTH PLATES EPIPHYSEAL WHAT IS THE EPIPHYSEAL GROETH PLATE Epi = upon Physis = growth plate Therefore: Epiphysis The epiphyseal growth plate is the main site of longitudinal growth of the long bones. At this site, cartilage is formed by the proliferation (process by which a cell grows and divides to produce two daughter cells) and hypertrophy (adaptive increase in the mass of a cell) of cells and synthesis (the production of chemical compounds by reaction from simpler materials) of the typical extracellular matrix. The formed cartilage is then calcified (hardened by deposition of or conversion into calcium carbonate), degraded, and replaced by osseous tissue. AT WHAT AGE IS EPIPHYSEAL PLATE CLOSED This replacement is known as epiphyseal closure or growth plate fusion. Complete fusion happens on average between 15 and 20 for girls (with the most common being 15-18 years for girls) and between 17 and 24 for boys (with the most common being 18-22 years for boys). The long bone in a child is divided into four regions: 1. The diaphysis (shaft or primary ossification centre) 2. Metaphysis (where the bone flares) 3. Physis (or growth plate) 4. Epiphysis (secondary ossification centre) In the adult, only the metaphysis and diaphysis are present. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 WHY IS THE EPIPHYSEAL GROETH PLATE IMPORTANT When bone growth is complete, the epiphyseal cartilage is replaced with bone, which joins it to the diaphysis. Fractures of the epiphyseal plates in children can lead to slow bone growth or limb shortening. The coordinated activity of these bone cells allows bone to grow, repair itself, and change shape. WHY DO EPIPHYSEAL GROWTH PLAT STAY THIN The cartilage in the region of the epiphyseal plate next to the epiphysis continues to grow by mitosis (process where a single cell divides into two identical daughter cells). When cartilage growth ceases, usually in the early twenties, the epiphyseal plate completely ossifies (turn into bone) so that only a thin epiphyseal line remains, and the bones can no longer grow in length. EPIPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATE AND APOPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATE FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 APOPHYSIS WHAT IS THE DIFFERENT BETWEEN EPIPHYSIS AND APOPHYSIS The epiphysis is a rounded end of long bone that has direct articulation with bone at the joint. An apophysis is a normal developmental outgrowth of a bone, which arises from a separate ossification centre, and fuses to the mother bone later in development. WHAT IS THE APOPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATE The apophysis is a normal secondary ossification centre that is located in the non-weight- bearing part of the bone and eventually fuses with it over time (most of the apophyses fuse during the 2nd decade of life, but this process can be delayed, especially in female athletes). The apophysis is a site of tendon or ligament attachment, as compared to the epiphysis which contributes to a joint, and for that reason, it is also called “traction epiphysis”. When unfused, apophyses can easily be mistaken for fractures. In skeletally immature patients the physeal cartilage is weaker than adjacent bone, ligaments, and tendons, therefore, it is most prone to injury in this age group. Apophyseal injury can occur in the setting of acute trauma, which often leads to apophyseal avulsion (the action of pulling or tearing away), or in chronic overuse, which is associated with apophyseal stress injury. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 WHAT TYPES OF GROWTH PLATE INJURYS OCCUR 1. Traction Apophysitis The most common type of growth plate injury is called “traction apophysitis”. The apophysis is a growth plate that occurs where a tendon attaches to bone. Repetitive use of the tendon pulls on the growth plate. Different growth plates are vulnerable at different ages resulting in the following examples of apophysitis. Osgood schlatter's disease Front of the knee. (Osgood Schlatter’s Disease) Back of the heel. (Sever’s Disease) Sit-bone (Hamstring Apophysis) Point of the hip (ASIS Apophysitis) Inflammation of the patellar ligament at the tibial tuberosity (apophysitis) 2. Apophyseal Avulsion An avulsion means pulling away and it usually occurs after a there has been a period of traction apophysitis. The patient will usually describe days, weeks or months of growth plate pain (like an ache spot) but then will experience a sudden and very painful “pop” that occurs while producing a maximum sporting effort like sprinting, jumping or kicking a ball with maximum force. Usually this produces significant pain and limping afterwards. 3. Growth Plate Fracture Growth plates can become fractured with trauma. The risk with a growth plate fracture is that it can result in disrupted growth if it is not managed correctly. These always need to be managed by an expert. 4. Slipped Growth Plates There is a growth plate in the hip that can slip without an obvious cause. It generally happens in adolescents who develop groin or thigh pain and have painful limp with pain rotating their hip inwards. This usually needs an urgent X-ray to check to see if the growth plate has slipped. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 5. Growth Plate Stress Injuries Growth plates can become overloaded with repetitive sports which can result in stress injuries. Stress injuries can be a bit like growth plate fractures in that if they are managed incorrectly there is a risk that it can disrupt normal growth of that bone. Common areas of concern are the wrists of gymnasts and knees in running and jumping athletes. EPIPHYSEAL AND APOPHYSEAL SYNTHESIS Growth plate (physis) Note the difference in epiphyseal growth plates and apophyseal growth plates. Epiphyseal growth plates End of long bones. Under compression forces. Damage can be acute or chronic. Damage can result in premature fusion (ossification) of bone which could lead to that injured bone being shorter. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 APOPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATES An apophysis is a growth plate that attaches the tendon to the bone. Growth plate is between bump and shaft. Apophyseal growth plates are subjected to tensile forces (traction). Muscles contract & pull on the bump (apophysis) which, in turn, pull on the growth plate. Mainly damaged by chronic use and or overuse. A severe pull can result in avulsion fracture. GROWTH PLATES (PHYSES) Don't forget. In gymnastics this means that during rapid growth periods, under rotating somersaults or under rotating twists places the gymnast at greatest danger for acute physis injury. Remember, many late maturing gymnasts have growth plates for longer time period. Attention Growth plates are widest and most vulnerable to damage during adolescent growth. Growth plates are most vulnerable to shear forces and torsion(twisting) forces. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 IMPORTANT EPIPHYSEAL GROWTH PLATES 1. DISTAL FEMUR (just above knee) By far the greatest amount of growth in total leg length occurs at this growth plate. Potential serious injury in under rotating vaults and dismounts. In growing children, distal femoral physis is biomechanically weaker, and therefore, more likely to sustain injury than the surrounding bone or the knee ligaments. The distal femoral physis is particularly vulnerable to injury because of its undulating shape. Most physeal fractures occur through the hypertrophic zone of growing physeal cartilage. In distal femur fractures, however, the fracture line may cross multiple zones of the physis, and this pattern is thought to encourage the potential for healing with bony bars leading to permanent physeal arrest. Distal femur fractures in children are typically related to significant trauma, such as falls, motor vehicle accidents, or contact sports. They are rare injuries comprising only 7% of all paediatric lower extremity fractures. Patients typically have pain, swelling about the knee, possible deformity, and an inability to bear weight on the affected leg. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 2. DISTAL RADIUS (wrist) Compression injury known as “Gymnast’s wrist” An injury to the distal radial epiphysis is an injury of the area of bone growth at the end of the forearm bone in younger athletes. These areas of bone growth are not present in adults. The peak age for the injury to the growth plate is in the pre-adolescent growth spurt. Distal radius fracture are one of the most common types of bone fractures. They occur at the end of the radius bone near the wrist. Depending on the angle of the break, distal radius fractures can be classified into two types: Colles or Smith. The most common mechanism of injury is a fall on an outstretched hand, commonly there is an associated ulna fracture. 3. TIBIAL TUBEROSITY (just below knee) It is the bump on the top of the tibia (shinbone) where the patellar tendon connects. The patellar tendon stretches over the top of the patella (kneecap). The patellar tendon connects the large quadriceps muscle on the front of the thigh to the tibial tuberosity. Tibial tubercle fracture is caused by injury from violent tensile (capable of being stretched) forces on the tibial tuberosity. The force is delivered through eccentric contraction of the extensor mechanism of the knee from either of the following: Violent contraction of the extensors without shortening (eg, springing off when jumping). FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 WHAT IS AN AVULSION FRACTURE OF THE KNEE What is an avulsion fracture of the knee? An avulsion fracture occurs when an injury causes a ligament or tendon to break off (avulse) a small piece of a bone that’s attached to it. The ligament or tendon also may be damaged. This type of injury can happen in the hip, ankle, knee, heel, elbow, or pelvis. 4. CALCANEAL TUBEROSITY (heel) Fractures of the tuberosity most commonly result from a moment of forced dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle coupled with contraction of the gastrocnemius-soleus complex, which can occur in athletes. Contraction of the gastrocnemius- soleus complex at the time of the injury increases the pull of the tendo- Achilles at its insertion, creating an avulsion-type fracture. The avulsion fracture line of the posterosuperior calcaneal tuberosity runs through the transverse plane, thus separating the upper part of the tuberosity. The proximal pull of the Achilles tendon then creates the characteristic superiorly displaced fracture fragment. Several types of tuberosity avulsion fractures exist. Anatomical variations of the insertion of the tendo- Achilles into the posterior calcaneus can result in different types of avulsion fractures. Avulsion fractures of the posterosuperior tuberosity of the calcaneus most often occur in the elderly patient population. These arise as insufficiency fractures and frequently occur with no history of trauma. These types of injuries can occur regularly at the time of the impact on the corvette. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 ARTICULAR SYSTEM WRIST JOINT SOFT TISSUE IN THE WRIST Ligaments: Connect the wrist bones to each other and to the hand and forearm bones. Ligaments are like elastic bands that keep bones in place. They cross the wrist from each side to hold the bones together. Tendons: Are another kind of elastic connective tissue that attaches muscles to bones. This lets you move your wrist and other bones. Bursae: The wrist bones are also surrounded by fluid-filled sacs called bursae. These soft sacs reduce friction between tendons and bones. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 The wrist has three main joints. It gives your wrist and hand a wide range of movement. This joints allow you to bend your wrist forward and backward, side to side, and to rotate your hand. RADIUS CARPAL JOINT This is where the radius (the thicker forearm bone) connects with the bottom row of wrist bones: the scaphoid, lunate and triquetrum bones. This joint is mainly on the thumb side of your wrist. ULNOCARPAL JOINT This is the joint between the ulna (the thinner forearm bone) and the lunate and triquetrum wrist bones. This is the pinky finger side of your wrist. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 DISTAL RADIOULNAR JOINT This joint is in the wrist but doesn’t include the wrist bones. It connects the bottom ends of the radius and ulna. The pivot joint is located distally near the wrist joint, and is formed between the head of the ulna, and the ulnar notch of the radius. The anterior and posterior radioulnar ligaments, as well as a triangular fibrocartilage connects the bones and ensures they remain joint. This triangular cartilage connects the bones and ensures they remain together during pronation and supination. It is thicker at its periphery than at its centre. TRIANGULAR LIGAMENT The thick apex of the triangle attaches to the ulnar styloid process, and its thin base attaches to the prominent edge of the radius, just proximal to the radiocarpal articulation. The triangular fibrocartilage also separates the wrist joint (radiocarpal joint) form the lunate and triquetrum bones. The ulnar notch of the radius slides over the head of the ulna during pronation and supination. PROXIMAL RADIOULNA JOINT Pronation and supination are movements that occur at the proximal radioulnar joint. The head of the radius is discoid and fits with the radial neck within the circular annular ligament, that attaches the proximal radius to the ulna. The wheel like rotation of the head of the radius enables supination (palm facing upwards) and pronation (palm facing downwards). MNEMONIC Supinate: palm towards the Sun Pronate: palm towards the Plants FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 RADIOHUMERAL JOINT Articular cartilage on humerus can be damaged from trauma or overuse, especially from supinated hand position as in Round off action (Tsukahara vault). This injury can lead to degenerative condition termed. ELBOW JOIJT The elbow joint is the convergence of bones, ligaments and muscles that enable the flexion, extension, pronation, and supination of the arm. Within the single elbow joint capsule, there are three distinct interfaces, which are often considered to be individual joints, allowing for these different types of movement. BONES There are three bones intersecting at the elbow: Humerus: It is the large bone of the upper arm that extends from a socket of the scapula, or shoulder blade, to the elbow joint, where it connects to the ulna and radius. Where the humerus meets the ulna and radius at the elbow, it has two articular surfaces, called the Capitulum and the trochlea. Ulna: As the longer of two forearm bones, the ulna is the inner bone when the palm is facing forward. Radius: Parallel to the ulna, the radius also connects to the humerus at the elbow. LIGAMENTS 1. Annular Ligament: Surrounding the head of the radius, serves to sustain contact between the radius and humerus bones. 2. Medial Collateral ligament: Two bands compose it, one anterior and one posterior, both of which initiate at the medial epicondyle and attach the ulna. 3. Lateral collateral ligament: It is a short band that extends from the lateral epicondyle to the annular ligament. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 JOINT CAPSULE Confining the elbow joint components, the joint capsule, or synovial membrane, provides the elbow stability. It is thickened on its side by ligaments and is reinforced by muscle fibers on the front surface. SHOULDER JOINT The shoulder joint (glenohumeral joint) is a ball and socket joint between the scapula and the humerus. It is the major joint connecting the upper limb to the trunk. It is one of the most mobile joints in the human body, at the cost of joint stability. ARTICULATING SURFACES The shoulder joint is formed by the articulation of the head of the humerus with the glenoid cavity (or fossa) of the scapula. This gives rise to the alternate name for the shoulder joint – the glenohumeral joint. Like most synovial joints, the articulating surfaces are covered with hyaline cartilage. The head of humerus is much larger than the glenoid fossa, giving the joint a wide range of movement at the cost of inherent instability. To reduce the disproportion in surfaces, the glenoid fossa is deepened by a fibrocartilage rim, called the glenoid labrum. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 JOINT CAPSULE AND BURSAE The joint capsule is a fibrous sheath which encloses the structure of the joint. It extends from the anatomical neck of the humerus to the border or “rim” of the glenoid fossa. The joint capsule is lax, permitting greater mobility (particularly abduction). The synovial membrane lines the inner surface of the joint capsule and produces synovial fluid to reduce friction between the articular surfaces. SUBDELTOID BURSA To reduce friction in the shoulder joint, several synovial bursae are present. A bursa is a synovial fluid filled sac, which acts as a cushion between tendons and other joint structures. LIGAMENTS Glenohumeral ligaments: (superior, middle an inferior) the joint capsule is formed by this group of ligaments connecting the humerus to the glenoid fossa. They act to stabilise the anterior aspect of the joint. Coracohumeral ligament: attaches the base of the coracoid process to the greater tubercle of the humerus. Transverse humeral ligament: spans the distance between the two tubercles of the humerus. Coraco-clavicular ligament: It runs from the clavicle to the coracoid process of the scapula. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 FACTORS THAT CONTRIBUTE TO STABILITY Rotator cuff muscles: surround the shoulder joint, attaching to the tuberosities of the humerus, whilst also fusing with the joint capsule. The resting tone of these muscles act to compress the humeral head into the glenoid cavity. Ligaments: act to reinforce the joint capsule, and form the coracoacromial arch. Glenoid labrum: a fibrocartilaginous ridge surrounding the glenoid cavity. It deepens the cavity and creates a seal with the head of humerus, reducing the risk of dislocation. Biceps tendon: it acts as a minor humeral head depressor, thereby contributing to stability. ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES The rotator cuff muscles have a very important role in stabilising the glenohumeral joint. They are often under heavy strain, and therefore injuries of these muscles are relatively common. The spectrum of rotator cuff pathology comprises tendinitis, shoulder impingement and sub-acromial bursitis. Tendinitis refers to inflammation of the muscle tendons – usually due to overuse. Over time, this causes degenerative changes in the subacromial bursa and the supraspinatus tendon, potentially causing bursitis and impingement. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 INTERVERTEBRAL JOINTS The movements that can occur between these vertebrae are forward flexion, extension, and twisting movement that’s a combination of rotation and lateral flexion. In the intervals between the occiput, the atlas, and the axis, where so much movement occurs there are no discs, only synovial joints. The intervertebral joint consists of two adjacent vertebrae with a cushion in between. Cushioning is provided between the two bones by means of an intervertebral disc, a shock-absorbing structure that has a liquid, jelly-like substance in the center. They provide cushioning for the vertebrae and reduce the stress caused by impact. By keeping the vertebrae separated from each other, they act as a type of shock absorber for the spine. They help protect the nerves that run down the spine and between the vetebrae. THORACIC VERTEBRAE Are the twelve vertebral segments (T1 – T12) that make up the thoracic spine. These structures have very little motion because they are firmly attached to the ribs and sternum (breastbone). The main function of the thoracic spine is to hold the rib cage and protect the heart and lungs. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 LUMBAR VERTEBRAE The lumbar spine is the third region of the vertebral column, located in the lower back between the thoracic and sacral vertebral segments. It is made up of five distinct vertebrae, which are the largest of the vertebral column. This supports the lumbar spine in its main function as a weight bearing structure. THERE ARE 2 TYPES OF JOINT IN THE LUMBAR SPINE Between vertebral bodies - adjacent vertebral bodies are joined by intervertebral discs, made of fibrocartilage. This is a type of cartilaginous joint, known as a symphysis. Between vertebral arches - formed by the articulation of superior and inferior articular processes from adjacent vertebrae. It is a synovial type joint. The fifth lumbar vertebrae, L5, has some distinctive characteristics of its own. It has a notably large vertebral body and transverse processes as it carries the weight of the entire upper body. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 SPONDYLOLYSIS AND SPONDYLOLISTHESIS Spondylolysis is a spine condition that can be painful. It’s a problem with the connection between vertebrae and the bones that make up the spine. Having spondylolysis can lead to small stress fractures or cracks, often after repeated injuries during sports. Spondylolysis is a common cause of spondylolisthesis because the crack in the vertebra may cause the bone to slip. Spondylolisthesis is when one vertebrae slips out of place over the vertebra below. HIP JOINT The hip joint is a ball and socket synovial joint, formed by an articulation between the pelvic acetabulum and the head of the femur. It forms a connection from the lower limb to the pelvic girdle, and thus is designed for stability and weight-bearing- rather than a large range of movement. The acetabulum is a cup-like depression located on the inferolateral aspect of the pelvis. Its cavity is deepened by the presence of a fibrocartilaginous collar- the acetabular labrum. The head of femur is hemispherical and fits completely into the concavity of the acetabulum. Both the acetabulum and head of femur are covered in articular cartilage, which is thicker at the places of weight bearing. The capsule of the hip joint attaches to the edge of the acetabulum proximally. Distally, it attaches to the intertrochanteric line anteriorly and the femoral neck posteriorly. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 LIGAMENTS The ligaments of the hip joint act to increase stability. They can be divided into two groups: intracapsular and extracapsular. Intracapsular: within the capsule of a joint. Extracapsular: situated outside a capsule. The only intracapsular ligament is the ligament of head of femur. It is a relatively small structure, which runs from the acetabular fossa to the fovea of the femur. It encloses a branch of the obturator artery (artery to head of femur), a minor source of arterial supply to the hip joint EXTRACAPSULAR There are three main extracapsular ligaments, continuous with the outer surface of the hip joint capsule: Iliofemoral ligament: It has a “Y” shaped appearance, and prevents hyperextension of the hip joint. It is the strongest of the three ligaments. Pubofemoral: It has a triangular shape, and prevents excessive abduction and extension. Ischiofemoral: It has a spiral orientation, and prevents hyperextension and holds the femoral head in the acetabulum. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 MOVMENTS FLEXION Iliopsoas, rectus femoris, sartorius, pectineus. EXTENTION Gluteus maximus, semimembranosus, semitendinosus and biceps femoris. ABDUCTION Gluteus medius, gluteus minimus, piriformis and extensor fascia latae. ADDUCTION Adductors longus, brevis and magnus, pectineus and gracilis. LATERAL ROTATION Biceps femoris, gluteus maximus, piriformis, asisted by the obturators, gemilli and quadratus femoris. MEDIAL ROTATION Anterior fibres of gluteus medius and minimus, tensor fascia latae. KNEE JOINT The knee joint is a hinge type synovial joint, which mainly allows for flexion and extension (and a small degree of medial and lateral rotation). It is formed by articulations between the patella, femur and tibia. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 As the patella is both formed and resides within the quadriceps femoris tendon, it provides a fulcrum to increase power of the knee and serves as a stabilising structure that reduces frictional forces on femoral condyles. The knee joint consists of two articulations – tibiofemoral and patellofemoral. The joint surfaces are lined with hyaline cartilage and are enclosed within a single joint cavity. Tibiofemoral: It is the wieght-bearing component of the knee joint. Patellarfemoral: It allows the tendon of the quadriceps femoris (knee extensor) to be inserted directly over the knee – increasing the efficiency of the muscle FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 MENISCI The medial and lateral menisci are fibrocartilage structures in the knee that serve two functions: To deepen the articular surface of the tibia, thus increasing stability of the joint. To act as shock absorbers by increasing surface area to further dissipate forces. They are C shaped and attached at both ends to the intercondylar area of the tibia. The medial meniscus is fixed to the tibial collateral ligament and the joint capsule. Damage to the tibial collateral ligament usually results in a medial meniscal tear. The lateral meniscus is smaller and does not have any extra attachments, rendering it fairly mobile. BURSAE A bursa is a synovial fluid filled sac, found between moving structures in a joint- with the aim of reducing wear and tear on those structures. There are four bursae found in the knee joint: Suprapatellar bursa Prepatellar bursa Infrapatellar bursa Semimembranosus bursa FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 LIGAMENTS The major ligaments in the knee are: Patellar ligament: a continuation of the quadriceps femoris tendon distal to the patella. It attaches to the tibial tuberosity. Collateral ligaments: two strap ligaments. They act to stabilise the hinge motion of the knee, preventing excessive medial or lateral movement. Tibial (medial) collateral ligament Fibular (lateral) collateral ligament Cruciate Ligaments: These two ligaments connect the femur and the tibia. In doing so, they cross each other, hence the term “cruciate” (Latin for like a cross) Anterior cruciate ligament: It prevents anterior dislocation of the tibia onto the femur. Posterior cruciate ligament: It prevents posterior dislocation of the tibia onto the femur. It can be torn during landing with hyperextension of the knee joint. MOVEMENTS There are four main movements that the knee joint permits: Extension: produced by the quadriceps femoris Flexion: produced by the hamstrings, gracilis, sartorius and popliteus. Lateral rotation: produced by the biceps femoris. Medial rotation: produced by five muscles, semimembranosus, semitendinosus, gracilis, sartorius and popliteus. Lateral and medial rotation can only occur when the knee is flexed (if the knee is not flexed, the medial/lateral rotation occurs at the hip joint). FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 ANKLE JOINT The ankle joint is a synovial joint located in the lower limb. It is formed by the bones of the leg (tibia and fibula) and the foot (talus). Functionally, it is a hinge type joint, permitting dorsiflexion and plantarflexion of the foot. The ankle joint is formed by three bones, the tibia and fibula of the leg, and talus of the foot: The tibia and fibula are bound together by strong tibiofibular ligaments. Together, they form a bracket shaped socket, covered in hyaline cartilage. This socket is know as a mortise. The body of the talus fits snugly into the mortise formed by the bones of the leg. The articulating part of the talus is wedge shaped it is broad anteriorly, and narrow posteriorly: Dorsiflexion – the anterior part of the talus is held in the mortise, and the joint is more stable. Plantarflexion – the posterior part of the talus is held in the mortise, and the joint is less stable. FIG 2 ANATOMY 1 LIGAMENTS There are two lain sets of ligaments, which originate from each malleolus. Medial ligament: Also named deltoid ligament is attached to the medial malleolus. It consists of four ligaments, which fan out from the malleolus, attaching to the talus, calcaneus and navicular bones. The primary action is to resist over-eversion of the foot. Lateral ligament: originates from the lateral malleolus. It resists over-inversion of the foot, and is comprised of three distinct and separate ligaments: Anterior talofibular Posterior talofibular Calcaneofibular MOVMENT Thus, plantarflexion and dorsiflexion are the main movements that occur at the ankle joint. Eversion and inversion are produced at the other joints of the foot, such as the subtalar joint. Plantarflexion: produced by the muscles in the posterior compartment of the leg (gastrocnemius, soleus, plantaris and posterior tibialis). Dorsiflexion: produced by the muscles in the anterior compartment of the leg (tibialis anterior, extensor hallucis longus and extensor digitorum longus). FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 INTRODUCTION A gymnastics coach is responsible for producing healthy and happy gymnasts. A knowledge of anatomy will improve the coach’s ability to recognize potential problems regarding muscle and bone injuries or strains. Knowledge on how muscles function will aid in improving training programs and help measure success of the programs. Overtraining is one of the most common reasons for injuries. Not understanding which muscles have what function or action is another reason for causing training problems. In this section we will explore muscles and functions to help coaches understand how to identify muscles, their function and actions. SHOULDER MUSCLES DELTOID Proximal attachment Lateral clavicle (anterior head) Acromion process (middle head) Lateral spine scapula(posterior head) Distal attachment Deltoid tubercle of humerus FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 Function Anterior head = shoulder flexion Middle head = shoulder abduction Posterior head = shoulder extension PECTORALIS MAJOR Proximal attachment Sternum and clavicle Distal attachment Bicipital groove of humerus Function Horizontal adduction Bringing arm down from overhead (ext. & add.) FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 LATISSIMUS DORSI Proximal attachment Bottom 6 thoracic vertebrae All Lumbar vertebrae Sacrum Distal attachment Bicipital groove of humerus Function Horizontal abduction of humerus Bringing arm down from overhead Extension and Adduction Medial rotation of humerus ORIGINS Inferior portion of scapula Ribs 09-12 Posterior third of iliac crest T07 - L05 - Sacrum Thoracolumbar fascia FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 ROTATOR CUFF MUSCLES Many shoulder problems in gymnastics is a result of injury to the Rotator cuff muscles. CAUSES Lack of physical preparation Overuse Over training certain skills Lack of flexibility training FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 SUPRASPINATUS Proximal attachment Supraspinous fossa Distal attachment Top, proximal humerus Function Shoulder abduction INFRASPINATUS Proximal attachment Infraspinous fossa Distal attachment Proximal posterior humerus Function Shoulder extension External rotation TERES MINOR Proximal attachment Infraspinous fossa Distal attachment Proximal posterior humerus Function Shoulder extension External rotation FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 SUBSCAPULARI Proximal attachment Subscapular fossa Proximal attachment Proximal anterior humerus Function Internal rotation MOVING AND STABILIZING SCAPULA 4 MAIN MUSCLES Trapezius Serratus Anterior Rhomboids Levator Scapula TRAPEZIUS Proximal attachment Base of skull to T12 vertebra. Distal attachment Spine of the scapula Function Upper - shoulder elevation Middle - shoulder retraction Lower - shoulder depression FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 SERRATUS ANTERIOR Proximal attachment Anterior medial border scapula Distal attachment Anterior ribs 1-8 Function Shoulder protraction RHOMBOIDS Proximal attachment Spinous processes T2 to T5 Distal attachment Medial border of the scapula Function Scapular retraction LEVATOR SCAPULAE Proximal attachment Transverse processes of C1 to C4. Distal attachment Medial border of Scapula. Function Scapular elevation FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 COMMON INJURYS IN THE SHOULDER AREA ROTATOR CUFF ATRAINS AND TEARS How to prevent: Posture correction, and rotator cuff strengthening to help prevent impingement. Coach - Focus on good posture of your gymnasts to help prevent shoulder injuries. Be sure your gymnast can lift his/her arms by his/her ears without arching from their back. LATRAL TEARS (SLAP TEAR) How to prevent: Posture correction can help prevent this type of injury. Strengthening your periscapular and shoulder area can also help athletes avoid labrum tears. Coach: Be careful with skills that require shoulder dislocation skills, Like Adler and Ring swings. Proper preparation of the shoulders is required. TRUNK MUSCLES CORE STABILIZING Transverse abdominis Located under the obliques, it is the deepest of the abdominal muscles and wraps around your spine for protection and stability. Internal abdominal oblique Located under the external obliques, running in the opposite direction. External abdominal oblique Located on the side and front of the abdomen. Rectus abdominis Located along the front of the abdomen, this is the most well-known abdominal. Often referred to as the "six-pack". FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 ABDOMINALS LINEA ALBA Attachments Sternum (Tip of xiphoid process) to pubic bone. Function Attachment site for trunk muscles. RECTUS ABDOMINIS Attachments Sternum (& adjacent ribs) to pubic bone. Function Trunk flexion Pelvis stabilization EXTERNAL OBLIQUE Attachments Lateral ribs downward to anterior ilium, pubis & Linea alba. Function Trunk flexion & rotation Pelvis stabilization FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 INTERNAL OBLIQUE Attachments Linea alba downward to lateral crest of pubis & ilium. Function Trunk flexion & rotation Pelvis stabilization TRANSVERSUS ABDOMINIS Attachments Linea alba to lower ribs, crest of ilium & to spine. Function Compresses abdomen Spine & trunk stabilization CORE STABILIZING 2 MAIN MUSCLES IN THE BACK Erector Spinae Quadratus Lunborum BACK MUSCLES ERECTOR SPINAE Attachments Iliac crest, all vertebrae - to the base of the skull. Function Trunk extension, anti gravity Trunk stability Very important for back injury prevention FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 QUADRATUS LUMBORUM Attachments Iliac crest - to ribs Function Trunk lateral flexion (side bending) Trunk stability Pelvis “hitching” (lateral elevation) MULTIFIDUS MUSCLES Thick deep muscles on both sides of the spine. Attachments Transverse and spinous processes of vertebrae. Function Trunk lateral flexion (side bending) Trunk extension HIP MUSCLES ILIOPSOAS Attachments Illiac fossa and lumbar spin Femur Function Flexion of the hip FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 HAMSTRINGS Proximal attachment Ischial tuberosity Distal attachment Posterior Proximal tibia (medial & lateral) Function Hip extension Knee flexion COMMON INJURIES HIPS HIP FLEXOR TENDONITIS Repetitive forces on hip flexor muscles -Iliopsoas and rectus femoris muscle. As a result of repetitive overuse of these muscles. To prevent this – proper stretching, good techniques and enough physical preparation. FEMORAL ACETABULAR IMPINGEMENT (FAI) Abnormal forces and contact between the acetabulum (pelvis) and femur which leads to injury to the labrum (cartilage ring in the hip). To prevent this - proper stretching and landing mechanics, core strength and gluteus/hip strength. FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 LEG MUSCLES QUADRICEPS FEMORIS Proximal attachment Anterior Proximal femur (3 Vastus muscles) Anterior ilium (Rectus femoris) Distal attachment Anterior proximal tibia (tibial tuberosity) Function Knee extension Hip flexion (Rectus femoris) 4 INDIVIDUAL MUSCLES Rectus Femoris Vastus Medialis Vastus Lateralis Vastus Intermedius LOWER LEG FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 GASTROCNEMIUS Proximal attachment Posterior distal femur (medial & lateral) Distal attachment Calcaneus Function Foot plantar flexor (take off, point) Knee flexor SOLEUS Proximal attachment Posterior proximal tibia Distal attachment Calcaneus Function Foot plantar flexor COMMON INJURIES OF THE LEG ANTERIOR CRUCIATE LIGAMENT (ACL) Occurs with a “plant and twisting” injury - when the gymnast performs a twisting salto/flip and their foot plants/lands, but their body keeps spinning this causes the tear. The ACL stops the knee from shifting forward meaning it prevents anterior translation of the tibia relative to the femur. How to prevent: Focus on gluteus, hip, and hamstring strength, and practicing proper landing mechanics (avoid valgus/knocked knees landing). Medial & Lateral collateral ligament injuries. MEDIAL AND LATERAL COLLATERAL LIGAMENT An MCL injury happens with landing forces inward (Medial) with the knees or outward (Lateral). How to prevent: Focus on gluteus, hip, and hamstring strength, practicing proper landing mechanics (avoid valgus/knocked knees landing). FIG 2 ANATOMY 2 ANKLE SPRAINS When a gymnast “rolls” their ankle - Three grades: Grade 1: Ligaments not disrupted - bruising and inflammation minimal - no pain with weight bearing. Grade 2: Ligaments stretched but no tear - bruising and inflammation moderate - mild pain with weight bearing. Grade 3: Ligaments completely torn – bruising and inflammation severe - severe pain with weight bearing. PREVENTION Physical preparation - focus on proprioception/single leg balance exercises, landing mechanics, and proper warm up and stretch prior to starting practice. REMEMBER THIS All gymnastics skills are the result of: muscles generating torques to move skeletal levers about joints (axes)… FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 REVIEW OF LEVEL 1 Try to recall what you remember about the following concepts you learnt about in level 1 The 4 Principles of Stability Correct force application for take-offs, landings & generating angular momentum (6 factors) Inertia, velocity & momentum What is determined at the moment of take-off? Acceleration Action-reaction (3 factors) & ground reaction forces The main concepts in rotation – Angular momentum, moment of inertia, angular velocity & -conservation of angular momentum factors to consider in descending and ascending swings ADVANCED SWING ELEMENTS All human motion is a result of - Muscle contractions = FORCE - About joints = ABOUT AXES - Move body segments = ACCELERATES LEVERS FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 MECHANICS OF ROTATION SWING The gymnast should maximize (optimize) angular momentum at bottom of swing. On downswing, gravity provides the turning force (torque). Gravity should act over longest possible time Gravity should act as far from axis (bar) as possible Gymnast should minimize frictional forces On upswing, the angular velocity is increased by bringing the centre of mass closer to the axis of rotation (bar). MECHANICS OF SWING Swing is rotation about an external axis. 5 1 3 2 4 1. com max distance from bar 2. com max distance from bar 3. max hip flexion for max angular velocity and bar deformation 4. maintain tight pike for longest time for high angular velocity and keep com near bar 5. extend to straight only for bar reaction forces FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 HANDSTAND TURNING ELEMENTS The turns must be initiated on the up-swing and completed in handstand. The feet should turn towards the twisting direction. This action results in an opposite turn of the upper body which applies an “indirect” force on the bar which in turn provides a reaction force in the desired direction. The body is aligned over the support arm. This reduces the moment of inertia about the twisting axis. In addition, the free arm pushes off the bar to generate torque in the desired direction. MECHANICS OF TURNING ELEMENTNTS FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 1 4 2 3 5 6 7 1. maximum downswing parameters and load bar 2. turn feet in direction of turn for reaction torque 3. bar returns elastic energy 4. align body over support arm for small moment of inertia 5. push off arm to shift com and odd centre force 6. body straight throughout 7. shift weight to other arm and push to provide off centre force THE TWISTING ILLUSION IN GYMNASTICS Many turning skills (round-off, clear hip circle 1/1 turn, etc.) turn ½ on the upward phase and ½ in handstand. A turn in handstand on the left arm is a right turn and vice versa. In a round-off, if the right hand goes down first, it is a left turn. In a clear hip circle with 1/1 turn to left, the 1st half turns on the left arm and the 2nd half must turn on the right arm so that the entire skill turns to the left. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 ANOTHER EXAMPLE OF HANDSTAND TURNING ELEMENTS The turns must be initiated on the up-swing and completed in handstand. The feet should turn towards the twisting direction. - This action results in an opposite turn of the upper body which applies an “indirect” force on the bar which in turn provides a reaction force in the desired direction. Feet turn to the Left, so upper body turns to the Right. BAR CONSTRAINS REACTION Reaction force of upper body to the Right then becomes the “indirect” action force and the resulting reaction is for the lower body to turn to the Left. The free arm pushes off the bar to generate torque in the desired direction. The body is aligned over the support arm. - This reduces the moment of inertia about the twisting axis. FLIGHT ELEMENTS MECHANICS OF FLIGHT ELEMENTS RELEASE Body Action is accompanied by reaction that is constrained by contact = indirect force applied to apparatus = desired “ground” reaction force. All important parameters are determined here: rotation, trajectory, height, time, body shape. FLIGHT PHASE Angular momentum cannot be changed, but straight body gives potential for increased angular velocity. Twisting techniques apply. REGRASP Attempt to reduce Angular velocity about All axes. Reduce momentum over greatest time/distance FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 INDIRECT GROUND REACTION FORCES -IN CONTACT WITH THE BAR- When in contact with the bar, a body action will want to result in the same reactions we have analyzed in Level 1. However, reaction cannot occur because of the constraints of the bar. Therefore, the reaction serves as an action force against the bar which results in an equal and opposite ‘ground’ reaction force (‘bar’ reaction force). For flight elements, we want always to use effective body actions to apply the optimal “indirect” force to the bar in order to generate the optimal ground reaction force. TAKE-OFF At the instant of take-off, these are determined: Path of centre of mass (trajectory) Angle of take-off and landing (of C of M) Vertical velocity up (reduced to zero by gravity) Vertical velocity on landing = initial vertical velocity Horizontal velocity Height (= time) Distance Direction Time in the air (= height) Angular Momentum (body shape = potential to change speed of rotation) Most errors occur at take-off and are usually due to incorrect force application. Vertical velocity determines height and time in air. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 MECHANICS EXAMPLE OF RELEASE REGRASP ELEMENTS 1. straight body means force is far from axis of roation 2. pre – stretch timing and load bar 3. dynamic hip extension results in extension of upper body. The force on the bar results in a reaction force to assist forwards rotation 4. straight body = max moment of inertia 5. pike, straddle, arms and head in all increase angular velocity 6. extension reduces angular velocity before re-grasp DISMOUNTS – FROM UNEVEN BARS AND HORIZONTAL BAR RELEASE - Body Action is accompanied by reaction, but constrained by contact = indirect force applied to apparatus = desired “bar” reaction force. - All important parameters are determined here: rotation, trajectory, height, time, body shape. BAR ELASTICITY - The deformation and restoration of The bar can dramatically affect The forces applied to The gymnast and The flight path of The dismount. FLIGHT PHASE - Angular momentum cannot be changed, but straight body gives potential for increased angular velocity. - Twisting techniques apply. LANDING - The gymnast applies forces to reduce Angular and linear momentum to zero. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 EFFECT OF CHANGING RELEASE HEIGHT The centre of mass of a rigid body will fly at a tangent to the arc of the swing (90° to the radius). This is an important consideration but gymnasts can apply forces just before release to somewhat modify this effect. In addition, the elasticity of the bar can modify the effect. Angular momentum is Conserved (stays the same) in the air. If the rotational momentum is set, then nothing the gymnast does can change that total. But the gymnast can change body shape which is equivalent to changing the Moment of Inertia. (Straight to tuck position; bring arms closer to the body during twisting elements) In order for the rotational momentum to stay the same, the change in Shape (Moment of Inertia) must be accompanied by an opposite change in Speed of rotation (Angular Velocity), i.e. decrease/shorten the shape = increase speed increase/lengthen the shape = decrease speed FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 Inter-segmental transfer of Angular Momentum There are 3 possible actions in the air… UNDERSTANDING INTER-SEGMENTAL TRANSFER OF ANGULAR MOMENTUM (SECONDARY AXIS) Explanation #1: For every action there is an equal and opposite and simultaneous reaction. 1. If a gymnast overbalances, rotate arms and legs in the direction of the fall (about a parallel axis). This causes the rest of the body to rotate in the opposite direction - overcoming the tendency to fall. 2. This is a normal body reflex to overbalancing, but it can be specifically taught to be more effective. 3. This action is most effective if the introduced rotation has the greatest angular momentum (straight and fast limbs) and is far from primary axis. The effect stops as soon as the arm and leg rotation stops. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 1 Explanation #2: In the air, the total body Angular Momentum is fixed. 1. Since the total angular momentum of a body cannot change during flight, if one body part introduces an additional component of AM about a parallel axis, then the AM of the rest of the body must be reduced. 2. Such actions are often normal body reflexes to over-rotation, but they can be specifically taught to be more effective. 3. This action is most effective if the introduced rotation has the greatest angular momentum (straight and fast limbs) and is far from primary axis Rapid rotation of arms forward reduces forward angular momentum of body – in the air and after landing. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 TWISTING MECHANICS BASIC CONCEPTS ANGULAR MOMENTUM (AM): quantity of rotation a body has about some given axis as a result of its speed of rotation (w) and the distribution of mass about the axis (I) (AM = w · I). MOMENT OF INERTIA (I): is a measure of how the mass of body is distributed about the axis of rotation. The further the mass is away from the object, the larger the "I" and vice versa. In fact "I" increases as the square of the distance of the mass and therefore small increase in distance (r) can result in relatively large increases in "I“ (I = m · r2) (Fink, 1997). Important Angular Momentum = w · m · r2 (w= speed of rotation or angular velocity, m=mass, r= distance of the mass related to the axis of rotation) Law of conservation of Angular Momentum (AM): When no external torque acts on an object, no change of angular momentum will occur. However, the human body can change position in the air which has the effect of changing the moment of Inertia (I = m · r2)" and thus "w." If a gymnast tucks up in the air, "I" will decrease and then so that "AM" will be conserved, "w" will increase accordingly and vice versa (Fink, 1997). FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 TWISTING METHODS Multiple twisting in multiple saltos often uses a complex interaction of all of these methods. TORQUE TWIST (CONTACT TWIST) Contact twist is initiated while the feet are in contact with the takeoff surface. During this contact phase, body segments are set in motion so that, at the instant of takeoff, there is angular momentum about the longitudinal axis of the body (Yeadon, 1993). Can be used to initiate twists on the floor and during pirouettes and other turns on the apparatus. Principal characteristics: Produced by: Off-centre force (or couple). From “direct” force application – apply force in desired direction. From “indirect” force application (action-reaction) – turn upper body in desired direction, lower body turns opposite direction which is the “indirect” force. Can save time in air (twist initiated earlier). Creates landing problems (reduce AM during landing). May lead to judging deductions (Loss of balance during any landing with no fall or hand support). Acrobatic torque twists result of “indirect” reaction forces FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 ANGULAR MOMENTUM TWIST (TILT TWIST) Tilt twist (aerial twist) is created during saltos in the air. It can be produced because gymnast has Angular Momentum (AM) around longitudinal axis of the body. The dominant twisting mechanism in all aerial skills. Principal characteristics: Caused by any body asymmetry (Asymmetry arms) created during saltos in the air. The tilt occurs due to action-reaction. Tilt produce twist because translation of AM from transversal axis (salto) to longitudinal axis (twist). Asymmetrical arms can cause about 11º of tilt. Contributions of chest hip asymmetries can be up to 13º degrees forward and only 3º backward. AMtwist = AMsalto x sin θ AM = angular momentum, θ = angle of tilt FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 EFFECT OF TILTING ON DIRECTION OF TWIST FORWARDS SALTO Forward salto, left twist begin with slight pike shorten right side. Right arm down to the side and/or left arm up (or otherwise shorten right side relative to left) = left tilt. Left arm down to the side and/or right arm up (or otherwise shorten left side relative to right) = right tilt. BACKWARDS SALTO Backward salto, left twist begin with slight arch shorten left side. Right arm down to the side and/or left arm up (or otherwise shorten right side relative to left) = rigth tilt. Left arm down to the side and/or right arm up (or otherwise shorten left side relative to right) = left tilt. The amount of tilt can be sequentially increased by dropping first 1 Additional arm, and then, after 1/4 turn is completed, dropping the other arm. considerations for effective tilting From overhead arm take-off positions, it is possible to lower 1 arm down forward at the moment of take-off for a “pre-set” and then raising one up sideways and lowering the other sideways resulting in a double tilt response. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 IMPORTANT A body that twists due to tilting must be un-tilted prior to landing. After 1/1, 2/1 twist: Un-tilt by opposite actions (opposite tilt) from start. After 1/2, 3/2, 5/2 twist: Un-tilt by same action (same tilt) as at start. ZERO ANGULAR MOMENTUM TWIST (HULA AND CAT TWIST) Zero Angular Momentum does not mean the gymnast is motionless or unable to move body parts. These “twisting” methods allow the gymnast to reorient(“twist”) his body in space without any existing Angular Momentum. These methods use action-reaction principles but do not create Angular Momentum. The “twist” stops as soon as the body actions stop. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 HULA TWIST Move body away from longitudinal axis. Conserve zero angular momentum about longitudinal axis. Twisting stops if hula stops. The hula action provides a method for controlling a twisting action. Hips clockwise = body counter clockwise. CAT TWIST In a pike position, the upper body turns through a large angle while the reaction at the lower body is an opposite rotation through a small angle. Then the body straightens and lower body turns through a large angle relative to upper body. Rotates one body part against another with larger Moment of Inertia and then repeats the action with the other body part. Conserve zero angular momentum about longitudinal axis. Twisting stops if action stops. This is in effect a reorientation of the body in space FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 ROTATION AND LANDING During landing gymnast must: Reduce angular momentum to zero (longitudinal & transversal axis). Absorb vertical reaction forces. Extended body position prior to landing: 1. Reduces the angular velocity that reduce the Angular Momentum (transversal axis). 2. Prepare joint to have higher range of motion to absorb reaction forces. Residual rotation during landing: Residual rotation can be “taken-up” with circling of the arms (inter-segmental transfer of Angular Momentum). Arms rotate in direction of undesired rotation. Arms should introduce maximum (optimum). Maximize Angular Momentum → Arms straight and fast. ADDITIONAL CONCEPTS WORK Work (W) is a measure of force (F) applied over a distance (d). W=Fxd Work can also be measured as a change of energy. Note: If a force is applied but there is no movement, as in isometric contractions, then in biomechanics, no work has been done. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 POWER Power (P) is a combination of force (F) and velocity (v). P = F x v → P = (F x d) / t → P = W / t Power is a measure of how much work has been done over a period of time (velocity (v) = distance (d) / time (t)). Power can also be measured as a change of energy over time. Note: If a force is applied but there is no movement as in isometric contractions, then in biomechanics, no power has been expressed. ENERGY (MECHANICAL ENERGY) Energy is a measure of the capacity to do work. Total Mechanical Energy (ME) consists of Potential Energy (PE) plus Kinetic Energy (KE). Total ME = PE + KE The Total Energy in a closed system is conserved. ENERGY (MECHANICAL ENERGY): POTENTIAL ENERGY (PE) Work = F x d and that energy is the capacity to do work (↑ height = ↑ distance). The higher the centre of gravity, the greater the potential capacity to do work → greater potential energy. Energy due to linear or angular motion. Kinetic Energy is due to the velocity of an object. Angular Kinetic Energy is due to the angular velocity of an object. FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 PRINCIPLE OF CONSERVATION OF ENERGY The total energy in a closed system can not be created or destroyed but it can be converted to other forms of energy such as heat and sound. During a landing, some of the gymnast’s kinetic energy is converted to heat (within muscles and landing mats) and sound. This energy is no longer available for the gymnast to use. To create energy: A force must be applied to raise the gymnast to a higher position (↑ potential energy). A force must be applied to accelerate the gymnast (↑ kinetic energy). RELATIONSHIP AMONG THESE CONCEPTS INERTIA – a body does not want to change what it is doing, its state of rest or motion in a straight line. To change Inertia, velocity must changed. A change of velocity requires the application of a FORCE. To change Inertia, a force must be applied. A change in velocity (or direction) is called ACCELERATION. Acceleration is a direct measure of the force applied. (F = m x a) FIG 2 BIOMECHANICS 2 Since mass does not change, a change in velocity is also a change in momentum (m x v) and a change in kinetic energy. A force applied change momentum and kinetic energy. A change in kinetic energy, momentum, or velocity normally means that a force has been applied over a distance and therefore, work has been done. If a force is applied quickly it is known as power. Power is shown when work is done in a short time, or when energy changes in a short time, or when velocity and momentum changes in a short time, or when the acceleration is very rapid. All of these linear concepts have angular analogues. The angular analog of mass is moment of inertia. The angular analog of force is torque. Of the rest, use the prefix angular: angular velocity, angular momentum, angular kinetic energy, etc.) FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 LEVEL 1 REVIEW We learned that strength training can increase the density of contractile proteins (actin & myosin). This is called hypertrophy. STRENGTH The following guidelines should be considered for strength training. 1. Develop strength first for safety. For example: Eccentric strength for landing on feet & arms Trunk strength (front, back, side) Ankle proprioceptive training (pre-habilitation instead of rehabilitation) 2. First develop strength in large proximal groups of muscles, and then smaller distal muscles. 3. Systematically maintain agonist / antagonist training (flexors / extensors). 4. Concentrate on skill-specific movement patterns & get as close as possible to actual speed & positions of the skill you are training. 5. Eventually focus on maximal effort (force) & maximal speed types of training. (explosive). FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 WHAT WE LEARNED We learned that muscle contractions are “driven” by neural impulses. And these impulses can be: Voluntary or Reflexive …and that many fast movements in gymnastics are facilitated by quickly stretching muscles before contracting. This is called PLYOMETRIC MUSCLE ACTIVATION. POWER TRAINING / PLYOMETRICS WHAT IS PLYOMETRICS Plyometrics Is a form of power training. Refers to exercise that enables a muscle to reach maximum force in the shortest possible time. The muscle is loaded with an eccentric (lengthening) action, followed immediately by a concentric (shortening) action. MUSCLE POWER (SPEED STRENGTH, EXPLOSIVE STRENGTH) Muscle power Maximum force generated in minimum time. For most elite athletes (gymnasts for sure) the rate of force development is more important than absolute force development (exceptions: rings, acro base.....). Most gymnastics skills are done too quickly to have time to generate maximum force (strength). POWER TRAINING Preparation for Speed Strength (power) training should involve several years training to increase: Muscular endurance Muscular strength Speed of movement (with low resistance) Active range of movement (flexibility) Many characteristics influence the progress: Sex, age, training background, genetics... FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 HOW PLYOMETRIC EXERCISES WORK Why, as a form of power training, plyometric training is very effective? Answer: Plyometrics manipulate the elasticity and strength of muscles by increasing the speed and force of their contractions. PLYOMETRICS IS LIKE A RUBBER BAND The muscle functions much like a rubber band. When it is stretched, it can produce more quick and explosive force because it stretches. HOW PLYOMETRIC EXERCISES WORK A muscle that is stretched before a concentric contraction, will contract more forcefully and more rapidly A classic example is a “dip” just prior to a vertical jump: - By lowering the center of gravity quickly, the muscles involved in the jump are momentarily stretched producing a more powerful movement. But why does this occur? - Two models have been proposed to explain this phenomenon… MECHANICAL MODEL In this model, elastic energy is created in the muscles and tendons and stored as a result of a rapid stretch. This stored energy is then released when the stretch is followed immediately by a concentric muscle action. The effect is like that of stretching a rubber band, which wants to return to its natural length. The rubber band is this case a component of the muscles and tendons called the series elastic component. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 NEUROPHYSICAL MODEL When a quick stretch is detected in the muscles, an involuntary, protective response occurs to prevent overstretching and injury. This response is known as the stretch reflex. The stretch reflex increases the activity in the muscles undergoing the stretch or eccentric muscle action, allowing them to act much more forcefully. The result is a powerful braking effect and the potential for a powerful concentric muscle action. If the concentric muscle action does not occur immediately after the pre-stretch, the potential energy produced by the stretch reflex response is lost. (e.g. if there is a delay between dipping down and then jumping up, the effect of the counter-dip is lost). RATE OF FORCE PRODUCTION Both the mechanical model (series elastic component) & the neuro-physical model (stretch reflex) increase the rate of force production during plyometrics exercises. THE STRETCH-SHORTENING CYCLE All plyometric movements involve three phases (stretch-shortening cycle): 1. Pre-stretch or eccentric muscle action - elastic energy is generated and stored. 2. Amortization - the time between the end of the pre-stretch and the start of the concentric muscle action. It is the brief transition period from stretching to contracting. The shorter this phase is, the more powerful the subsequent muscle contraction will be. 3. Actual musclecontraction: this is the movement the athlete desires the powerful jump or throw. The optimal method to train SSC movement skills is plyometrics, and appropriate drills include: Drop lands, whereby the body adapts to high landing forces. Drop jumps, whereby the focus shifts to reducing the amortization phase and therefore the loss of elastic energy FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 LOWER VS UPPER BODY PLYOMETRICS LOWER BODY: It appears that a relatively small amount of plyometric training is required to improve performance in jumping: 1 or 2 types of plyometric exercise completed 1-3 times a week for 6-12 weeks can significantly improve motor performance. Additionally, only a small amount of volume is required to bring about these positive changes i.e. 2-4 sets of 10 repetitions per session or 4 sets of 8 repetitions. UPPER BODY PLYOMETRICS has received less attention. 3 sessions of plyometrics a week has been shown to increase upper body power as measured by medicine ball throws. PLYOMETRICS AND CONCURRENT STRENGTH TRAINING It appears that concurrent resistance and plyometrics training can actually improve power to a greater extent than either one alone. Plyometric training should be preceded by strength training to reduce the risk of injury to the muscle-tendon complex and increase the quality and quantity of type II fibres. However, the overall program should be carefully planned as heavy weight training and plyometric training are not recommended on the same day. PLYOMETRICS AND INJURY If injuries are more likely to occur it may be due to: 1. Drop / Depth jumps from too great a height. 2. Improper landing (technique) 3. Landing surface The terms “Depth Jump” and “Drop Jump” are usually understood as synonyms and both of them are used to name the same exercise: A jump executed by droping from a height with vertical rebound. BUT… There are some differences... FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 DROP JUMP VS DEPTH JUMP Drop Jump should be performed trying to obtain the maximal height of rebound with minimal ground contact time. The short ground contact time is considered to be the fundamental condition for the elastic energy recoil. Drop Jump should be performed from 20 to 60 cm. Depth Jump should be performed trying to obtain the highest height of vertical rebound using the overhead goal. The ground contact time should be short, but it should be the optimal time to allow the athlete express the maximal explosive effort in take-off phase. Depth Jump should be performed from the drop height of 75 cm (or even 1.10 m when this exercise is used to increase maximum strength). Drop Jumps mostly improve the athlete’s capacity to utilize the elastic energy recoil during the reversal phase of SSC movements. Depth Jumps mostly increase the explosive strength and improve the athlete’s ability to express the highest explosive strength effort in specific take-off movements. THE HEIGHT OF THE DROP JUMP Drop jumps from 50cm, 80cm and 100cm improved power to the same extent. There may be little or no added benefits of jumping from heights above 50cm even though the risk of injury is likely to rise. The height of the drop should be regulated first based on the preparation level of the gymnast but a good place to start is the height of an athlete's countermovement vertical jump. LANDING Landing mechanics are crucial to the safety of the gymnast. The gymnast should land on the balls of the feet, ankles dorsiflexed, knees in line with the toes. Back and shoulders directly over the toes. Every major joint should be slightly flexed to help absorb the ground contact. TECHNICAL PREP FOR PROPER LANDING FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 LANDING SURFACE Landing surface is an important component of the plyometrics session: It should possess adequate shock absorbing properties such as gymnastics floor (artistic, rhythmic, aerobic...), grass, rubber mats and a suspended floor. Concrete, tiles, hardwood and crash mats are not suitable. EXERCISE INTENSITY The intensity of plyometric exercises varies greatly. Skipping exercises are relatively light – classified as low intensity. Single leg bounds and reactive drop jumps are the most intense of the plyometric exercises. INTENSITY OF VARIOUS PLYOMETRIC EXCERCISES Exercise Type Intensity Drop Jump (80 – 120 cm) High Bounding exercises Submaximal Drop Jump (20 – 50 cm) Moderate Low impact jumps / throws Low PROGRESSION A program should progress gradually from lower intensity drills to more advanced plyometric exercises particularly in individuals with less significant strength training experience. A typical session may contain only two or three lower body plyometric exercises interspersed with upper body plyometric drills. Consider also the trampoline as a potential alternative. Correct exercise selection is essential! Increasing the load by adding additional weight thought weighted vests of ankle weights for example, is not recommended. Too great a load can reduce the speed and quality of movement negating the effects of plyometrics. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 LOWER BODY PLYOMETRICS LOW INTENSITY - Skipping rope - Running - Jump to box - Squat jumps - Side jumps LOWER BODY PLYOMETRICS MODERATE INTENSITY - Split squat jumps - Tuck jumps - Lateral box push offs - Lateral hurdle jumps - Bounding - Lateral bounding LOWER BODY PLYOMETRICS HIGH INTENSITY - Single leg tuck jumps - Single leg lateral hops - Straddle jumps - Drop jumps UPPER BODY PLYOMETRIC DRILLS Upper body plyometric drills allow maximum power to be generated because, unlike barbells or dumbbells, the medicine ball can be released into the air. Plyometric drills can be used to convert an athlete´s maximal strength training into sport- specific power helping to further improve performance. VOLUME Plyometric volume relates to the number of repetitions per session. For lower body exercises a repetition is a ground contact. PLYOMETRIC VOLUME PER SESSION Experience Ground Contact Beginner 80 - 100 Intermediate 100 - 120 Advanced 120 - 140 FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 FREQUENCY Typically, 2-3 sessions of plyometrics can be completed in a week. Recovery time between sessions is recommended at 48-72 hours. Plyometric training should not be scheduled for the day after a heavy weight training session when muscles may still be sore. The phase of the training program will also determine how many plyometric training sessions are suitable per week. REST INTERVALS The effectiveness of a plyometric training session depends on maximal effort and a high speed of movement for each repetition. Rest intervals between repetitions and sets should be long enough to allow almost complete recovery. As much as 5-10 seconds may be required between drop jumps. A work to rest ratio of 1:10 is recommended. (For example, if a set of bounds takes 30 seconds to complete, the rest interval between sets would be 300 seconds or 5 minutes). SAFTEY CONSIDERATIONS An adequate warm up is required before completing a plyometric training session. Strength conditions: It has been suggested that athletes should be able to complete: 1 RM squat a weight 1.5 times that of their bodyweight for lower body plyometrics. 1 RM bench press a weight 1-1.5 times bodyweight for upper body plyometrics. Balance is also an important factor in the safe performance of plyometric exercises: Gymnasts can stand on one leg for 30 seconds in order to complete less intense exercises. For more advanced exercises they should be able to stand on one leg for 30 seconds in a semi-squat position. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 PLYOMETRIC TRAINING – CHILDEREN Even children routinely perform jumping movements as part of unstructured play...... Plyometric training is contraindicated in pre-pubescent children as it may cause damage to the epiphyseal plates that have yet to close. However, to be effective, plyometric training requires numerous, repeated maximal efforts. Most young athletes can benefit from using a 30-45 cm platform. It is the structured nature of training that may pose an over-training risk to younger individuals. The landing surface must possess adequate shock absorbing qualities. SUMMARY When to Do Plyometrics It should not be done every day or all year, depending on goals. - Periodization - Pre-season Sport-Specific Quality, Not Quantity As the SSC mechanism may be negatively influenced by fatigue, the quality of movements should always be a critical factor in assessing performance. More does not mean better Keep the repetitions low, possibly 5 to 10, and quit before you feel like you cannot be explosive in the movement. Progression of intensity and volume 1. Increase volume before intensity. 2. Once volume is maximized, then ramp up the intensity. Focus on Posture and Form Watch your body posture. Use the strength in your torso to keep your spine in neutral alignment. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 FATIGUE Decreased capacity to work and reduced efficiency of performance. The inability of the muscles to maintain the required level of strength during exercises. Is closely related to the percentage of VO2max that a particular workload demands. From a neuromuscular point of view, the fatigue is defined as an exercise-induced reduction in maximal voluntary muscle force and may be due to peripheral changes at the level of the muscle, but also at the level of the central nervous system, rest reverses it. TYPES OF FATIGUE Types: Psychological - Depends on emotional state of individual Muscular - Results from ATP depletion Synaptic - Occurs in neuromuscular junction due to lack of acetylcholine. MUSCLE FATIGUE Muscle fatigue is caused due to the accumulation of Lactic Acid. During vigorous physical activity, glucose is broken down and oxidized into pyruvate and then converted to lactate in the muscle. When the production of lactate from the pyruvate is faster than the body can process it, lactate concentrations rise in the muscle. This causes muscle fatigue. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 LACTATE RESPONSE LACTIC ACID Causes Fatigue Irritation of local muscle. Decreased pH of cellular environment & bloodstream. Training increases lactate tolerance and decreases lactate formation at any given workload (by 20-30%). BLOOD LACTATE THRESHOLD Lactate appearance in the bloodstream. Indicates the moment when anaerobic metabolism is more required than the aerobic one. Point at which lactate begins to dramatically increase in the blood stream (55% VO2max). Lactate formation contributes to fatigue. Fatigue increases exponentially. Caused by increase in anaerobic metabolism → Lactate production. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 POWERFUL predictor of aerobic exercise performance. HIGHER LT = BETTER PERFORMANCE; less LA build up, less fatigue. LT depends on GENETICS (Aerobic Capacity, Muscle Fiber Type). LT adapts to TRAINING. A greater aerobic capacity because of higher practice volume. Effect of gymnastics training (high volume of strength) might be the delay of the LT → VO2max is not considered a limiting factor from a performance perspective (Jemni et al. 2006). When we exercising using the anaerobic systems (either immediately when we start exercising or when we are working at high intensity) a large amounts of lactate is released and accumulates. When O2 consumption doesn’t meet the O2 demand, lactate accumulates in the muscles. Trained athletes can and aim to increase their tolerance to lactic acid accumulation. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 BLOOD LACTATE CONCENTRATION Blood lactate reduce performance also locally in a working muscle, not only when whole-body VO2max is over a threshold: e.g. some gymnastics arm exercises have relatively low oxygen consumption requirements but large presence of blod lactate locally. RECOVERY Light activity accelerates recovery Increased blood flow to muscle, liver, and heart. - All can oxidize lactate for energy. Gymnasts who are able to recover more efficiently between a series of skills are more likely: - To sustain a higher level of performance. - To reduce their risk of injury through fatigue. PERCEPTION OF FATIGUE Is related with decreasing of glycogen concentration. If the gymnast has more muscular glycogen he/she could work more and delay the fatigue perception. To improve this glycogen concentration it´s recommended muscular endurance training. This is related to achieve a better conditions for training. Better conditions for training allows improve the quality of your training sessions. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 MUSCULAR ENDUCANCE Muscular endurance = ability to resist fatigue. While the competitive setting does not require a large capacity in muscular endurance, training for gymnastics does. However, muscular endurance training presents several problems in gymnastics, as is characterized by high-intensity efforts that must be reproduced during training sessions. PROBLEMS 1. In a sport that already has a problem with overuse injuries, endurance training adds to this problem because it requires high repetitions. 2. The cellular processes of anaerobic energy production (muscle endurance) do not fully develop before puberty …& the benefits from the effort are far less than for adults - as opposed to aerobic endurance training, in which prepubertal athletes respond similar to adults. 3. Gymnasts require extensive strength training - but it is counterproductive to train for muscular endurance & strength at the same time (fast twitch versus slow twitch fibre training) SOLUTIONS 1. Use endurance-type training early in career to prepare muscle, connective tissue & joints for future training. It is generally prudent to start with higher repetitions & lower loads & then slowly reduce repetitions while increasing force(load). 2. After 1 or 2 years of light resistance - high repetition training (both for endurance & for skill acquisition) reducemuscular endurance training & begin strength training seriously. Increasing strength increases endurance. Example: If you can only perform 5 repetitions of a certain load (90% RM) &.... Then you increase your strength so that the same load is now 80% RM, then you will be able to perform 10 repetitions. Thus increasing muscular endurance by increasing strength. FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 TYPICAL ‘SUPERCOMPENSATION’ MODEL STAGES OF FATIGUE 1. Training Stress 2. Overstrain 3. Training Overload 4. Over-reaching 5. Overtraining TIME FRAME OF RECOVERY 1. Training Stress < 24 hrs 2. Overstrain 3-5 days* 3. Training Overload 5-7 days 4. Over-reaching 10 - 14 days 5. Overtraining >28 days / *peak soreness, 24-48 hrs FIG 2 PHYSIOLOGY 1 SUMMARY Fatigue is the inability of the muscles to maintain the required level of strength during exercises. Muscular fatigue results from ATP depletion. Is closely related to the percentage of VO2max that a particular workload demands. Muscle fatigue is caused due to the accumulation of Lactic Acid. Training increases lactate tolerance. Blood lactate threshold indicates the moment when anaerobic metabolism is more required than the aerobic one. Blood lactate reduce performance also locally in a working muscle. Muscular endurance = ability to resist fatigue. The study of fatigue during training and competitions is becoming a very useful tool to avoid possible injuries. FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 This lecture is devoted to understanding 7 “Principles or truths” that explain how training stimuli affect the body’s tissues. Training Theory These principles apply to all aspects of physical preparation and therefore should influence all the details of training plans. FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 PRINCIPLES – TISSUES ADAPTING TO TRAINING STIMULI 1. Adaptation is SPECIFIC to DEMAND (stimulus). 2. The magnitude of the stimulus must PROGRESSIVELY OVERLOAD. 3. Adaptations are REVERSIBLE. Training 4. Adaptations Differ between INDIVIDUALS. Theory 5. VARIATION. A continued stimulus produces a decrease in response (ACCOMMODATION). 6. Insufficient RECOVERY reduces training effect. 7. Expect DIMINISHING adaptation at high levels. TRAINING THEORY FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 SPECIFICITY 1. Adaptation is SPECIFIC to DEMAND(stimulus). Training Theory Follow the S_A_I_D principle (SAID) SPECIFIC ADAPTATION to IMPOSED DEMAND Neuromuscular adaptations are highly specific to the particular training stimuli. This is true for strength, muscular endurance &, of course, skill learning. Increasing strength in isolation from the desired movement patterns may produce big, but dumb, muscles. The muscles will increase in size, & in strength, but not in function (coordination, power, speed). Therefore, make your physical preparation training for skills SPECIFIC as to: 1. Speed of movement of the skill 2. Rate of force development of the skill 3. Duration of movement of the skill 4. Contraction Type of the skill 5. Movement Pattern 4. Contraction Type of the skill Isometric – no movement Concentric - muscle shortens Eccentric – muscle lengthens Plyometric – fast + stretch-shortening cycle FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 5. Movement Pattern Copy the movement pattern of the skill as closely as possible when designing physical preparation exercises. Open versus closed kinetic chains Similar ranges of movement “The best drill for the skill… is the skill.” 5. Movement Pattern - Open vs Closed Kinetic chains The open kinetic chain involves exercises with not fixed distal points of the body (hands and feet). They are directly influenced by gravity and need more stabilization work. The closed kinetic chain involves exercises with multi-joint movements with fixed distal extremity and ensure agonist and antagonist muscles contraction in order to provide higher joint stabilization. PHYSICAL PREPARATION TRAINING FOR SKILLS AS CLOSE AS POSSIBLE TO 1. Skill Speed 2. Skill rate of Force 3. Skill duration 4. Skill contraction type 5. Skill movement pattern FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 THE STORY OF MYELIN AND ITS ROLE IN THE LEARNING PROCESS Q: What is Myelin? A: It is a lipid-rich substance that wraps around nerve cells axons. Q: What does it do? A: Insulates the circuits allowing the electrical impulses to run faster between the nervous system cells. It’s absence or deterioration is responsible for multiple sclerosis. Q: In what way this is related to coaching? A: Myelin acts like broadband internet. The more Myelin wrapping the circuit, the more insulated and faster and precise is the information that flows from the nerve cells to the muscles. Q: How does it work? A: Roughly, every time you perform something outside your comfort zone - meaning, inside your learning zone - , Myelin“adds” a new layer. Every time you perform CORRECTLY a new skill, with the appropriate technique, Myelin is there, helping you to learn, making that knowledge to travel faster and accurately to your muscles. In the same way, if the technique is poor, and there are mistakes, the same layer is add, promoting the same kind of error to travel fast from the brain to the muscle… this is why it is so tough to break down systemic errors. Now, imagine (just imagine) that, for every repetition, myelin wraps one sheath involving the axon. Imagine it is getting faster to transmit the information every time you repeat it. Do you really want to allow a bad repetition? FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 3. PROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD 2. The magnitude of the stimulus must PROGRESSIVELY OVERLOAD You can expect a training adaptation if you train frequently at a level above your normal habitual level. But once the adaptation (change) is complete, the stimuli must be increased if further adaptation is to occur. Thus you must Progressively Overload the body’s tissues. Progressively Overload components: 1. Time Increase Frequency of training - sessions for strength… 2 per week, then 3, then 4… Increase Duration of each training - session: 15 minutes, then 20, 30, 40… 2. Volume Increase number of repetitions Increase number of sets (of reps) SETS - 2-3 sessions per week for 2 weeks EXERCISES - 6 exercises, 8-10 reps. each x 1 set DURATION - Increase to 2 sets for 2 weeks - Increase to 8 exercisesx 2 x 2 weeks - Increase to 8 exercises x 3 x 3 weeks FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 3. Intensity (most important component) TIME Percentage of maximum - For power training, slowly increase effort until at 90% 1RM (or 5 reps) VOLUME - And then progressively increase load to stay at that intensity INTENSITY Volume in a given time - Reps ÷ time sets ÷ time All components can be used separately or combined with each other. 4. REVERSIBILITY 3. Adaptations are REVERSIBLE. All of the biological adaptations to training are reversible, meaning that they will return to their pre-training levels if training ceases. The rates of reversibility are different for Each of the physical attributes The level of training necessary to maintain a given level of adaptation. FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 5. INDIVIDUAVILITY 4. Adaptations Differ between INDIVIDUALS. The adaptations of biological tissue to training stimuli is different for each individual. In all our …one athlete may respond quickly to a given stimuli & another diversity… athlete may respond slowly. For this reason, it is important to monitor your training LOAD & make adjustments on an individual athlete basis. LOAD MANAGEMENT (what to measure, how to measure) 1. Internal Load 1. Rate of Perceived Exertion (we will get here soon) 2. Heart Rate 3. Lactate 4. VO2 max 2. External Load 1. Number of repetitions 2. Number of sets 3. Distance run (m) 4. Load lifted (kg) FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 LOAD MANAGEMENT – Holy Grail of Training Science We can know a lot of Biomechanics / Technique, Nutrition and Psychology, we can even have the help of multi-disciplinary professionals but it is the measure of what we know and understand about TRAINING LOADS that will make us (even) better coaches. 1. LOAD prescription on individual basis. 2. Control and adjust LOADS periodically. 3. Close connection between Internal and External LOAD. 4. Understand the relationship between LOAD and injury risk (rate). 5. Never neglect psychological LOAD. Rate of Perceived Exertion (non-invasive tool to measure internal loads) Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) is a way to measure the level of exertion a person feels during physical activity. RPE is a useful tool that helps people manage the intensity of their physical exercise. (When reporting RPE, it is frequently used the revised 10-steps “Borg Rating of Perceived Exertion Scale”). Rate of Perceived Exertion How does it work? 1. After training, gymnasts gives a score to the training session or exercise perceived “LOAD” – 0 (no training) to 10. 2. Then, multiply that score by number of minutes of the training session (duration). 3. That will give the gymnast a total score that relates the perceived “load” with the duration of the exercise or session. 4. That number is easily compared and used to adjust training loads and to understand injury risks. Borg Scale adapted to a Marathon training FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 Q: In what way is RPE a helping tool? A: By its own it gives us the information of the “LOAD PERCEPTION” of the gymnast related to the training session (or exercise or drill). Q: How it works in practice? A: RPE x Duration (min) = LOAD; for example, if a training session is scored with a 6 in the RPE-scale and the training was 3h long (180 min) you have a perceived LOAD of 1080 units of LOAD (6x180=1080). This value of 1080 is our ACUTE WORKLOAD RATIO. THE KEY VALUE IS THE RATIO BETWEEN ACUTE (Fatigue) AND CHRONIC (Fitness) WORKLOAD: ACUTE / CHRONIC. ACUTE workload is short term and is a measure of FATIGUE. CHRONIC workload is long term and is a measure of FITNESS. FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 A:C ratio = ACUTE (Fatigue) / CHRONIC (Fitness) WORKLOAD RATIO = 1 week total LOAD / 4 weeks average LOAD. Let’s have a practical example: WEEK 5 = 6 training sessions in a week of 1000 workload (6 trainings x 1000) = 6000 units. Average of the last 4 weeks [(5000+6000+4000+7000)/4] is 5500 units. A:C workload is 1,10 (110%) So, in that in that specific week 5 the LOAD was a bit higher than the general “Fitness” - this means… PROGRESSIVE WORKLOAD!!). Acute / Chronic Week 5 1.10 Week 6 0.99 Week 7 1.13 Week 8 0.90 FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 Acute / Chronic Week 5 1.10 Week 6 0.99 Week 7 1.13 Week 8 0.90 Sweet spot for low injury risk 6. VARIATION 5. VARIATION. A continued stimulus produces a decrease in response (ACCOMMODATION). The nervous system tends to accommodate (habituate) to unchanging stimuli. That is, the adaptation to the stimuli lessens. For this reason… It is important to periodically (monthly) vary any stimulus. In the case of strength training this means that the exercises should be changed periodically to ensure continued optimal adaptation. REMEMBER… You can use the PROGRESSIVELY OVERLOAD training principle. Changing Time, Volume and Intensity… OR you can change the exercise complexity. FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 7. RECOVERY 6. Insufficient RECOVERY reduces training effect. In order for the body’s tissues to adapt to a training load, the load(s) need to be of sufficient magnitude to elicit an adaptive response. In turn, there must be sufficient recovery time before the next load is applied, otherwise the adaptation to the load will not be optimal. In general, For strength training, one should allow a work to rest ratio of 1:5-6. That is, after 10 seconds loading, wait 50-60 sec. before 2nd loading. Between subsequent heavy strength training sessions a sufficient recovery time is necessary for optimal adaptation. This recovery time, of course, varies between individuals but is generally around 36 - 48 hours. Regeneration practices such as massage, sauna, etc. appear to increase recovery thus reducing recovery time. Again… Each individual varies & testing is essential (remember RPE). Simple Method to evaluate some RECOVERY indicators: Well-Being questionnaires What to measure: Fatigue / Muscle Soreness / Sleep / Mood / Stress Use simple 1-5 scales where 1 is a negative (bad) indicator and 5 is a positive (maximal, perfect) indicator. This method can provide individual, reliable, daily, feedback on the general wellness of the gymnast. On the downside it is subjective (but you can use it on an individual basis and have something to compare) FIG 2 PHYSOIOLOGY 2 And: You can integrate it with RPE! Then you will get a “full picture” of the training impact, the general wellness, psychological factors, stress and fatigue of your gymnast. Every day! 8 DIMINISHING RETURNS 7. Expect DIMINISHING adaptation at high levels. As gymnasts attain superior physical conditioning levels, the rate of positive adaptations will begin to slow. That is, for the same effort, less gain (adaptation) will result. Knowing this helps coaches & athletes overcome frustration. To guarantee that the gymnast still have motivation (the direction, intensity and persistence of effort). Loads must be increased, recovery practices must be more sophisticated. This is the time for greater variation, when novel & shock stimuli should be introduced to overcome staleness & plateaus. Balance between Skills (capabilities) and Challenge (tasks) will lead to optimum performance. FIG 2 PSYCOLOGY 1 INTRODUCTION Psychology is “the study of the mind and behavior” (American Psychological Association). Especially in technical sports, psychological factors play a central role when it comes to topics such as personality and performance development. In this lecture you gain fundamental knowledge on leadership and communication, personality development and performance routines, all of which we think are important topics for young athletes in technical sports. 1. Leadership & communication LEADERSHIP “[...] is the art and science of influencing others through credibility, and commitment.” (Murray, & Mann, 2006) COMMUNICATION Communication is all behavior in an interactional situation. (Watzlawick, Beavin, & Jackson 2017). Leadership Leadership as a coach is special, complex, challenging, important… FIG 2 PSYCOLOGY 1 Leadership - Styles Transformational = “[...]the leader takes a visionary position and inspires people to follow that vision [...]. [...] having the ability to motivate and inspire followers to achieve new heights.” (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011, p. 214) Transactional = “[...]behaviours aiming to establish a clear relation between what athletes have to do and what they will get in return [...], and supervision behaviours, that is, before an athlete’s mistake [...] and after an athlete’s mistake […].” (Álvarez, Castillo, Molina-García, & Balague, 2016, p.319) Laissez-faire = non-transactional/non-leadership Autocratic = “[...]typically win oriented, tightly structured, and task oriented.” (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011, p. 219) Democratic = “[...]typically athlete centered, cooperative, and relationship oriented.” (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011, p. 219) (Avolio, & Bass, 1991; Weinberg, & Gould, 2011) Transformational leadership “[...]a vision centered and values driven form of leadership.” (Den Hartog, 2019) Behaviours/characteristics: 1. Inspirational motivation 2. Idealized attributes 3. Idealized behaviours 4. Individualized consideration 5. Intellectual stimulation (Álvarez, Castillo, Molina-Garcia, & Balague, 2016) FIG 2 PSYCOLOGY 1 Behavioural guidelines Guidelines for “good” leadership behaviour: Consideration of the three basic needs (autonomy, competence, relatedness; Ryan, & Deci, 2017). Precondition: Empathy. Pay special attention to autonomy-supportive behaviour (Koka et al. 2020). Treat your athletes with appreciation. Responsible monitoring and consideration of all stress factors of the athletes in order to create an environment supportive for performance. Communication Communicating modalities: 1. Verbal (audible communication: vocabulary, grammar, etc.) 2. Non-verbal (visible communication: body language, facial expression, etc. and audible communication: volume, speaking rate) 50-70% is non-/paraverbal (Weinberg, & Gould, 2011) Listening Guidelines for a “good” listener behaviour: Focus on the person who is talking. Listen for both feelings and content. Be attentive, genuine, and supportive. Summarize the main points. (Yukelson, 2006) FIG 2 PSYCOLOGY 1 COACHING Coaching in different contexts For children Follow an inclusive focus on the child. Teach and assess the development of fundamental movement by focusing on the child first. For young adolescents Teach “rules of competition”. Teach and assess physical, technical, perceptual, mental skills. For Young Adolescents and adults Promote the development of fitness and health-related physical activities. Teach an assess sport specific skills for long-term sport involvement. For older adolescents and adults Prepare athletes for consistent high-level competitive performance. Teach an assess sport specific skills for long-term sport involvement. Provide opportunities for athletes to prepare for “life after sport”. (Côté, & Gilbert, 2009) FIG 2 PSYCOLOGY 1 Beha