The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production 2014 PDF

The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production AboutPCAARRD The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) is one of the sectoral councils under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). PCAARRD was established on June 22, 2011 th...

The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production AboutPCAARRD The Philippine Council for Agriculture, Aquatic and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCAARRD) is one of the sectoral councils under the Department of Science and Technology (DOST). PCAARRD was established on June 22, 2011 through the consolidation of the Philippine Council for Agriculture, Forestry and Natural Resources Research and Development (PCARRD) and the Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development (PCAMRD). The Council formulates policies, plans, and programs for science and technology (S&T)-based research and development (R&D) in the different sectors under its concern. It coordinates, evaluates, and monitors the national R&D efforts in the agriculture, aquatic, and natural resources (AANR) sectors. It also allocates government and external funds for R&D and generates resources to support its program. As a leader in providing S&T solutions for AANR development, PCAARRD promotes active partnerships with international, regional, and national organizations and funding institutions for joint R&D; human resource development and training; technical assistance; and exchange of scientists, information, and technologies. PCAARRD also supports the National Agriculture, Aquatic and Resources Research and Development Network (NAARRDN) composed of nationl multi- and single-commodity and regional R&D centers, cooperating stations, and specialized agencies. Being an ISO 9001:2008-certified agency for its quality management system, PCAARRD is committed to advance and foster partnerships and reinforce the culture of relevance, excellence, and cooperation through its good governance and continual improvement programs. As such, PCAARRD will remain steadfast in catalyzing the Philippine AANR sectors toward self-sufficiency and global competitiveness. MAILING ADDRESS PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, AQUATIC AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines 4030 TELEPHONES Los Banos - (63) (049) 536-0014/536-1956/536-2305/ 536-2383/536-5907/536-6980/536-7927 FAX Los Banos - (63) (049) 536-0016/536-7922 MANILA OFFICE 2F Metrology Center, ITDI, Bicutan. Taguig City TELEFAX (63) (02) 837-1651 E-MAIL [email protected] WEBSITE http://www.pcaarrd.dost.gov.ph A-s·, PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, AQUATIC W , AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH.,,., AND DEVELOPMENT (PCAARRD) Document Code QSF.AC.02 CUSTOMER SATISFACTION FEEDBACK Revision No. 1 (PUBLICATIONS) Effectivity Date March 24, 2014 Name: Agency Affiliation: Customer Type: (Please tick) □ Researcher□ Business/Private Sector Sex: _____ Age: _____ □ Policymaker □ Others (Pis. specify): Email Address: ________ Contact No. _________ This swvey form aims to assess the services that PCAARRD provides and how such services can be improved. Date: _________ Title of Publication: The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production Outstanding Very Satisfactory Fair Unsatisfactory/ Satisfactory Needs - Content □ □ □ □ □ Improvement - Usefulness/ Significance □ □ □ □ □ - Overall layout/ design □ □ □ □ □ - Response& delivery time (Quick and on □ □ □ □ □ time) Please give us specific comments/suggestions on how we can further improve our services. General Comments: Signature of Recipient: __________________ THANK YOU VERY MUCH FOR YOUR FEEDBACK. NOTE: Please detach this form and mail it back to PCAARRD, Paseo de Va/mayor. Timugan. 4030 Los Banos, Laguna. Philippines or through e-mail ([email protected]) m ISO 9001 :2008 OFFICE OF THE EXECUTIVE DIRECTOR Dear Reader: This edition of the p u b l i c ation, The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production, provides farmers, extension workers, instr u ctors, researc hers, and students with the most vit a l info r m ation on the v a r i o us as p e c ts o f pork production i n the country-from selection and breeding, nutrition, waste management, herd and health management to marketing and economics. It also tackles problems and constraints as well as prospects and opportunities of the local swine industry. We hope this volume would be a good reference material for successful and profitable pork production. Sincerely yours, OS.FAYLON Executive Director PCAARRD The Philippines Reco111111ends for Pork Production PCAARRD Philippines Recommends Series No. 13-E PHILIPPINE COUNCIL FOR AGRICULTURE, AQUATIC AND NATURAL RESOURCES RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT (PCAARRD) Department of Science and Technology (DOST) Los Banos, Laguna 2014 First Edition 1976 Second Edition 1996 Third Edition 1999 (Reprinted) Fourth Edition 2005 (Revised) Fifth Edition 2006 (Reprinted) Sixth Edition 2007 (Reprinted) Seventh Edition 2010 (Reprinted) Eighth Edition 2014 (Revised) ISSN 0115-7833 ISBN 971-20-0531-3 Bibliographic Citation: The Pork Pro duction Committee 2004. The Phili p pines recommen ds for pork production. Los Banos, Laguna: PCAARRD-DOST, 2014. 13lp. - (Phili p p ines Recommen ds S eries No. 13-E; Revised). ii Foreword The swine industry is one of the most important among the local animal industries in the country. It contributes about 98% of the country's total pork supply. Pork represents more than 50% of the total animal meat consumed by Filipinos. Over the past few decades, the swine industry contributed more than 70% of the total animal meat output of local animal industries. In 2003, it produced a total of 1,734,090 t of pork, which is valued at P 92.67 billion. The industry provides income to entrepreneurs who are actively engaged in large-scale commercial swine production and employment to farm laborers. Moreover, it also provides income and employment to entrepreneurs and workers engaged in feed grain production and feed milling, distribution of drugs and biologics, meat trading and processing and other support industries. The local swine industry also benefits small farmers in rural, urban, and peri-urban areas through the additional income and the financial security derived from small-scale swine raising activities. Among local animal industries, the swine industry is considered the most dynamic in terms of technological innovations in both large-and small-scale production. Through the application of science and technology (S& T)-based interventions in both large- and small-scale swine farms, productivity, production efficiency, and quality of swine in the country have been significantly improved over the past decade. Today, swine production performance in many farms is kept at par with other swine-producing countries. Notwithstanding the advances and the higher level of sophistication achieved by many swine farms, the local swine industry is still faced with various challenges. Among these challenges are high costs of feeds and other inputs, unabated spread of diseases, and inefficient marketing structures and practices. The globalization of meat markets has also brought new challenges to the local swine industry. Partnerships between and among government agencies and hog raiser groups have been forged to develop strategies and action programs to overcome these challenges. Industry-led collaborative iii programs have been initiated to improve product quality and enhance productivity and production efficiency in both small and large swine farms. Dissemination and adoption of improved swine production technologies in local swine farms are among the major activities that is believed to enhance productivity and production efficiency to ensure global competitiveness of the local swine industry. This edition of the The Philippines Recommends for Pork Production contains comprehensive data and information gathered from research and development (R&D) institutions and local commercial swine farms on various aspects of swine production that are useful in enhancing swine production performance. It is hoped that swine entrepreneurs, extension agents, instructors, researchers, students, and anyone involved in the industry will gain from the wealth of information contained in this volume. Moreover, it is hoped that this publication would contribute to the collective endeavor toward securing the future of the Philippine swine industry. m.FAYLON Executive Director PCAARRD iv Acknowledgment PCAARRD wishes to acknowledge the cooperation and assistance extended by the following persons, institutions, and agencies for the revision of this publication: The technical committee members for drafting this edition; Heads of the Institute of Animal Science-University of the Philippines Los Banos (IAS-UPLB), International Training Center on Pig Husbandry (ITCPH), Pfizer Animal Health and Holiday Hills Stock and Breeding Farm Corporation (HHSBFC) for allowing their staff to serve as members of the technical committee; The committee members who did the previous editions of this publication; John and John Farm and the National Swine and Poultry Research and Development Center, Bureau of Animal Industry (BAI) for providing some photos which appeared in this publication; HHSBFC for providing several photos used in this publication; Staff of the Livestock Research Division (LRD), particularly Mr. Eric E. Perez, Ms. Jasmin A. Malabanan, and Mr. Ricardo A. Mulimbayan for their unselfish assistance; P u b lications Program staff of the Applied Communication Division (ACD) for their valuable assistance in the production and printing of this publication; To all those who in one way or another helped in the preparation of this volume. Without them, the publication of this edition would not have been possible. V vi Contents Foreword iii Acknowledgments v The Pork Production Committee 2004 xiii Glossary of Terms xiv The Philippine Swine Industry 1 General Situation 1 Population Trends 2 Supply and Utilization 4 Live Hog Production 5 Competitiveness of Pork Production in the Philippines 5 Trends in the Industry 6 Projected Demands and New Initiatives in the Industry 7 Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) 8 Selection, Breeds, and Breeding 10 Selection 10 General Recommendations in Selecting Pigs for Breeding 10 Bases of Selection 11 Selecting Boars 11 Selecting Replacement Gilts 12 Culling 12 Common Breeds of Swine in the Philippines 13 The Philippine Native Pig 13 Large White (Yorkshire) 14 Landrace 14 Duroc 15 Pietrain 16 Hybrids 17 Breeding Systems 17 Purebreeding 17 vii  Crossbreeding 18 Inbreeding 19 Swine Breeder Farm Accreditation Program 20 Criteria for Accreditation 20 Reproduction 21 Breeding Age 21 Estrous Cycle 21 Techniques in Heat Detection 22 Pregnancy or Gestation Period 22 Mating Systems 24 Natural Mating 24 Artificial Insemination (AI) 24 Insemination Time 30 Management of Boars 31 Puberty in Boars 32 When to Buy Boars 32 Transporting Newly Purchased Boars 32 Boar Usage 32 Other Considerations 33 Nutrition and Feeding 35 Physiological States Requiring Nutrients 35 Nutrient Classifications According to Function 36 Minerals 36 Vitamins 36 Feed Additives 37 Feeds for Swine 37 Feed Ingredients 37 Feed Processing 39 Cooking 39 Grinding 39 Pelleting 39 Feeding Dry and Pregnant Sows 40 Feeding Lactating Sows 40 Feeding Suckling/Baby Pigs 41 Feeding Starter Pigs 41 Feeding Grower/Finisher Pigs 42 Feeding Breeding Pigs 42 viii Housing and Equipment 43 Building Orientation and Cooling System 43 Roofs 43 Partition Walls and Doors/Gates 44 Housing System 44 Pregestation and boar unit 45 Gestation unit 45 Farrowing unit 45 Growing-Finishing unit 46 Waste Management 47 Waste Management Practices 47 Source Reduction 47 Operational Procedure 47 Technology 48 Infrastructure or Equipment 48 Farm Inputs 49 Waste Re-use and Recycling 49 Re-use as Fertilizer 49 Re-use as Feed 50 Re-use as Energy Source 50 Treatment and Disposal 50 Odor Control 51 Herd Management 53 Effective Management Programs 53 Establishing the Objectives 53 Knowing the Performance and Setting Targets 53 Care of Boars, Dry Sows and Gilts 54 Care of Pregnant Sows and Gilts 55 Care of the Sow and Litter at Farrowing 55 Care of Baby Pigs After Birth 56 Care of Growing-Finishi.Jlg Pigs 60 Pointers in Pig Production 61 Record Keeping 61 Keeping Important Records 62 Herd Health Management 64 Biosecurity Measures 64 ix  Different Causes of Diseases 65 Animal as a Cause 65 Environment as a Cause 66 Non-infectious Causes 66 Infectious Causes 67 Economic Importance of Diseases 67 General Preventive Measures 68 How to Avoid Multiplication of Pathogens 68 Common Post-Farrowing Problems 69 Vulvar Discharge/Metritis 70 Mastitis 70 Agalactia/Hypogalactia 71 Diarrhea in Piglets 72 Pneumonia in Pigs 74 Suggested Medication Program 76 Gestating Sows 76 Lactating Sows 77 Suckling Pigs 78 Weaners 78 Growers/Finishers 79 Replacement Gilts/Replacement Boars 79 Boars 80 Vaccination 80 Guidelines for the Use of Vaccines 80 Marketing and Economics 82 Cost-and-Return Analysis 83 References 86 Appendices A Productive and Reproductive Performance of Swine in the Philippines 89 B Cost of Establishing a Two-Boar AI Operation 90 C Recommended Maximum Limits of Different Feed Ingredients in Swine Rations 95 D Suggested Maximum Inclusion Rates of Feedstuff for Hogs 96 X  E Nutrient Composition of Common Feedstuff 97 F Typical Nutrient Composition of Some Feeds for Swine 98 G Energy Composition o f Selected Fats, Oils, and Carbohydrates 99 H Crude and True Digestible Protein and Digestible Essential Amino Acids in Swine Feeds 100 I Recommended Nutrient Levels for Different Classes of Swine Fed Ad Libitum 101 J Essential Amino Acid Requirement of Swine Fed Ad Libitum 102 K Sources of Minerals for Swine 103 L Recommended True Digestible Amino Acids in Swine Rations 105 M Vitamin Requirements of Swine Fed Ad Libitum 106 N Mineral Requirements of Swine Fed Ad Libitum 107 0 Recommended Nutrient Allowances for Swine 108 P Daily Feed Intake and Expected Weight of Pigs at Varying Ages 110 Q A Design for Breeding Barn 111 R A Design for Farrowing House 115 S A Design for Nursery Barn 118 T A Design for Growing Barn 121 U A Design for Finishing Barn 124 V Selected Locally Developed Technologies Related to Swine Waste Management 127 W Key Legislations Affecting Swine Production 128 X Water Quality Criteria 129 Y Effluent Standards 130 Z Swine Management Perpetual Multipurpose Calendar 131 List of Figures: 1 The Philippine,Native Pig with its Litter 14 2 Large White (Yorkshire) 15 3 Landrace 15 xi  4 Du.roe 16 5 Pietrain 17 6 A breeding Program for the Production of Slaughter Pigs (Triple and Four-way Cross Pigs) 18 7 Triple Cross Pigs 19 8 Artificial Insemination 25 9 Artificial Insemination Procedure 26 10 Stages of Estrous Cycle in Sows and Gilts 31 11 Swine Feeding 38 12 Cooling System Using Tunnel Ventilation 43 13 Commercial Swine Housing System 44 14 Waste Management Hierarchy 48 15 Lagoon Used as a Temporary Storage of Swine Waste 51 16 Body Condition Scores for Sows 57 17 Assisting the Piglet to Suckle Colostrum 58 18 Elevated Flat Deck for Weanlings 60 19 UPLB Earnotching System 62 20 Elements that Influence Health Status of Pigs 68 List of Tables: 1 Per Capita Consumption of Different Animal Meat Products in the Philippines. 1 2 Inventory of Swine by Farm Type 3 3 Physical and Behavioral Signs of Estrus in Sows and Gilts 23 4 Boar Classification and Utilization for Natural Mating 33 5 Frequency of Boar Use in Natural Mating 33 6 Frequency of Semen Collection 33 7 Regular Activities Related to Proper Boar Management 33 8 Space Requirements of Buildings and Equipment for Swine 46 xii  The Pork Production Committee 2004 Chairman Mr. Menandro 0. Maleon Managing Director Philippine Swine Industry Research and Development Foundation, Incorporated Cubao, Quezon City Members Dr. Valentino G. Argafiosa Ms. Nimfa M. Brebante Professor Emeritus Farm Manager I UPLB, College, Laguna Pig Improvement Company Palasan, Sta. Cruz, Laguna Dr. Elpidio M. Agbisit, Jr. Dr. Edwin C. Villar Assistant Professor Director IAS-UPLB, College, Laguna LRD-PCARRD Los Banos, Laguna Dr. Editha E. Cabilitazan Mr. Synan S. Baguio Training Specialist III Senior Science Research Specialist International Training Center LRD-PCARRD on Pig Husbandry Los Banos, Laguna Lipa City, Batangas Dr. Jecee S. Fajardo Mr. Raymond M. Galamgam Products Manager Science Research Specialist II Pfizer Animal Health LRD-PCARRD Makati City, Metro Manila Los Banos, Laguna Mr. Ruel S. Pagcaliwagan Volume Editor ACD-PCARRD, Los Banos, Laguna xiii Glossary of Terms Boar - male pig of any age that is usually intended for breeding Castration - the removal of testes Colostrum - a yellowish milky fluid secreted by the mammary glands shortly before and a few days after farrowing. It contains high amounts of protein, vitamins, minerals, and antibodies that provides the young animal immunity against infections. Conce p tion - act of fertilization Contamination - an organism is inside the pig' s body without causing any clinical damage or disease Estrus - period of sexual receptivity in female, heat period Farrowing - act of giving birth in sows G estation - pregnancy time from conception to birth Gilt - young female pig under one year of age and has not yet given birth Heterosis - the existence of vigor or performance in crossbred animals that is higher than the average of both parents. It is also known as hybrid vigor Lesion - the disruptive changes in the organs/ tissues of the animal when infected Litter - group of pigs born in one farrowing Litter size - the number of pigs born in one litter Morbidity - number of affected animals Mortality - number of dead animals Ovulation - release of egg cell (ovum) from ovary Pathogenic - the ability of the organism to cause damage or disease Puberty - sexual maturity as exhibited by first heat or ovulation Sow - mature female pig, one that has given birth Suckling - young pig, from birth up to weaning Terminal sire - a boar used in a crossbreeding program for the production of slaughter pigs (e.g., Duree or Duree x Pietrain sires) xiv Triple cross pigs - pigs produced from the mating of a two­ breed crossbred sow to a carefully selected terminal sire of different breed Weaning - the process of separating the young from its dam Weanling - young pig separated from the sow; about 30-90 days old xv xvi The Philippine Swine Industry General Situation Pork is a very important livestock commodity of the Philippines. It is the Filipinos' most preferred animal meat product. Over the past decade, pork has consistently represented more than 55 % of the total daily animal meat consumption of Filipinos. In 2002, per capita pork consumption was estimated at 1 6.88 kg, representing 57.07% of the total animal meat consumed by Filipinos. Table 1 presents per capita consumption of different animal meat products in the Philippines from 1 993 to 2002. More than being the most preferred meat, the importance of pork in the country is well demonstrated by a developed, stable, and rapidly growing local swine industry. To date, the local swine industry is the most organized in terms of production and distribution systems. Table 1. Per capita consumption of different animal meat products in the Philippines from 1993 to 2002 (kg). Commodity 199'3 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 Pork 13.31 13.28 14.05 14.75 15.13 15.35 15.91 16.08 16.33 16.88 Beef 200 217 232 2.54 277 266 2.77 282 250 247 Carabeef 0.80 1.04 1.12 1.16 1.28 1.18 1.29 1.46 1.54 1.62 Chevon 0.61 0.41 0.44 0.42 0.42 0.44 0.44 0.44 0.43 0.42 Chicken 5.57 5.49 5.85 6.51 6.96 6.75 7.03 7.19 7.68 8.04 Duck 0.13 0.13 0.14 0.15 0.15 0.15 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.15 BAS, 2003. The local swine industry tops all other local livestock industries in terms of production and in its contribution to the national economy. In 2002, it produced 1 , 667, 760 t of pork, valued at l2 86, 723.52 billion (B) at current prices. In addition, the local swine industry also provides income to entrepreneurs who are actively engaged in large-scale commercial swine production and employment to farm laborers, traders, and PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 1 retailers of swine production inputs and products. It also provides employment to workers in slaughterhouses and storage and processing plants. Similarly, small farmers in rural, urban, and peri-urban areas benefit from swine raising through the additional income and the financial security it provides. Indirectly, it provides income to corn, rice, root crops, and coconut farmers, as it is one of the major markets of their produce. At present, the large commercial subsector of the swine industry is the largest adoptor of improved genetics, production inputs, and high-end technologies in its operations. Moreover, this subsector catalyzes the development and implementation of an organized pork production system in the country. Development and implementation of effective marketing and distribution systems for both its production inputs and product outputs are also led by the commercial subsector of the industry. In the recent past, more and more large commercial swine farm units in the country are gearing up toward automation of swine farm operations and more ex tensive application of cu tting-edge technologies in swine production. The modernization of the pork production system and the marketing and distribution of inputs and products that are being initiated by the large commercial subsector are now being adopted and are also benefiting small swine raisers. The dramatic improvement achieved by the local swine industry in terms of productivity, production efficiency, and product quality is undoubtedly a result of the adoption of improved genetics and technologies by both small and large commercial swine raisers. These technologies, which include breeding, reproduction, nutrition, animal health, production management, processing, and marketing, are outputs of sustained research and development (R&D) activities by both government and the private sector of various swine-producing countries. Po p ulation Trends The total swine population in the country is kept in both small and large commercial farm units. Table 2 presents total swine population inventory of the Philippines by farm type 2 rmurPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION Table 2. Inventory of swine by farm type (1993-2002) in '000 head. Year Backyard Commercial Total 1 993 6,663 1,291 7,954 1 994 6,766 1,461 8,227 1 995 7,181 1,760 8,941 1 996 7,239 1,787 9,026 1 997 7,788 1,964 9,752 1 998 7,239 1,787 9,026 1 997 7,788 1,964 9,752 1 998 8,031 2,180 10,21 1 1 999 8,179 2,218 10,397 2000 8,327 2,386 10,063 2001 8,542 2,521 11,063 2002 8,935 2,717 11 ,652 Ave. Annual Growth Rate ( % ) 3.85 8.71 4.79 BAS, 2003. from 1 995 to 2002. During the said period, total swine population increased from 7.95 million (M) head in 1 993 to 1 1.65 M head in 2002, at an average annual rate of 4.79 %. Similarly, swine population inventories in both the small and large commercial subsectors posted consistent increase over the said ten-year period. Pig population in small swine farms increased from 6.66 M head in 1 993 to 8. 93 M head in 2002, at an average annual rate of 3.85 %. On the other hand, population inventory of swine in the large commercial farms increased from 1. 29 M head in 1993 to 2.71 M head in 2002, at a higher average annual growth rate of 8.71 %. I n 1 993, pigs in small farm units represented 83.77%, while those in large commercial farms constituted 16.23 % of the total population. In 2002, however, the proportion of pigs in small farm units decreased to only 76.68 %; while proportion of pigs in large commercial farms increased to 23.32 %. This positive growth rate in swine population and the higher rates of growth in commercial farm units suggest the local swine industry's potentials to maintain its competitiveness despite globalization of meat markets. The consistent increase in population inventory, from 1 993 to 2002, is attributed to the entry of new industry players, expansion in the operations of some large commercial swine PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 3 farms, and proliferation of small swine enterprises in urban and peri-urban areas in the country. This significant increase in swine population is reckoned as the industry's response to the increasing demand for pork, which is brought about by both the increase in human population and the increase in per capita pork consumption by Filipinos. Moreover, the consistent increase in swine population in the country, particularly in commercial farms, indicates a favorable environment for commercial swine production. Supply and Utilization The total volume of pork available in the country is derived from both local production and importation. During the period 1 993-2002, total pork supply posted a consistently increasing trend. In 1993, total supply of pork was estimated at 881, 363 t, which grew to 1, 357, 984 t in 2002, at an average annual growth rate of 4.29%. During this period, total pork supply in the country increased by 52.23 %, equivalent to 441,860 t. The significant increase in total pork supply in the country is a result of the consistent increase posted by both local pork production and pork importation. In 1993, the supply of pork from local sources was estimated at 880, 944.91 t, which grew to 1, 332, 347.21 t in 2002, at an average annual growth rate of 4.12%. During the said period, pork supply from local sources increased by 49.76%, equivalent to 354, 377.80 t. Similarly, importation of pork significantly increased from 1 993 to 2002. Pork importation grew from 418.47 t in 1993 to 25, 636.91 t in 2002, at an average annual growth rate of 39.42%. Both locally produced and imported pork posted positive growth rates, but imported pork showed higher rate of increase than the local produce. The difference in growth rate between local production and imported pork resulted in change in the relative proportion of imported pork vis-a-vis total pork supply. In 1993, imported pork constituted only 0.05 % of the total pork supply. However, in 2002, it accounted for 1.89%. Pork is imported into the country primarily to fill in the gap between local production and domestic demand, which is consistently increasing, due to increases in human population and in per capita consumption. 4 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCflON The increase in importation of pork indicates that increase in local pork production is lagging behind increase in demand. The total supply of pork in the country is generally utilized as fresh meat for domestic or home consumption. A fraction of the total supply (particularly import) is utilized as ingredients of processed meat products by the meat-processing sector. Live Hog Production From 1 993 to 2002, volume of production increased consistently at an average annual growth rate of 4.24 %. In 1 993, volume of live hogs produced by the industry was recorded at 1. 1 M t and valued at P 38.96 B. In 2002, the volume of hogs produced increased to 1.67 M t, which was valued at P 86.72 B at current prices. Competitiveness of Pork Production in the Philippines As per the General Agreement on Tariff and Trade (GATT) and the World Trade Organization (WTO), the country will have to open its market to imported products including meat and other animal products. This development has caused apprehensions on local swine raisers on how to keep the local swine industry competitive in the global market. The Philippines remains as one of the leading swine producers in the Association of South East Asian Nations (ASEAN). However, unlike its competitors in the region, the Philippine swine industry is not yet competitive as a pork exporter. Apparently, the high production cost of pork in the Philippines explains its lack of export competitiveness. Factors that contribute to its high production cost include feed, transport, handling, cold storage, shrinkage, and trading costs, which are higher in the Philippines, compared with its ASEAN competitors. However, despite the high-cost structure, the Philippines' swine producers (small and large alike) and wholesalers realize net returns that are higher than what is achieved by pig raisers in other ASEAN countries. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUcnON 5  Trends in the Industry The swine industry has undergone changes in response to the changing preferences of the consuming public, environment, and situations affecting production practices. Some of the more significant trends in the local swine industry are: Preference for lean meat with less fat - Recently, Filipino pork consumers discriminate against pork cuts with high proportions of fat tissues. Consequent to this apparent change in consumer preference, local butchers respond by selecting slaughter pigs with thin backfat. Thus, slaughter pigs (particularly those coming from backyard farms) that are thought to be fat are offered lower liveweight (L W) price. In an effort to match the changing consumer demand, swine raisers (both small and large alike) are paying particular attention to genotype and nutrition to keep fat in their pigs at a minimum. Some swine raisers (particularly backyard) sell their pigs at lower liveweight to make sure that fat is within acceptable levels. Preference for pork with minimal antibiotic residues - With the increasing awareness in food safety and health issues, consumer preference for food is shifting toward those derived from animals raised with minimal, if not totally free from antibiotics and other chemicals. In response to this development, the "smaller module, multi-location" type of swine raising is now being introduced into large commercial farms in the country. Preference for fresh and fresh-chilled pork - In most developed countries, pork is marketed either in frozer, or processed forms. However, in some countries, including the Philippines, consumers prefer warm­ fresh and fresh-chilled pork. A large proportion of pork in the country is marketed in wet markets where pork is offered in its warm-fresh form. 6 PHilJPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION  Preference for parts - In developed countries, only standard cuts (e.g., ham, belly, picnic, etc.) of pork are marketed as humanfood. In the Philippines, consumers buy pig f-eet (pata), head, including the ears, tails, and even offal; as these parts are used in preparing several Filipino delicacies. Emergence of small enterpri ses type of swine p r o duction system - With the proliferation of agricultural-veterinary suppliers in most urban and peri-urban areas of the country, the small enterprise type of swine production emerged with an increasing popularity among small farmers. This type of swine raising differ from the traditional subsistence type of production in terms of genotype used and the feeding and management procedures applied in rearing the pigs. The pigs used under this type of production system are mostly hybrids or crosses of standard commercial breeds of swine. Although small or backyard in scale, this type of pig production system utilizes higher cash investment and updated technology and technological services. Feeding, housing, and overall management practices are modified cheaper versions of what is practiced in commercial farms. Proj ected Demands and New Initiatives of the Industry Data on pork consumption indicate a consistent increase in the demand for pork. The increase in pork demand is attributed to the increasing human population and increasing per capita consumption of pork. From 1993 to 2002, human population in the Philippines increased at an annual rate of 2.36 %. On the other hand, per capita pork consumption increased by 2.33 % annually. At these rates of increase in human population and per capita pork consumption, total domestic demand for pork in 201 0 and 2020 is expected to rise to 1.61 M t and 2.53 M t, respectively. With the current practice of slaughtering pigs at 85 kg LW, 26.80 M and 42.18 M head of slaughter pigs are needed in 2010 and 2020, respectively, to satisfy the projected demand for pork. This significant increase in number of PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 7 slaughter pigs needed to fill the local demand for pork and the inevitable increase in swine breeder base population that is needed to produce the slaughter pigs are expected to complicate further the current problems of feed shortages, limited production areas, and environmental concerns. To minimize these anticipated problems, active players of the local swine industry are advocating increase in the slaughter weight of pigs from 80-85 kg LW to 90-100 kg LW. This initiative is expected to reduce the number of slaughter pigs needed to satisfy the demand for pork. Moreover,. increasing slaughter weight of pigs is also expected to improve dressing percentage and reduce drip loss in pork. Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities, and Threats (SWOT) To better understand the potentials and limitations of the local swine industry, its SWOT were analyzed. Strengths Relatively large, stable, and continuously increasing pig population that is well distributed throughout the country Large and continuously increasing domestic market for pork High utilization of pork relative to other animal products Well-organized private industry players Easy access to good genetics and state-of-the-art technologies on swine production, feed milling, and other related activities from both local and foreign sources Technically equipped entrepreneurs, farm managers, and practitioners Weaknesses Generally low purchasing power of pork consumers High cost of feeds and other production inputs Heavy dependence on imported feed ingredients 8 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION  Inadequate national program for disease prevention and control Inefficient and inadequate technical and market information services High overhead costs both in swine production and in feed milling Presence of foot and mouth disease (FMD) in some major swine-producing regions of the country Opportunities Growing domestic market, increasing demand to meet increasing per capita consumption of a continuously growing human population Export of live hogs and pork carcasses to other ASEAN countries Availability of certified breeder pigs will be assured by the operationalization of the Swine Breeder Farm Accreditation Program of the Department of Agriculture (DA) Continuously improving swine productivity and production efficiency (Appendix A) Improved feed efficiency and dressing percentage by increasing slaughter weights Threats Flooding/ dumping of cheap pork and other meat products from other countries Increasing control of traders and butchers on pricing of live slaughter hogs Irrational implementation of rules and policies on environmental protection Industrialization and urbanization of current swine­ producing areas PHruPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 9 Selection, Breeds, and Breeding Selection Selection of breeding animals is one of the most important aspects in starting a pig farm. Selection ensures the choice of the best animals for reproduction. Most of the productive and reproductive traits are greatly influenced by the kind of breeding stocks in the herd. There is no best breed for all conditions. A particular breed may be highly productive in a given place, however, it may not perform well in another place. Moreover, variations in the performance within a breed in different places may be expected. The following are recommendations in selecting breeding animal: Select a breed/ breed combination or strain that is most common in the community. This is to ensure that the chosen breed is adapted under local conditions. It is also easier to find replacement and adopt accepted practices employed by local swine raisers. Start preferably with crossbreds or upgraded animals. They are not as sensitive as the purebreds in their requirements for feeding, housing, health care, and management. Consider the market outlet and the consumers' preference before starting a pig production business. Buyers prefer white pigs over colored ones. Lean pork is given a higher value in the market, thus, the pigs' quality should be considered. General Recommendations in Selecting Pigs for Breeding In selecting pigs for breeding, the following pointers are recommended: Select pigs based on reliable production records. Always 10 rHILirrINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION  remember that the performance of an individual is determined by the interactions between the genetic makeup and the environment. Start selecting/ evaluating potential breeding animals, when these are 2-3 months old. This will allow enough time for the performance evaluation. Final selection should be done when the animals are 5-6 months. Bases of Selection Selecting pigs involves the following: Physical Selection (e.g., strong legs, long body, good body conformation, etc.) Performance (e.g., mothering ability, average daily gain, backfat thickness, etc.) Selecting Boars Boars contribute half of the genetic makeup of the whole herd. Therefore, they should be selected based on economically important traits such as average daily gain (ADG), backfat thickness, and feed conversion ratio. Pointers in selecting breeding boars are the following: Physical basis Select boars that are masculine with well-developed testicles of about the same size. Select boars that possess a strong constitution and high libido, but controlled temperament. Select boars with strong pasterns, particularly on the hind legs, a strong back, and a long body. These traits influence the ability of the boar to mount and are also heritable. Select boars with no physical and hereditary defects such as hernias (umbilical and scrotal), undescended testes (cryptorchidism), and blind or inverted teats. PHIUPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 11  Performance basis Select boars that possess good muscle development in the ham, loin, and shoulder. Avoid those with excessive backfat. Backfat thickness should not exceed 2 cm at 90 kg LW. Select boars that show an ADG of not less than 800 g (28-90 kg LW) and a feed conversion efficiency of not more than 2.5. Boars should be at least 90 kg and not more than 160 days old during selection. Selecting Replacement Gilts Gilts represent the other half of the genetic makeup of the herd, hence they should be carefully selected. Pointers in selecting gilts for breeding are as follow: Select gilts with good temperament and smooth in general appearance. Select gilts with at least six pairs of prominent, well­ spaced teats. Avoid blind or inverted teats or with extremely small or large nipples. Select gilts with a relatively long body to comfortably accommodate the suckling pigs while nursing. Select gilts with strong legs and pasterns. Avoid small inside toe, particularly on the hind legs. Select gilts with strong, straight, or slightly arched but not too broad back. Low, sagging back is a defect; it may also cause the udder to touch the floor during pregnancy. Select gilts with backfat of about 2 cm at 90 kg. Culling Culling is the removal of undesirable individuals in terms of economically important traits and overall performance. Like selection, culling should be a continuous process and should be based on the reproductive performance and physical appearance of the animals. 12 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION  Unproductive and undesirable animals that must be removed from the herd can be based on any traits or combination of traits such as: Boars that have difficulty in mounting for no apparent reason Boars with poor semen quality Boars that are highly temperamental, vicious, and difficult to handle Boars that can no longer breed or produce viable semen Gilts that do not settle after two repeated matings to a proven sire Gilts that do not come into heat after ten months of age Sows that have poor performance in terms of littersize for two consecutive farrowings Sows that have not been bred 30 days after weaning their litter Sows with poor maternal instinct and mothering ability Sows which fail to wean at least eight healthy pigs. However, nutrition and management provided to the sow must be checked as these could be the factors that cause the sow's small littersize. Boars and sows that are found positive of infectious diseases such as brucellosis, leptospirosis, and/ or pseudorabies Boars and sows with unsound characteristics (e.g., hernia, blind, or inverted teats, and the like) that could be passed on to their offspring Common Breeds of Swine in the Philippines The Philippine Native Pig The native pigs are generally small and mostly solid black or black and white, with small ears, sway back, and with weak pasterns (Fig. 1). They have good mothering ability, mostly prolific, and generally resistant to adverse conditions and adapted to local rural farm conditions. Most strains or genetic groups of native pigs are named after the province or the region where they are found; thus, the PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 13 so-called llocano pigs, Tagalog pigs, and Waray pigs. Improvement of native pigs through upgrading has produced strains such as the "Diani" and "Kaman# of Batangas and the -- Berltjala (Berkshire X Jalajala), which are now believed to be extinct. Fig.1. ThePhilippinenltivepigwithitslitter. large White (Yorkshire) Large White is a white breed known for its good mothering ability and large littersize (Fig. 2). The ears are medium-sized and carried erect. The snoutis relatively short and straight, and the legs are generally sturdy and strong. Some individuals in this breed are relatively short with big belly. They also tend to produce carcasses with thicker backfat. Landrace Landrace is also a white breed; some landrace have bluish­ blackspots/markings on the skin (Fig. 3). This breed has a long body, large drooping ears, and long and relatively straight snout. It is also known for its mothering ability and prolificacy. The major defect of this breed is the weak hind legs and pasterns. 14 PJIIUl'PINES RtCOMNENOS FOR PORK l'ltODUCnON Fig. 2. Large White (Yorkshire). Fig. 3. Landrace. Duroc This breed varies considerably in color of the skin and coat, which ranges from light golden brown to very dark red (Fig. 4). Most Dutoc are cherry red. The head is small in proportion to l'HTUrrtNES RECOMMtNOS FOR. 1'0R.K PROOvcr10N 15 Fig.4. Duroc. the body, with medium-sized dro0ping ears, and a snout that is relatively short and straight. Duroc is considered a superior breed in terms of growth rate and feed efficiency. It has a good muscle quality and is probably the mostresistantto stress. Thisbreed is alsobecoming popular as a terminal sire for the production of slaughter pigs, which are characterized by fast growth rate, better feed efficiency,and good mu.scle developmentwith desirablecarcass quality. Pietrain Thisbreedis mostly spotted] black and white, with medium sized erect ears, although some individuals have slightly drooping ears, and a moderately long and slightly dished snout (Fig. 5). This breed is known for its good muscle development in the ham, loin, and shoulder with very thin backfat. The reproductive performance and mothering ability are relatively good and acceptable. Due to their well-muscled ham, Pietrain pigs usually have weak hind legs and are highly susceptible to stress. When crossed with other breeds like Du.roe, they can produce a good terminal sire for Landrace x Large White crossbred sows in the production of good-quality market hogs. 16 PHIOPTINl!SRECOMMENDS FOR POU f'ROOucnON Fig.5. Pietrain. Hybrids Most hybrids introduced into the country do not have distinguishing physical characteristics, whichmay differentiate them from other breeds. Most of these hybrids, however, are white with good muscle development. Hybridsows are claimed to be ru,ghly prolific; have better fertility; have bigger and more uniform litter; and have heavier piglets at birth. Slaughter hybrid pigs, on the other hand., are claimed to be outstanding in terms of growth rate, feed conversion efficiency, and carcass quality. Some hybrid pigs available in the country are Hypor, Nieuw Dalland, Seghers, Camborough, JSR, and Topigs. Breeding- Systems Pure.breeding Purebreeding is a mating of two purebred animals of the same breed. A purebred animal is defined as a member of breed,, which possesses a common ancestry and distinctive characteristics, andis either registered oreligiblefor registration in thatbreed. Purebreedingis being done to produce genetically superior animals for commercial pig production systems. l'Hlt..tmN&S ROC'OMMF.NDS FOR f'OfU< PkODUcnoN 17 Crossbreeding Crossbreeding is a mating of two individuals belonging to different breeds. This is being practiced to take advantage of heterosis or hybrid vigor and to elicit the desirable characteristics of parental breeds. Therefore, crossbreeding is strongly recommended for the production of market/ slaughter hogs. Its beneficial effects include increase in the size and weight of litters at birth and at weaning; increase in the survival rate of the suckling pigs; and improvement in the growth rate of growing-finishing pigs. Success of crossbreeding depends primarily on the quality and superiority of the parental stocks; hence, purebred parents must be carefully selected. Production of triple cross pigs. This is a modification of three-breed crossbreeding where a carefully selected third breed (purebred) is introduced as a terminal sire on the two­ breed crossbred sows (Fig. 6). This is the most practical and popular scheme for the production of slaughter pigs (Fig. 7). A crossbred boar (Duroc x Pietrain) may also be used as a terminal sire for the production of slaughter pigs. ,- --1-- -J-: r l SOW UNE I BOAR UNE I Pletnlln X Pletnlln 1 1 :: x 1 (GP) LageWhlle X Lanctaa! Duroc: X Pletraln __-;,--- l (PS) Fl X - F1 Triple cross Pig (Slalqlter Pigs) GGP Great Grand Parental Une G P Grand Parenlal Line Four-way cross Pigs P S = Parental SIDck (Slaughter Pigs) Fig. 6. A breeding program for the production of slaughter pigs (triple and four-way cross pigs). 18 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODllCnON f'isg. 7. Triple crosspigs. In any crossbreeding program, a careful evaluation of the quality of the individual purebred animal should be done. For breeds that will constitute the sow line, select those that are superior in terms of mothering ability and litter size (e.g., Large White and Landrace). For breeds intended for the production of terminal sires, select those which are superior in terms of growth rate, muscle development, and carcass desirability (e.g., Duroc and Duroc x Pietrain cross). Inbreeding This involves the mating of individuals that are closely related to e'ach other by ancestry. Any form of inbreeding should be avoided. The adverse effects of inbreeding, generally termed inbreeding depressions, may include reduction in litter size and weight at birth and at weaning; ovulation rate and fertility; and sperm production. Sound record keeping should be maintained to determine the relationships of the sires and dams in the herd to prevent inbreeding. rHIIJPPINES aECDMMENDS «lll l'0IIIC PII0011Cl1101< 19 Swine Breeder Farm Accreditation Program To assure the disbibution of quality breeding stocks in the country, DA signed Administrative Order (AO) No. 14 Series of 2000 to identify, accredit, and promote swine farms that produce genetically superior quality breeder stocks. The swine breeder farm accreditation program is aimed at sustaining advances in local swine production by ensuring availability and wide disbibution of good quality breeder stocks to both large commercial and small swine raisers. Criteria for Accreditation The following are the criteria used in evaluating swine breeder farms vying for accreditation: Must be a registered business entity with permit to operate Must have facilities for performance testing of selected genetically superior animals such as: - testing pens (minimum of 25 head-testing facilities) - backfat tester or lean meter Must have records of pedigree and performance (e.g., ADG and feed conversion ratio) of individual animals Must have sustained appropriate programs for FMD, pseudorabies, and hog cholera prevention and should issue certificates of vaccination, when necessary Must have a full-time animal husbandryman/ veterinarian Must be certified as brucellosis- and leptospirosis-free 20 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCllON Reproduction Breeding Age Swine reach puberty at about five months of age. Puberty is the beginning of the reproductive capability or sexual maturity of the animal. At this stage, however, boars and gilts are not yet ready for breeding. Breeding at this stage usually retards the growth and development of the animals. Gilts should be bred at not less than 225 days old (7½ months) weighing around 120-130 kg and have already cycled at least twice. Very young gilts, when bred, usually produce small litter size and show poor maternal behavior to their young. Estrous Cycle Sows and sexually mature gilts normally undergo periodic heat periods (estrous cycle),which last from 18 to 24 days or an average of 21 days. The period of sexual receptivity, called the estrus or heat period, lasts from 2 to 5 days. Duration of estrous cycle maybe influenced by breed of swine. Common signs of estrus are as follows: swelling and reddening of the vulva; thick mucous discharge from the vagina; mounting other animals (mounting heat) or willingness to be mounted by others regardless of sex (standing heat); also, assumes characteristic mating position when touched on the back by a boar or caretaker; restlessness, moving around continuously, and grunting; reduced appetite; attempting to frequently urinate with very little or no urine at all; difficult to be move or transfer in the presence of a boar; and reacts to the boars' mating sound. PHJUPPJNFS RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUcnON 21 Techniques in Heat Detection It is important to know when a sow or gilt is sexually receptive to determine the right time to breed them. The surest indication of a sow in heat is her acceptance of the boar. When sows are reared in groups, it is proper to bring the female to the boar pen or to bring both to a designated mating pen. Sexual receptivity in sows and gilts maybe determined through any of the following methods: back pressure test, riding-the-back test, semen-on-snout test, teaser boar method, and examination of external signs of estrus (Table 3) and records. Pregnancy or Gestation Period Pregnancy or gestation period in gilts and sows ranges from 110 to 119 days with an average of 114 days (best remembered as "3 months, 3 weeks, and 3 days"). Common signs of pregnancy are: cessation of estrous cycle; develops good appetite and fattens readily; and enlargement of the abdomen towards the latter part of pregnancy. Animals in advanced stage of pregnancy show the following signs: enlargement, swelling, and reddening of external genitalia, nervousness and restlessness, fully distended mammary glands, presence of milk indicating farrowing within 24 hours; and nest building in sows raised in pasture. 22 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODlJCnON Table 3. Physical and behavioral signs of estrus in sows and gilts. Signs Pre-Heat Standing Heat Post-Heat Standing heat Does not stand stands still with does not stand still when ridden arched back when still when on the back. ridden by other being pushed. sows or by the farm caretaker Vulva red, swollen pink, less swollen pale, almost no with little mucus with clear, sticky swelling, no mucus mucus Behavior restless and calm normal nervous, allows mounting mounts other by other animals, animals, does not allow mounts other mounting by animals, other animals, cocking of the frequent ears, urination, and actively seeks the less feed intake boar, stands arched back in the presence of the boar Duration 2 days l day l day Mating/ AI NO YFS NO Methods and/ or equipment used in pregnancy diagnosis are as follows: review of records; evaluation of external signs; ultrasound-amplitude depth ultrasound machines; ultrasound-Doppler tests, and ultrasound-scanner. Advantages of detecting early pregnancy are as follows: provides easy identification of sows for culling or rebreeding, non-pregnant, feed-wasting sows; gives early warning of breeding problems due to infertile boars and cystic ovaries of sows; PHJLIPPINES RECOMMliNDS JIOR PORK PRODUCTION 23  enables the producer to make efficientuse ofhis breeding facilities and to plan more adequately for farrowing, nursing, and finishing; and prevents selling of pregnant sows. Mating Systems Natural Mating Natural mating involves bringing the boar to mate an "in­ heat'' gilt/ sow or vice versa, and then separating the two after mating. This practice is termed as hand mating. A good record will help identify a compatible mating system. Hand mating is practiced for the following reasons: allows producers to easily identify which sow or gilt is bred and which is not; permits the prediction of the farrowing date; and allows producers to easily determine the reproductive performance of the sow. Artificial Insemination (AI) The most practical and efficient method to carry out genetic improvement in swine is through AI. The strength of AI is generally dependent on the genetic superiority of the boar and the possibility of spreading its qualities to more females to produce offsprings of better genetic quality. This technique (Fig. 8) has gained wide acceptance among many Filipino swine raisers due to the following advantages: increases the number of sows that can be serviced by a boar; eliminates injuries, which may result from mating small gilts or sows with large boars; reduces, if not completely controls, the spread of sexually transmitted diseases; allows small raisers to keep a few sows without maintaining a boar; 24 PIIIUPPINES IU!COMMENDS R>ll PORK PRODUCTION  Fig. 8. Artificial insemina.tion. allows economical use· of performance-tested boars; and provides access for breeding distantly located females more conveniently and with less transport costs. Limitations of Al: It needs a properly trained technician. There is difficulty in storing diluted boar semen over a prolonged period. There are additional costs for equipmentand laboratory chemicals (Appendix B). The success of AI depends largely on the accuracy of heat detection and subsequent timingofinsemination on the part of a properly trained technician. It also depends on the proper handling of semen before and during insemination. It should always be a guiding principle that gilts/sows, which cannot conceive, following service of a normal boar, will not perform any better when artificially inseminated. PlllUPl'1N£S RfCOMMlNX>S KIit l'O«K l'lt00UCl'ION 25  The use of AI involves component processes such as training of boars and collecting, evaluating, processing, and storing their semen. (Fig. 9). Each one of these processes is critical to the success of the AI technology. Coln 5-11 or Voluaa __, Fig. 9. Artificial insemination procedure. Training of boar. The training of boars normally starts at around 6 ½-7 months of age. Younger than this age, boars are quite difficult to train. Boars for training are housed individually. In some farms, a dummy is brought inside the pen, and it is a common practice that boars are trained in the same place. If there is a collecting pen, it is wise to train the boar there. Some boars prefer to be inside their own pen when semen collection is done. In this case, a movable dummy will be necessary. Remember the following: Boars differ in characteristics and attitude. The same is true among different breeds. Always check the semen quality and quantity. Check for any abnormalities like small testicles and insufficient erection. 26 PHllJPPJNliS RliCOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCDON  Semen collection. One of the basic differences between AI and natural breeding is that the AI technician is responsible for many of the tasks normally performed by the boar at mating. It is crucial then that the AI technician understands the natural processes of semen production, so that he can mimic them as closely as possible during semen collection and processing. When collecting semen for AI, the AI technician is responsible in providing a suitable storage environment for the sperm cells. One of the important points to remember is to avoid temperature shocks. The semen should be collected in a pre-warmed container that will maintain its temperature. Moreover, the technician should understand the behavior of each boar he handles. Some boars have penile erection once they see the dummy and then leave the pen. Others walk around the dummy before mounting it. A well-trained boar mounts when presented with a dummy. Procedure 1. A clean, dry, and warm collecting cup covered with filter (surgical gauze or milk filter) is carried before entering the collecting pen. 2. Prior to the collection, hands should be washed and dried. If necessary, use gloves (vinyl gloves are recommended) to make the collection more hygienic. 3. Introduce the boar to the dummy sow in the collecting pen. Remove urine and preputial fluid by massaging the prepuce starting from the base and pushing steadily forward. Oean the surrounding area of the prepuce with paper towel or tissue paper. Allow the boar to mount the dummy sow in his own time. Once mounted, the boar will begin its thrusting movements, attempting to locate the sow' s vulva. Grasp the penis with the fingers lightly at first and then firmly. The penis should not be pulled out. Instead, the boar is allowed to extend his penis on its full length. The thrusting movements will eventually stop, and ejaculation will start. Once in this state, slightly loosen the grip. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCilON 'ZJ  4. Pressure exerted in gripping the penis can be learned through experience. It varies from one boar to another. While ejaculating, some boars prefer a rhythmic contraction of the hand. 5. The appearance of the ejaculate will change as the boar ejaculates the different fractions of the semen, which is easily identified by an experienced technician. The different semen fractions are: Sperm-rich fraction - This is grayish and milky. This fraction is collected as it contains viable sperm cells ideal for insemination. First gel with clear fluid fraction - Do not collect this fraction as it contains very few sperm cells. Clear fluid fraction - One-third of this fraction can be collected to add volume to the collected sperm­ rich semen. Gel-rich fraction (tapioca) - This fraction should be filtered out during collection because it clogs the catheter and causes death of sperm cells. The aim should be to collect the sperm-rich fraction. In practice, it is often very difficult to differentiate between the clear fractions and the sperm-rich fraction. In such situations, it is acceptable to collect all the fractions and end up with a larger volume of more dilute semen. 6. Be patient because the collection may take between 5-20 minutes. Do not release the penis until the boar has finished ejaculating. It is not appropriate to release the penis after the sperm-rich fraction has been ejaculated. Do not rush the process. This may frustrate the boar and make him potentially dangerous. Semen evaluation. Immediately after collection, the sperm­ rich portion of the semen is taken to the laboratory for evaluation. The semen is evaluated in terms of physical and microscopic parameters. 28 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION Physical Volume - A mature boar should produce 75-150 ml sperm-rich semen per ejaculation. Appearance - The sperm-rich fraction of the semen should be thick and opaque-white. A reddish color indicates possible infection or injury of the urethra or the glans penis. Smell/Odor - A clean ejaculate has little odor. An ejaculate that has been contaminated with preputial fluid has a very distinctive odor. Microscopic Concentration - The sperm concentration should be at least 3 B spz/ dose (100 ml). A concentration of 6 B spz is recommended during summer months to compensate for lower production due to heat stress. Motility - At least 70% of the sperm cells should exhibit a progressive movement. Morphology - The semen should contain at least 75 % normal sperm cells. Sperm cell abnormalities such as the presence of cytoplasmic droplet, curled, or coiled tail, etc. may be present, but should not exceed 25 % of the total sperm count. Semen processing. Once the semen is collected and evaluated, it is immediately processed to preserve the potency of the sperm for a period of time. Highest conception rate may be obtained if the semen is used within 12 hours of collection and dilution. Dilution allows the use of one ejaculate for more than one female. Besides providing a favorable medium for the sperm cells, a diluent or extender provides them necessary nourishment. It also protects the sperm cells from harmful microorganisms or foreign bodies. Commercial semen extenders are now available in the market at a price of l2150-P450/ 1-L pack. Semen storage. Immediately after processing, refrigerate the extended semen at an ideal temperature of 16 ° -l 7°C. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUcnON 29 Extended semen should be used for AI within 48 hours of storage to achieve desirable results. Handling and transport of semen. When transporting the semen during AI, make sure that the temperature needed by the semen is ideal. Too low and too high temperatures during transport may decrease the motility of the sperm. Inseminating an in-heat sow/gilt. The steps in artificially inseminating sows/ gilts are as follow: 1. Bathe the sow/ gilt paying particular attention to the vulva and its surrounding areas. 2. Clean your hands and dry them before you begin the insemination. 3. Lubricate the catheter with a non-spermicidal jelly or paraffin oil or few drops of semen. 4. Invert the semen bottle 2-3 times to mix the semen. Insert the nozzle into the end of the catheter. 5. Grasp the tip of the vulva between the thumb and forefinger, then pull it slightly downwards until it is almost perpendicular to the ground. 6. Insert the catheter into the vagina with the point directed slightly upward about 45° to prevent entrance into the urinary bladder. 7. Twist, with a slight thrusting pressure, the spiral catheter counter clockwise until it is "locked" in the cervix. A correct lock is achieved when the catheter tends to spring back when pulled. 8. Rub gently the sow' s back or flank during insemination to induce uterine contractions. 9. Re-inseminate the sow in 12-24 hours. 1 0. Protect the sow from any form of stress after the insemination. It is best if insemination is done in the sow 1 s individual pen. Insemination Time The best time to inseminate a gilt/ sow is on the first 3 0 hours of the estrus phase (Fig. 10). Insemination at this 30 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION period usually results in better farrowing rate and litter size in both gilts and sows. A second dose given 12 hours (for gilts) or 24 hours (for sows) after the first dose may further improve conception rate and litter size at birth. 41 I HCIURS :II I i 12 I * Proper Timlng is lmpor1ant 0 12 I Z4 I 38 I.. I eo I... ---... I ,, '\ ,,l I Honking stage I '' ''.. I.... ' I.,... Male I characteristics I , Standing to riding I , test approximately 1 day HOURS I 12 ,2 Z4 ID Fertility - ____L.ow.,.._______,,,___ Hlgl __--....,,--- Do not Inseminate Inseminate Walt until next estrus Fig. 1 0. Stages of estrous cycle in sows and gilts. Management of Boars The performance level of a swine herd is determined by both genetics and environment. The genetic contribution is determined by the boars and gilts selected and the breeding program used. The environment consists of external factors such as climate, housing, nutrition, and management that can hinder the expression of genetically influenced performance traits. The goal of any good swine breeding program is to have high farrowing rates with large litters (at least 10 piglets/ litter). Good boar management practices before, during, and after the breeding season are vital in achieving farm performance targets. PHIUPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 31 Puberty in Boars Puberty in male pigs is considered to have occurred once free spermatozoa are present in the semen. The boar reaches puberty at around 4-6 months. A boar is ready for breeding when it is: eight months old 120-130 kg or more (controlled feeding) large enough to mount and mate with a normal-sized female producing good-quality and -quantity of semen When to Buy Boars Boars should be purchased at least 6-8 weeks before it is used for breeding. This gives enough time to select the superior animals. Once selected, check them for health condition and evaluate their reproductive performance. Transporting Newly Purchased Boars Newly purchased boars should be transported with proper care. During transport, ensure maximum safety to minimize stress, injury, and diseases. Any stressful condition or disease can lower fertility or even lead to temporary infertility, which might last for 6-8 weeks. Boar Usage The extent of boar utilization is dependent on the methods of breeding practiced in the farm, which include natural, artificial, combined system (AI on first service then natural as follow-up service or vice versa), or sandwich system (natural­ Al-natural, natural-AI-AI, or AI-natural-AI) of breeding. Tables 4-7 show classification of boars used, and frequency of utilization and activities related to boar management that may serve as a guide in both natural mating and AI in pigs. 32 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION Table 4. Boar classsification and utilization for natural mating. No. of Services per Sow Boar< l Year Old Boar >l Year Old per Heat Period (Junior boar) (Senior boar) Two services 2 boars : 15 sows 1 boar : 15 sows One service 1 boar : 20 sows 1 boar : 30 sows Table 5. Frequency of boar use in natural mating. Boar Age Service Interval 8-10 months 5-10 days 11 months 4 days 12 months - up 3 days Table 6. Frequency of semen collection. Boar Age Collection 8 - 12 months Once a week 13 months - up 2-3 times a week (4 consecutive days of rest) Table 7. Regular activities related to proper boar management. Age Activity 4-6 months Selection 6-7 months Acclimatization 7-8 months Training 8-1 2 months Breeding schedule and utilization Once-a-week utilization (maximum oftwo times) 12 months and above Three times-a-week utilization (staggered basis) 30-36 months Planned culling Other Considerations Have one extra boar for every 30 sows, if possible. Start service of the boars at eight months of age. For the first service, introduce the boar to the sow, which is on standing heat. Replace boars every 1.5-2 years (if only one boar is used), if replacement is to be obtained from the farm. PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTTON 33  It is advisable that boars be of different ages and sizes. Acclimatize new boars at least one week before use and after a prescribed quarantine period. Check semen quality of the boar regularly (at least every six months), especially during summer, if possible. Subject newly acquired boars to blood test, if possible. One caretaker should handle the boar. Make sure that the mating area is not slippery. 34 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORJC PROOUCTTON Nutrition and Feeding Proper nutrition, health care, and good management practices contribute a lot to a successful piggery operation. A well-nourished pig grows faster, attains market weight earlier and is more efficient in feed utilization, more resistant to diseases and stresses, more prolific, and is better in mothering ability. Physiological States Requiring Nutrients The physiological states, which require nutrients, are as follow: Maintenance - when the animal is neither gaining nor losing weight; and does not work, produce product, store fat, and develop fetus. Growth - when tissue synthesis (muscle, bone, organ, and some fats) takes place in the young animal. Fattening - when increased fat deposition becomes desirable (finishing). Reproduction - when there is an increased need for nutrients for ova/ sperm production or for fetal development in the gestating female. Lactation - when the dam requires extra nutrients to sustain production of milk for her litter without sacrificing her own body reserves. Physiological requirements are additive (e.g., growth requirements must include maintenance needs and gestating), but growing animals need nutrients for their maintenance, growth, and reproductive requirements, and so on (Appendices C, D, E, and F). PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORX PRODUCTION 35 Nutrient Classification According to Function Nutrients are classified into: energy nutrients (e.g., carbohydrates, fats, and proteins); nutrients for tissue building, maintenance, and repair (e.g., proteins, minerals, and water); and nutrients for regulation of metabolic body processes (e.g., water, proteins, fats, minerals, and vitamins). All these nutrients, except water, are contained in various feeds in varying amounts and bioavailabilities to the pig. Water is primarily given for drinking, although it may be part of the feed or is derived from biochemical changes in the feed nutrients after absorption (Appendices G, H, I, and J). Minerals Pigs require at least 13 elements, namely: calcium (Ca), chlorine (Cl), copper (Cu), iodine (I), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg) , manganese (Mn), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), selenium (Se), sodium (Na), sulfur (Su), and zinc (Zn). Cobalt (Co) is also required for vitamin B12 synthesis. Functions of the inorganic elements range from structural (e.g., Ca, P, Mg) to regulation of metabolic processes (e.g., Mg, S, Na, K, trace elements). Confined pigs demand dietary mineral supplements to avoid deficiencies and disruption of vital processes (e.g., acid-based balance, fluid balance) and normal physiological functions (growth, pregnancy, lactation, metabolism). Appendix K describes the sources of minerals for swine. Vitamins Vitamins are organic compounds distinct from amino acids, carbohydrates, and lipids. These are needed in very small amounts, but are necessary for normal growth and production. Vitamins are classified as fat soluble (vitamins A, D, E, and K) or water soluble (members of the B-complex, and ascorbic acid). B-complex vitamins (biotin, choline, folacin, niacin, 36 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUcnON p antothenic acid, riboflavin, thiamin, pyridoxine, and cyanocobalamin) act as coenzymes in carbohydrate, fat, and protein metabolism. Deficiency in any of these will decrease energy delivery to energy-requiring body systems. Each fat­ soluble vitamin has specific metabolic functions. Vitamin C is not a dietary requirement, pigs can synthesize it. Vitamin requirements are expressed either as international unit per kilogram (IU /kg), milli gram per kilogram (mg/kg) feed, or parts per million (ppm). Some B-complex vitamins are synthesized by the bacteria in the pig's cecum. Feed Additives Antimicrobial agents are commonly added to swine diets to improve the weight gains, feed conversion efficiency, and reproduction. These additives reduce morbidity and mortality in y o u n g pigs. Recent findings show the danger o f indiscriminate use o f additives to animal or human health. Therefore, their use should first be approved by the Food and Drug A dministration ( FDA) or any concerned agency. Additives, such as enzymes and probiotics, improve nutrient availability. Sweeteners and flavoring agents, which improve palatability of feeds, may also be added. Feeds for Swine Swine belongs to the monogastric (simple stomach) species and should be given combinations of high-energy, low-fiber fee ds (concentrates) at the least possible cost (Fig. 11 ). Feed cost usually accounts for 75-80% of the total production cost. Low-cost, high-quality rations for the different classes of pigs can be formulated. However, this requires knowledge of the nutritive characteristics, limits in utilization, and relative prices per unit nutrient of each feed group. Feed Ingredients Swine feeds are grouped into basal or energy and protein feeds. Basal feeds are low in fiber (me legumes does not destroy the toxic content Plant proteins in swine rations can replace wholly animal proteins for older pigs, provided that the essential amino acid balance is met. However, it is advisable to include minimal amount of animal pro.teins (e.g., fish meal) in rations to ensure good protein quality. Know the maximum limit of using different feeds for successful formulation and optimum animal performance. Appendices C and D present these limits. 33 PHlllPl'1NIIS IIK0MMINDS fOR '°'°' rROOUCTION Feed Processing Cooking. While some feeds can be given directly to the animal, others need some forms of processing for more efficient nutrient utilization. Thus, feed grains (cereals) and by-products, such as com, sorghum (whole or ground), rice bran, pollard, and com bran, can be fed as such or mixed with other feeds (hog mashes) without undergoing further processing. Some root crops like cassava or sweetpotato can be fed fresh (in limited quantities) to pigs. Also, these can be dried as meal or cooked (boiled) to increase palatability or to remove toxic components (e.g., hydrocyanic acid in cassava). Other root crops such as 'pongapong' (A. campanulatus) and tannia (Xanthosoma spp.) must be cooked to eliminate/minimize itchiness and to encourage higher intake. Legumes with antitryptic factors or hemagglutinins (e.g., raw soybean, winged bean, jack bean, and sword bean) should also be cooked. Cowpea, mungbean, and 'tapilan' may not be cooked before feeding. Feedstuffs, which may contain higher pathogenic organisms (e.g., kitchen refuse, raw fish, and offals), must be cooked to prevent disease outbreaks in the herd. Grinding. Grinding of coarse ingredients (e.g., copra cakes) and big seeds (e.g., corn) is necessary where selective feeding may ensue. This is also done when pigs may be in such a hurry to eat as much or as fast as they could without properly chewing the grain feed. Small seeds like sorghum may or may not be ground. Grains should be medium ground. Avoid fine grinding because it results in unpalatable, dusty feeds. Moreover, it increases power, time, and labor costs. Grinding also facilitates mixing of unpalatable feeds with more palatable ones. Pelleting. Pelleting improves the physical nature of bulky feeds; increases feed density; improves feed intake; avoids wastage/selective feeding; and reduces storage space. The high temperature and pressure during pelleting improve the high-fiber feeds' digestibility by loosening the ligno-cellulose bonding and destroying the growth-inhibiting microorganisms. A disadvantage of pelleting is the added power cost. PHlUPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PROOUcnON 39 Feeding Dry and Pregnant Sows Proper swine nutrition begins with the sow. Sows should be flushed (i.e., given high-energy diet) to promote ovulation and increase number of ova released from the ovary. Prevent gestating sows from becoming too fat to reduce embryonic mortality. Provide pregnant sows/ gilts additional nutrients to allow about 25 kg maternal weight gain and 20 kg conception products for normal reproduction. Maintenance requirement increases with increasing body weight of the sows, however, it is not affected by the gestation weight gain of 45 kg. To control weight gain during gestation (pregnancy), adopt the following measures: Limit energy intake of the sow/ gilt only to cover requirements for its maintenance, and deposition of protein and fat in the maternal tissue and conceptus. Llmit feeding to allow maximum efficiency of pregnant gilts and sows. Fibrous, bulky diets keep them from becoming too fat and prevent constipation. Bulky diets or rations (e.g., high rice or wheat bran, lower copra meal) should be fed a few days before expected farrowing to prevent constipation Soilage and drinking water also minimize constipation. Do not feed sows on farrowing day. Adding fat to the sow' s diet before farrowing increases the fat content of colostrum (the first milk after farrowing) and milk and improves the baby pig's survival. Feeding Lactating Sows Plan the sow' s feeding management to obtain optimum nutrient intake during lactation. Growth and survival rates of the litter, as well as the sow's subsequent reproductive performance, depend on her nutrition during lactation. Gradually increase the feed given each day to lactating sows and then allow full feeding on the 4 th and 5 th day after farrowing. This is done to increase the milk yield; condition the sow' s body; and ensure successful rebreeding soon after weaning. The average milk production of sows is 7.5-9.5 L/day. 40 PIDLIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOK PORK PKODUcnON  Good indicators of adequate lactating sow nutrition are the weight of 28-day old piglets (should be about 7.5 kg), and the duration between weaning and postweaning heat (4-7 days). Average piglet-weaning weight of 5.5 kg or less and/ or greater than seven days postweaning to estrus interval suggest inadequate feeding of lactating sows, hence, should be remedied. Lactating diet should be high in energy and low in fiber, with adequate protein/ amino acids, vitamins, and minerals. The use of additives (antibiotics) must be justified and depends on prevailing farm conditions. Flavoring agents are not necessary in fresh, palatable feeds. Feeding Sucklinwl3aby Pigs Sources of carbohydrates for very young pigs are different from those of older ones. Pigs less than seven days old utilize only glucose and lactose; those aging 7-10 days old, fructose and sucrose. Feeding fructose and sucrose to pigs younger than seven days can result in severe diarrhea, weight loss, and high mortality. Feed two-week-old or older pigs with starch or cereal-based diets since their digestive systems are sufficiently developed to produce pancreatic amylase and intestinal disaccharidases. Peak production of milk occurs between the 3 rd and 4 th week, then it declines. During this period, piglet requirements (average of 8 piglets/ litter) may exceed milk production. Thus, introduce booster feed to piglets at five days old and then shift to prestarter feed when piglets are 5-10 kg LW. Booster and prestarter feeds are high in protein (21-24 % CP), low in fiber, and well fortified with vitamins, minerals, and antibiotics. Appendix L shows recommended energy and amino acid digestibilities for piglets and finishing pigs for improved growth performance. Feeding Starter Pigs One week after weaning (10-12 kg LW), shift to starter ration (18 % CP). Gradually replace prestarter feed with starter ration until weanlings are fully fed with starter ration. Gradually shift from starter to grower feed when the pigs are 18-20 kg LW. PIDUPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 41 Feeding Grower/Finisher Pigs Grower phase is the stage when the pig is about three months old and weighs 20-60 kg LW. Feed 16% CP grower mash to 20-35 kg pigs, and 15 % CP grower mash to 35-60 kg animals. Beyond 60 kg, the animal's protein requirements are decreased, thus, reduce the CP content to 14 % (finisher ration). Feed the pigs up to market or slaughter weight of 90-110 kg. Grower/ finisher pigs adjust their feed intake according to the energy content of the diet. At each growth stage, formulation should meet the energy, amino acid, vitamin, and mineral (macro- and trace elements) requirements of the animal (Appendices M, N, and 0). Appendix P shows the daily feed intake and expected animal weight at a given age. Feeding Breeding Pigs Give breeders high-energy feeds before breeding to increase ovulation rate and produce large litter size at farrowing. The sow should not be too fat at breeding as it may lead to reduced litter size and increased number of stillborn pigs and mummified fetuses. To attain the best reproductive efficiency of the sow, minimize the weight and fat loss during lactation. Do not feed boars shortly before mating. A full stomach causes sluggishness. 42 PHIUPPINliS RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PROD\JCnON Housing and Equipment Building Orientation and Cooling System 1n designing a pig house, the first requirement is to protect the animals from direct sunlight; thus, the long axis of the buildingnmstbe laidin an east-westdirection. Air temperature, air velocity, floor insulation, infrared radiation, and relative humidity determine the thermal environment around the animal, hence, should also be considered. Majority of pig houses in the country only allow for a comparatively slow-air velocity. To offset the ill effects of high temperature, a cooling system. may be provided. Blower fan with flexible ducts to achieve better air distribution may be installed (Fig. 12). Another approach is to install a sprinkle­ nozzle system; eith.er on the roof or inside the building. Fig. 12. Coolingsystem usingtun.nelventilation. Roofs Roofs must be designed to reduce the ambient heat load reaching the animals and to provide for an efficient removal of the arumal's body heat. ftm.d'PiNES II.EXDMMDIDS fOR POllX '9;000C110N -43  Common roofing mate.rials are made of corrugated galvanized iron (G.I.) sheet and heat insulators. The roofs outer surface must be light colored to efficiently reflect the sun's radiation, while the inner surface of the roof must be dark colored to minimize heat buildup inside the house. Partition Walls and Doors/Gates Slatted partition walls mad.e of round iron bars and G.I. pipes may be adopted. Provide easy access to and from the pen. Doors must be durable and provided with security-tight locks. The most commonly used materials are round iron bar, round black iron pipe, round G.L pipe, square iron bar, flat bar, wood, or bamboo. Housing System Housing system and facilities depend on the size and extent ofoperation. For a small-scale operation, adoptthe conventional or all-purpose housing system. This system combines several farm operations into one building. It can accommodate non­ pregnant and pregnant sows, gilts, and piglets. It can also be used for growing-finishing operation. Medium-scale and commercial farms may adopt the "life cycle" housing system (Fig. 13). This system is designed to Fig. 13. Commercial swine housing system. 44 MOUPP'lNF.S RliCOMMF.NOS FOR J'()IU( l"ROOOCTION provide the animal with proper space requirements; maximize labor efficiency; and promote better biosecurity. The life cycle housing system is composed of the following units: pregestation and boar, gestation, farrowing and nursery, and growing-finishing. Pregestation and boar unit. The breeding house must have sufficient space to accommodate mating activities. Mating should take place in the boar's pen because of its labor and safety advantages. Consider the following requirements: The air moisture level (relative humidity) should be maintained at about 70%. Approximately 16-18 hours oflightshould be maintained daily. Facilities should allow close supervision and easy access to the pen during mating. Boars should be housed individually to avoid injury due to fighting and for better mating performance. Bedding materials such as sand, wood shavings, or rice straw may be used in cases of leg problems. Pregestating gilts or sows can be housed in two ways. They may be kept in individual feeding-lying stalls that are made of G.I. pipes, wood, round bars, concrete cement, and/ or black iron pipes, or they may be housed in group pens. Gestation unit. House recently bred and pregnant gilts and sows in individual stalls to prevent injury, feed competition, and unnecessary stress that may lead to failure in fertilization or abortion. Farrowing unit. Transfer pregnant animals to this unit one week before the expected farrowing date. House the animals in elevated and slatted farrowing crates. Usually, the sow is confined between two tubular gates. Galvanized steel pipes and plastic flooring are commonly used for this purpose. Other materials such as wood, bamboo, and round bars may also be used. Use slatted floors to maintain hygiene. The flooring can be constructed out of concrete PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTION 45 cement, round bars, t-bars or trapezium iron bars, or plastic matting. Always provide the farrowing crate with a creep area equipped with sufficient heat source. Light bulb, ultraviolet lamps, or LPG-fired convection lamps are common sources of heat. Common types of flooring for the creep area are plastic­ coated wire mesh, plastic, and/ or metal flooring materials. Growing-finishing unit. Adopt an "all-in, all-out" scheme per pen. Animals can be housed in conventional pens with concrete floor and partition walls made of either concrete, round bars, or G.I. pipes. Table 8 presents the space requirements of buildings and equipment for swine. Appendices Q R, S, T, and U present the building designs for a commercial pig farm. Table 8. Space requirements of building and equipment for swine. Age and Size Pen Size/ Height of Feeder Partition of Animal Dimension (m2) Door (m) Space (cm) Wall (m) Before farrowing Gilts 2.00 1.0 35-45 1.20 Sows 2.70 1.0 45-50 1. 20-1.50 After Farrowing Young sows Solii:1 flooring 4.12 1.0 35-45 1.20 Slatted flooring 3.00 1.0 45-50 1.20 Mature sows Solid flooring 5.62 1.0 45-50 1. 20 Slatted flooring 3.96 1.0 45-50 1. 20-1.50 Herd Sows 2.70 1.0 40-50 1.20-1,.50 Boar Pens with Mating Area 6.00 1.0 40-50 1. 20-1.50 Weaning Pen (per weaner) Solid flooring 0.50 0.6 20 0.75 Slatted flooring 0.30-0.40 0.6 20 0.75 Growin - Finishing \ 30-60 g 0.60-0.70 1.0 25 1.00 61 to market 0.90-1.20 1.0 27-30 1.00 46 PHILIPPINES RECOMMENDS FOR PORK PRODUCTTON Waste Management Most of the environmental concerns associated with piggeries relate to water quality, soil degradation, air pollution, and rural­ urban interface issues. Many factors affect the pollution potential of swine waste. Nutrient content of animal waste an