Qualitative Data Collection Techniques in Research | PDF

Qualitative Data Collection Elvira C. David, PhD, RPsy., RGC., RPm.  Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies 1. Convenience and Snowball Sampling Volunteer Sampling – when researchers need participants to come forward to identify themselves. Nominated Sampling – relies on the nominat...

Qualitative Data Collection Elvira C. David, PhD, RPsy., RGC., RPm.  Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies 1. Convenience and Snowball Sampling Volunteer Sampling – when researchers need participants to come forward to identify themselves. Nominated Sampling – relies on the nominations or referrals of others already in the sample. Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies 2. Purposive Sampling The qualitative researchers strive to select sample members purposefully based on the information needs emerging from the early findings. Strategies for Purposive Sampling (Patton, 2015) a. Maximum variation sampling involves purposefully selecting cases with a range of variation on dimensions of interest. b. Homogenous sampling involves a deliberate reduction of variation to permit a more focused inquiry. c. Typical case sampling involves selecting participants who will illustrate or highlight what is typical or average. Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies d. Extreme/deviant case sampling provides opportunities for learning from the most unusual and extreme informants (e.g., outstanding successes and notable features). e. Criterion sampling involves studying cases that meet a predetermined criterion of importance. f. Sampling of confirming and disconfirming cases Confirming cases are additional cases that fit researchers’ conceptualizations and offer enhanced credibility. Disconfirming cases are new cases that do not fit and serve to challenge researchers’ interpretations. Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies 3. Theoretical Sampling is a method of sampling that is most often used in grounded theory studies. is a process of data collection for generating theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, codes, and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges (Glaser, 1978). The purpose is to discover categories and their properties and to offer interrelationships that occur in the substantive theory. Strategies for Selection of Samples and Cases Considerations in Sample Size in Qualitative Studies Data saturation is the guiding principle in qualitative sampling. A small number of informants can generate a large sample for analysis (i.e. the “incidents” or experiences are the basis for analysis) Final sampling decisions generally take place during data collection. For ethnographic studies, 25-50 informants; phenomenology, 10 or lower; grounded theory studies, 20-30 people. Sample Description in Qualitative Studies The research report should include a description of the following aspects of the sample: 1. The type of sampling procedure 2. The population under study and the eligibility (inclusion) criteria for sample selection 3. The number of participants in the study and a rationale for the sample size * Example for qualitative research Forms of Qualitative Data Collection Observations Interviews and questionnaires Documents Audiovisual materials Observation Observation is the process of gathering open-ended, firsthand information by observing people and places at a research site. Advantages To record information as it occurs in a setting, to study actual behavior, and to study individuals who have difficulty verbalizing their ideas (e.g., preschool children). Disadvantages limited to sites and situations where you can gain access, and in those sites, you may have difficulty developing rapport with individuals. Observation Requires: Good listening skills and careful attention to visual detail Management of issues potential deception by people being observed initial awkwardness of being an “outsider” without initial personal support in a setting Observation Roles 1. Participant Observer Researchers take part in activities in the setting they observe. Assume the role of an “inside” observer who actually engages in activities at the study site. While participating in activities, you record information. This role requires seeking permission to participate in activities and assuming a comfortable role as observer in the setting. Observation Roles 2. Nonparticipant Observer Observer visits a site and records notes without becoming involved in the activities of the participants. An “outsider” who sits on the periphery or some advantageous place (e.g., the back of the classroom) to watch and record the phenomenon under study. However, by not actively participating, you will remove yourself from actual experiences, and the observations you make may not be as concrete as if you had participated in the activities. Observation Roles 3. Changing Observational Roles Researchers adapt their role to the situation. First observe as a nonparticipant, then slowly becoming involved as a participant, or vice versa. Engaging in both roles permits you to be subjectively involved in the setting as well as to see the setting more objectively. The Process of Observing 1. Select a site. Obtain the required permissions needed 2. Ease into the site slowly; getting a general sense of the site; taking limited notes. 3. Identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe. Ask gatekeepers. 4. Determine, initially, your role as an observer. 5. Conduct multiple observations over time for better understanding. 6. Design some means for recording field notes during an observation. 7. Consider what information you will record during an observation. 8. Record descriptive and reflective fieldnotes. 9. Make yourself known but remain unobtrusive. Be introduced by someone if you are an “outsider”. Be passive, be friendly, and be respectful. 10. After observing, slowly withdraw from the site. Thank the participants and inform them of the use of the data and the availability of results. The Process of Observing Fieldnotes are text (words) recorded by the researcher during an observation in a qualitative study. Descriptive fieldnotes record a description of the events, activities, and people (what happened). Reflective fieldnotes record personal thoughts that researchers have that relate to their insights, hunches, or broad ideas or themes that emerge during the observation Interviews A qualitative interview occurs when researchers ask one or more participants general, open-ended questions and record their answers. An open-ended response to a question allows the participant to create the options for responding. participants can best voice their experiences unconstrained by any perspectives of the researcher or past research findings. Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions One-on One Interviews Focus Group Interviews Telephone Interviews E-Mail Interviews Open-Ended Questions on Questionnaires Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions One-on-One Interviews Most time-consuming and costly approach One-on-one interviews are ideal for interviewing participants who are not hesitant to speak, who are articulate, and who can share ideas comfortably.  Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions Focus Group Interview is the process of collecting data through interviews with a group of people, typically four to six. The researcher asks a small number of general questions and elicits responses from all individuals in the group. When conducting a focus group interview, encourage all participants to talk and to take their turns talking. Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions Focus Group Interview Advantage: The interaction among interviewees will likely yield the best information and when interviewees are similar and cooperative with each other. Useful when the time to collect information is limited and individuals are hesitant to provide information. Disadvantage: Can be challenging for the interviewer who lacks control over the interview discussion. When focus groups are audiotaped, the transcriptionist may have difficulty discriminating among the voices of individuals in the group. The researcher often has difficulty taking notes because so much is occurring. Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions E-Mail Interviews useful in collecting qualitative data quickly from a geographically dispersed group of people. E-mail interviews consist of collecting open- ended data through interviews with individuals using computers and the Internet. Ethical issues: permission for individuals to participate in the interview protecting the privacy of responses. Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions Open-Ended Questions on Questionnaires Advantage: your predetermined closed-ended responses can net useful information to support theories and concepts in the literature. The open-ended responses permit you to explore reasons for the closed-ended responses and identify any comments people might have that are beyond the responses to the closed-ended questions. Disadvantage: Too have many responses to analyze. Responses are detached from the context and responses may not represent a fully developed database with rich detail as is often gathered in qualitative research. To analyze open-ended responses, look for overlapping themes in the open-ended data and some researchers count the number of themes or the number of times that the participants mention the themes. Conducting Interviews 1. Identify the interviewees and determine the type of interview to use. 2. During the interview, audiotape the questions and responses. Take brief notes during the interview. 3. Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting the interview. 4. Obtain consent from the interviewee to participate in the study. Convey the purpose of the study, length of the interview, the plans for using the results, and the availability of a summary of the study. 5. Have a plan but be flexible. Follow the conversation of the interviewee. 6. Use probes – subquestions used to elicit more information, to clarify points or expand on ideas. 7. Be courteous and professional when the interview is over. Thanking the participant, ensure confidentiality of the responses, and ask if they would like a summary of the results of the study. Documents Documents consist of public and private records obtained from a site or participants in a study can include newspapers, minutes of meetings, personal journals, and letters. Guidelines for Collecting Documents 1. Identify the types of documents that can provide useful information 2. Consider both public (e.g., school board minutes) and private documents (e.g., personal diaries) 3. Once the documents are located, seek permission to use them. 4. If you ask participants to keep a journal, provide specific instructions about the procedure including topic, format to use, the length entries, and the importance of writing their thoughts legibly. 5. Once you have permission to use documents, examine them for accuracy, completeness, and usefulness. 6. Record information from the documents. This can include taking notes or, if possible, optically scanning them to create a file for each document. Audiovisual Materials Audiovisual materials consist of images or sounds that researchers collect to help them understand the central phenomenon under study. Include photographs, videotapes, digital images, paintings and pictures, and unobtrusive measures (e.g., evidence deduced from a setting, such as footsteps in the snow) Advantage: People easily relate to images because they are so pervasive in our society. Images provide an opportunity for the participants to share directly their perceptions of reality. Images such as videotapes and films provide extensive data about real life as people visualize it. Disadvantage: Images can be difficult to analyze because of the rich information Researcher may influence the data collected. Photo elicitation participants are shown pictures (their own or those taken by the researcher) and asked to discuss the contents. Procedures for Recording Data Using Protocols For observations and interviews, qualitative inquirers use specially designed protocols. Data recording protocols are forms designed and used by qualitative researchers to record information during observations and interviews. Interview Protocol a form designed by the researcher that contains instructions for the process of the interview, the questions to be asked, and space to take notes of responses from the interviewee. Observational Protocol a form designed by the researcher before data collection that is used for taking fieldnotes during an observation. On this form, researchers record a chronology of events, a detailed portrait of an individual or individuals, a picture or map of the setting, or verbatim quotes of individuals. Ethical Issues Identifying guidelines for ethical practices Reviewing key issues likely to arise informing participants of the purpose of the study refraining from deceptive practices sharing information with participants (including your role as a researcher) being respectful of the research site Reciprocity using ethical interview practices maintaining confidentiality collaborating with participants Ethical Issues Confidentiality and Anonymity assigning numbers or aliases in the process of analyzing and reporting data. develop a composite picture of the group than focus on individuals Deception Permitted only if the results would be confounded if participant had much information before taking part in the study Researcher must ensure participants do not unexpectedly suffer distress; otherwise, study is immediately stopped. Ethical Issues Vulnerable Populations Represent high-risk populations and are carefully reviewed as participants by institutional review boards. quest for information should be tempered by proper ethical constraints aimed at protecting the participants. Sensitive Information When the participant shares information “off the record.” The issue may become a problem if not disclosing this information would harm individuals. Ethical Issues Issues arising from Participant Observation/Group Participation When researchers adopt practices of the individuals they are studying, there can be problems if the participants are engaging in risky or inappropriate behavior. Disruption of the Research Site Presence of the researcher may disrupt the individuals or groups at the site Ethical Issues Respect for Participants The need to collect data in a way that respects the indigenous culture of groups means respecting during data collection the indigenous character of people that might call for rights to traditional lands, including fishing rights, harvesting rights, or hunting rights. Ethical Issues Handling Distressing Information Participants may disclose sensitive and potentially distressing information during the interview. Potential for emotional turmoil (researcher) in processing this information. Measures: debriefing sessions, support groups, distress protocols Ethical Issues Participants as Coresearchers and Researchers as Participants participants may act as coresearchers who help create and approve of the accuracy of the research. In cases such as these, participants may also wish to use their own name instead of a pseudonym. If the participants choose to use their names and have carefully weighed the consequences, can the researcher (or institutional review board) require the coresearchers to conceal their identity? References: Creswell, J.W. (2019). Educational research : planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (6th Edition). Pearson Education. Creswell, J., & Creswell, D. (2018). Research design: Qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods approaches (4th ed.) Sage Publications.