Families in Canada Masterdoc PDF

Unit 1 Origin of the Family Reasons to study family: ​ To get a broader perspective of families ​ To understand how we develop within families ​ To understand the current changes occurring in families ​ To recognize the family as a hub of society around which other institutions a...

Unit 1 Origin of the Family Reasons to study family: ​ To get a broader perspective of families ​ To understand how we develop within families ​ To understand the current changes occurring in families ​ To recognize the family as a hub of society around which other institutions and groups revolve ​ To adopt valid plans and policies for future family situations in a given home, community or nation ​ To have an enhanced understanding of your own life experiences ​ To correct the fallacies and situations that persist in society ​ To find similarities and differences between families of the past, in other cultures and in Canada today Families and Society: ​ All societies have families ​ Together, ○​ Families make up neighbourhoods ○​ Nighbourhoods make up communities ○​ Communities make up cities ○​ Cities make up provinces and states, etc Defining the Family: ​ Definitions reflect ○​ The actual nature of families (Theoretical) ○​ The desirable nature of families as described in the social policies of that culture (Functional) ​ Why are definitions important? ○​ They are used in social policy, for example, determining who qualifies for benefits, who is responsible for children, etc. What is society? ​ A group of people (all genders, all ages..) ​ Sharing laws/rules ​ In a specific geographical area ​ Communicating and sharing a way of life = CULTURE ​ Can exist beyond the lifespan of the existing population Functional Requisites: ​ The basic functions required for society to work/survive ​ Society depends on families to perform these functions (MICRO level) ​ In return, societies provide families with necessary support for these functions Functions of the Family Why is this function important? What are some challenges that could arise? Reproduction -​ Introduces children to society ​ -​ Having children, adoption, IVF, etc. -​ Physically taking care of each other by providing basic care and taking care of Physical Needs needs ​ -​ Helping each other when ill, hurt, etc. ​ -​ Limiting things that could be harmful to their health (social media, video games, etc.) -​ Taking care of each others mental health Emotional Needs -​ Providing emotional support ​ -​ Teaching communication skills ​ -​ Providing adequate support based on needs (therapy, etc.) -​ Providing goods -​ Working and teaching children the Economic importance of work -​ Working to support the family -​ Teaching children how to properly handle money -​ Teaching children manners and how to Social Control properly conduct themselves in society -​ Leading by example on how to behave and speak -​ Taking children to school or daycare Socialization -​ Going out in public places -​ Seeing friends or other family members History of The Family Hunter Gatherers: ​ Existed between 1.8 million and 300,000 years ago ​ Lived in hordes (a loosely knit small social group typically consisting of about five families.) ​ To survive, taboos (unwritten rules) around sexual activity and violence gradually developed to ensure peace and survival ​ Informal group marriages are most common, Family = a group of parents and their kids ​ As time went on they began to settle for longer when food was plentiful → monogamy emerged → new role of fatherhood and the married couple ​ 5 Traits of a hunting gathering society: ○​ Family is the main institution (decides how resources are shared, how children are socialized, and provides for the protection of its members) ○​ Small (usually less than 50 members) ○​ Nomadic (move to new areas when the food supply has been exhausted ) ○​ High level of interdependence ○​ Sexual division of labour Agricultural Families: ​ Approximately 11 000 years ago farming developed in the Fertile Crescent area (modern day Iraq, Syria, Lebanon) ​ Families become sedentary—no longer nomadic ​ Impact of farming on families: ○​ Enormous change in family structure ○​ Able to generate more food and raise animals ○​ Need for larger families to work land and tend animals ○​ Owning land became important ○​ Each member of the family was an economic asset ​ Roles: ○​ Women ​ Cared for children ​ Provided domestic support ○​ Men ​ Wormed the land and tended the animals ​ Were the decision makers ○​ Children ​ Cared for by mother while young ​ Learned to help with chores by age 3 or 4, Were assigned gender-specific chores ​ Structure ○​ Patriarchal: men were the authority and decision makers ○​ Monogamy: having only one marital partner became preferred ○​ Polyugamy: successful farmers could support more than one wife ○​ Arranged marriage: not based on love but economic necessity ○​ Extended families: married children stayed with parents to decreases unusable land Pre-Industrial Families: ​ As farming communities evolved, commerce evolved ​ Extra food was sold in exchange for goods ​ Cottage Industries ○​ Merchants and artisans began to work from their homes so wives and children could help ○​ Tools/fabrics/general store ​ Structure: ○​ Fewer children needed ○​ Marriage based on economic necessity ○​ Children wormed in jobs based on gender by age 7 ○​ Wealthy families and families without children had women as domestic servants and male apprentices ○​ Women were considered property ○​ Women had very limited legal rights to property or children ​ Resulted in the harsh treatment of both women and children ​ Roles: ○​ Men ​ Made all the important decisions - the head of the family ​ Worked with spouse on land or in commercial settings ○​ Women ​ Were assigned gender specific chores ​ Worked with spouse ○​ Children ​ Were assigned gender specific chores ​ Continued to be an economic necessities Urban Industrial Families: ​ The characteristics of women made them more suited to the emotional nurturing of children ​ The characteristics of men made them more suited to the workplace ​ Children were disciplined but protected from hard work ​ Adolescence emerged as a distinct age ​ Nuclear Family emerged with clear gender roles and became the stereotypical modern family ​ Impact of the Industrial Revolution: ○​ Change from agrarian economy to industrial economy ○​ Families became consumers instead of producers ○​ Poor families left rural areas and started working in factories ○​ Laws began prohibiting child labour ○​ Income completely unrelated to home or family life ​ Structure: ○​ Father was the breadwinner ○​ Mother cared for children ○​ Home was the place for love and emotional support ○​ Beginning Of industrial nuclear family ○​ Late 1800s ​ Many working class women and children worked with fathers in factories ○​ Early 1900s ​ Smaller family sizes ​ Delayed marriages ​ Women continued to be homemakers ​ Roles: ○​ Father ​ Continues to be head of the household ​ Earn an income and provides for family ○​ Mother ​ Nurtures children ​ Works in the home ​ Motherhood becomes a sacred role ○​ Children ​ No longer an economic necessity ​ Attend school - compulsory by mid 1800s ​ Are protected and enjoy the innocence of childhood Contemporary Families (1950ish - now): ​ Between 1946 and 1968 the birth rate rose again ○​ Cohort known as baby boom ​ Early tv shows depicted the industrial nuclear family as the ideal ​ Influences: ○​ Women began working outside the home ○​ Divorce Act 1968 ○​ Birth control pill ○​ Immigration shifts ○​ New multicultural influences ​ Modern Families: ○​ Transitional family ​ Mother leaves workforce to care for young children ○​ Dual-income families ​ Both spouses work full time ○​ Blended family ​ Divorced partners with children remarry Types of Families Nuclear ​ Mother, father, and one or more children (bio or adopted) ​ Advantages: ○​ Two people share parenting responsibilities ○​ Financial responsibility shared ○​ Examples of male and female role models ​ Disadvantages: ○​ Only one parent home a large part of the time Single parent ​ Only one parent and one or more children ​ Advantages: ○​ Learn responsibility ○​ Independence ○​ Can be more stable ​ Disadvantages: ○​ No one else to help ○​ Less free time ○​ Less money ○​ Need role models Blended ​ 2 parents, one or both of whom have children from a previous relationship ​ Advantages: ○​ Adults share responsibilities ​ Disadvantages: ○​ Need more patience ○​ Adjustment to new roles Extended ​ All the immediate relatives of a family ​ Advantages: ○​ More to help with responsibilities ○​ Elder wisdom ○​ More money ​ Disadvantages: ○​ Less room ○​ Less privacy ○​ Difficulty getting along Cooperative family ​ Non related people who get together to rear their children in one household ​ Advantages: ○​ Support ○​ Share responsibilities ​ Disadvantages: ○​ Adjustment Norms, Roles, and Institutions ​ Norm: refers to standards or patterns, and it can be used in a variety of contexts. ​ Social Norms: refer to expected patterns of behaviour in particular sitRoles: are the proper or customary functions that a person or institution performs ​ Social Roles: can refer to our duties and responsibilities or positions we hold in society. We all have many different roles in society.uations and may vary by culture and change over time ​ Social Institutions: they describe groups of people who are banded together for a common goal or purpose. That purpose generally involves giving members rights and privileges. Structural Functionalism ​ Emile Durkheim developed this sociological theory. ​ Functionalism looks at how a society is organized to perform its required functions effectively. ​ Functionalism assumes that “families are institutions that serve specific functions in society, and family members are expected to fill prescribed roles within the institution for the good of society as a whole.” ​ From the functionalist point of view, social change can upset the equilibrium in the society. ​ Institutions teach individuals the appropriate behaviour for the many roles they will play in society through the process of socialization. ​ Deviance is a threat to how society works so it must be controlled and/or eliminated Symbolic interactionism ​ Developed by Max Weber ​ Symbolic interactionism is a psychological theory that looks at how individuals behave based on their perceptions of themselves and of others. ​ People experience their social world, and then define and interpret their experiences to give them meaning. ​ Symbolic interactionism is based on three basic concepts: ○​ 1. An individual develops a self that has two parts: the “me” that consists of objective qualities (tall, male, student), and the “I” that is the subjective awareness of self (good student, shy, lonely). According to psychologist Charles Cooley, the “I” is based on how the individual interprets feedback from other people (Bee, 1987). ○​ 2. People must also “take the attitude of the other” to be able to anticipate what the other person will do and decide how they should respond. This is what George Mead, a philosopher and psychologist, believed (Bee, 1987). This role-taking is the basis for human interaction. ○​ 3. People are able to interact effectively only if they can communicate using a common language—that is, shared symbols, Mead argued. Language is the means by which individuals interpret and give meaning to their experiences of self and others in order to interact in relationships. ​ George Herbert Mead: The “I” and the “Me” ○​ The self consists of 'me' and 'I'. The 'me' represents learned societal behaviors and expectations, and the 'I' represents the individual's identity based on the response to those social behaviors and expectations. The 'me' and the 'I' act to balance the self out. ​ Charles Horton Cooley: The “Looking Glass Self” ○​ The looking-glass self refers to the dependence of one’s social self or social identity on one’s appearance to others. ○​ “I am not what I think I am. I am not what you think I am. I am what I think you think I am.” Systems Theory ​ Used to describe interconnectedness and interdependence of biological systems ​ ​ Every system is part of a network of systems. ​ One part can affect the others. ​ Ecological Systems Theory ○​ Similar to Systems Theory but Ecological Systems Theory extends to influences outside the family. ○​ It also explains how the socio-economic and socio-cultural environments influence individual and family behaviour through socialization, the availability of resources, and the established political framework. ○​ Urie Bronfenbrenner developed this perspective in 1979. ○​ This approach combines aspects of systems theory and developmental theory. ○​ Ecological Systems Theory sees families as microsystems that are modelled on the organization of the broader society. It is a useful approach for examining the impact of social change and policies on individuals and families, but it is less useful for investigating individual situations. Social Exchange ​ Developed by Georg Simmel ​ Idea that within each role we act to maximise our rewards (meeting physical needs and getting emotional approval), and minimize our costs (meeting needs of others) ​ Rewards must be greater than costs for a relationship to continue ​ If ones expectations are not met, it will end ​ A relationship is evaluated using 2 criteria: ○​ Qualities of ones partner ○​ The outcome of the social interactions with the partner Conflict ​ Founded by Karl Marx and Frederick Engels ​ Looks at the role of power in society to explain inequalities in society and critique social organization ​ Macro theory that examines inequalities and can be used for analyzing power and authority within the family ​ Conflict theory assumes that groups compete with one another to meet their needs. If groups are in competition, then the needs of all will not be met equally. ​ This competition can also result in exploitation by individuals with greater power over others with lesser power. ​ Tries to explain the historical and economic causes of social injustice. ​ It stresses the effect of political and economic factors on relationships and families (and how these vary by social class). ​ Social class (people who earn a living in the same way and have similar sources and amounts of income) is the most important concept in Conflict Theory. ​ Social change is the result of struggle between groups with conflicting views ​ Marx and Engels argued that growing inequality in society would eventually result in workers rising up and overthrowing the system, ultimately resulting in a classless society. ​ A proletarian revolution is a social revolution in which the working class attempts to overthrow the bourgeoisie and change the previous political system. Feminist ​ Examines the impact of sex and gender on behaviour ​ Androcentricity is bias that assumes male behaviour is human behaviour ​ developed in the second half of the 20th century. ​ It works from a conflict theory perspective, but uses sex and gender rather than class. ​ Feminists argue that change is necessary so the needs of all people are met. ​ Liberal feminism—discriminatory policies force women into an inferior social class that restricts their rights to participate fully in society according to their individual abilities; they try to change social policy through political means. ​ Socialist feminism—assumption that the status of women is a social inequity rooted in the sexual division of paid and unpaid labour. ​ Radical feminism—differences in power between men and women result in any male-female relationship being exploitive; they suggest there should be the development of a separate female culture. Life Course/Developmental ​ Notable life-course/developmental theory proponents (Erik Erikson, Jane Loevinger, Klaus Riegel, Leonard Pearlin) ​ As a concept, a “life course” is defined as "a sequence of socially defined events and roles that the individual enacts over time.” ​ This approach explains how a person or family adapts in response to internal or external stimuli. ​ It is often combined with systems theory to analyze how transitions take place. ​ Key assumptions of the life course perspective are: ○​ 1) People’s lives are influenced by historical and biographical contexts that are ever-changing. ○​ 2) The impact and consequences of life transitions, events, and behaviours vary according to their timing in a person’s life ○​ 3) Human lives are embedded in social relationships across the life span ○​ 4) The role of human agency is important for understanding people's life courses. People make decisions within the options and constraints of the contexts they find themselves in. ​ Developmental theories such as this one are based on long-term studies of many cohorts and are used to explain behaviour and are not intended to dictate how people should behave or criticize those who follow a different life pattern. Unit 2 Adolescence ​ This stage of life did not always exist! ○​ Children were infants (until 7-8 yrs old) and then expected to help contribute to the family, they were then called “youth”. ​ Why did adolescence not exist? ○​ Parents were not emotionally close to their children... ○​ Because of high rates of infant mortality (more than 50% died before age 20)‫‏‬ ○​ Families had many kids... ○​ To ensure that there would be a male heir to support parents in old age ○​ Working class youth left home to live in other homes to work as servants, etc ​ Impact of Industrialization on adolescence ○​ Children and youth started to work in factories and shared their wages with their families ○​ After the age of 17, they were allowed to keep part of their wages and they had more freedom ○​ Upper class youth became well educated ○​ Schooling was extended: therefore, adolescence became time of learning and leisure for middle class children ​ Adolescence Today ○​ The transition into adulthood has become an extended period of adolescence ​ This means: individuals stay emotionally and financially dependent on their parents until their late 20’s or later ○​ Youth spend more time in school but have fewer job opportunities when finished ○​ Youth have lost their voice in adult society ​ Early Adulthood ○​ By law in Canada, adulthood begins at age 18 ○​ Definitions of adulthood vary in various societies and cultures ○​ Traditionally, adulthood occurred when young people separate from their parents to form an independent household ○​ Changes in educational and employment conditions has affected the financial stability of young adults and their ability to form an independent household ​ Later Transitions ○​ The transition from childhood to adulthood is occurring later for young men and women ○​ “Failure to launch” was a common term used to describe this phenomenon ○​ Because many adult roles depend on one’s ability to be financially independent, youth cannot accept these roles because they often require a stable income ○​ Functionalists: explain that this delay in the transition to adulthood is necessary to protect youth who are not fully socialized for adulthood in our society ○​ Conflict Theorists: argue that youth are exploited by a society that does not allow for their full participation the workforce, so they are prevented from achieving independence ​ Challenges in early adulthood ○​ leaving home ○​ forming new relationships ○​ finishing post-secondary education ○​ finding full-time employment ​ Successful Transitions ○​ In order for youth to make a successful transition to adulthood, society should provide 2 things: 1.​ A set of consistent beliefs about the behaviour of adults 2.​ Opportunities for young people to participate in clear adult roles Identity ​ The distinguishing character or personality of an individual ​ Self: The “self” is an individual person as the object of its own reflective consciousness. ​ Self according to Erikson: ○​ consistent sense of self ○​ realistic perception of the world ○​ sense of control over one’s own life ​ Self according to Freud: ○​ mature ego that is able to modify one’s ideas & action to fit into the real world in culturally appropriate ways ​ Self according to Daniel Levinson: ○​ Identity is similar to the Dream – the core of life ​ Self-Esteem ○​ an individual's sense of self, as part of the identity - not only a sense of “who you are” but also a sense of “who you will be” Steinberg’s 3 Types of Autonomy ​ Emotional Autonomy ○​ Begin to develop more control of emotions (don't always rely on parents for emotional support) ○​ “Friendship” develops with parents ○​ Fully emotionally independent when able to maintain close ties with parents but also have their own identity. ​ Behavioural Autonomy ○​ Making decisions independently and sticking with them. ○​ Learning to think through situations, consider various situations and independently make a decision. ​ Value Autonomy ○​ Establishing independent set of beliefs, morals and beliefs ○​ Examining peer groups beliefs, morals and values and making appropriate choices ○​ Terminal values: goals that people would like to reach (freedom, love, success, popularity) ○​ Instrumental values: values people use to reach their goals (honesty, reliability, hard work) Agents of Socialization ​ Resocialization: discard old behaviour and change to new behaviour ​ Anticipatory Socialization: allows people to learn and practice role behaviour before they take on a new role ​ The Family ○​ The first place that you develop socialization skills ○​ Primary role for your identity development ○​ Where you develop a sense of control, self-esteem ○​ Where you acquire much of your personality ○​ Where you develop your religion, social status etc. ○​ Where you get instant feedback on your decisions (praise or discipline) ○​ Where you earn your autonomy ○​ Intentional and unintentional socialization ​ Peers ○​ As early as infancy we begin to be influenced by our relationships with others (crying when another child cries etc.) ○​ Peer influence on behaviour gradually becomes more dominant. It has been suggested that peer groups have an even larger influence than that of parents. (Harris and Rowe, 1994) ○​ The influence of the peer group typically peaks during adolescence. ○​ However, peer groups generally only affect short term interests unlike the family, which has long term influence. ○​ Peer groups can also serve as a venue for teaching members gender roles. Gender and Gender Expression ​ Gender Identity: each person’s internal and individual experience of gender. ​ Gender Expression: how a person publicly presents their gender. This can include behaviour and outward appearance such as dress, hair, make-up, body-language and voice. A person’s name and pronoun are also common ways of expressing gender. ​ Sex: biological traits that society associates with being male or female. ​ Transgender: an umbrella term referring to people with diverse gender identities and expressions that differ from stereotypical gender norms. It includes but is not limited to people who identify as transgender, trans woman, trans man, gender non-conforming, gender variant or gender queer, non-binary. ​ Cisgender: denoting or relating to a person whose sense of personal identity and gender corresponds with their birth sex. ​ Gender roles are based on norms, or standards, created by society. ​ In Canada, masculine roles are usually associated with strength, aggression, and dominance, while feminine roles are associated with passivity, nurturing, and subordination. ​ Gender socialization begins at birth and occurs through four major agents of socialization: family, education, peer groups, and mass media. ​ Gender stereotypes form the basis of sexism, or the prejudiced beliefs that value males over females. ​ Heteronormative: of, relating to, or based on the attitude that heterosexuality is the only normal and natural expression of sexuality. Parent-Adolescent Relationships ​ Parent-adolescent relationships are essential for development as parents are the first role model for children. ​ Children often model their behaviour off of what they observe their parents doing, which alters how they develop. ​ Communication with parents is associated with less delinquent behaviour, less depression, and fewer psychosomatic symptoms ​ A happy home life is related to better well-being, higher self-esteem and fewer emotional problems Rites of Passage ​ Segregation (separation from old status/society, either physically or spiritually) ​ Transition (the process of becoming a new and developed person) ​ Incorporation and Reintegration (society recognizes the person’s new social status because of what they have endured and experienced) ​ Aggregation: when the cohort gathers in support of the individual facing the rite, both to observe and to help the individual. Education ​ History ○​ Education is a formal event ○​ 1800’s education was only for the rich. Purpose was to make them well-rounded individuals ○​ There was a lot of resistance to formal schooling ○​ Poor families needed the children to work, not go to school ○​ From 1900-1930, most children left school at age 14 to work ○​ The belief was that starting work early was more valuable as they would learn the specific skills required on the job ○​ Education was seen as a crucial factor for future success by the late 1900s ○​ Children and youth were encouraged to stay and complete high school and attend post-secondary education ○​ The expectation was that education would move youth ahead of their parents financially because they would be getting better paying jobs ​ Now ○​ youth are encouraged to stay in school and to go on to post-secondary education to get better jobs and more money ○​ Most youth graduate from high school (82.2%)‫‏‬in 4yrs (88.1%) in 5yrs Ontario (2020) ○​ OCSB: 4yr rate 88.3% 5yr graduation rate 90.6% ○​ 80% get some sort of post-secondary education ○​ 10-20% of these students drop out by the end of the 1st year ​ Credentialism ○​ Most Canadians believe that the best way to prepare for a career is through post-secondary education ○​ Education is valued for job training rather than for its intrinsic interest, a trend called credentialism ​ Students receive career counselling to select the post-secondary program that will earn them credentials for a job ​ Students tend to choose courses in which they expect to achieve high marks, rather than ones that interest them. 90% of post-secondary graduates stated that it was important or very important to obtain employment related to their field of study ​ Education Inflation ○​ Jobs demand higher levels of education and technical ability, but do individuals require the education and technical training demanded to do the job? ○​ According to education inflation, this is not the case ○​ Youth today require more education to qualify for some jobs now than was required for the same jobs in the past ○​ Conflict theorists argue that the demand for higher education reflects a desire to gain professional status and wealth, not higher skills Working ​ Youth wages are low and this encourages them to stay in school ​ 1960s-70s: the economy was thriving and people stayed in their well paying jobs longer ​ 80s-90s: the economy changed with fewer jobs in agriculture and manufacturing and more in the service industry ​ 2000s: as baby boomers retire there will be a greater need for educated and skilled workers to fill the vacancies Unsuccessful Transitions ​ Problems like homelessness can occur when the transition to adulthood isn’t successfully managed ​ These problems reflect a young adult’s inability to cope with transitions and/or the lack of social supports available in Canadian society ​ “Youth homelessness” refers to the situation and experience of young people between the ages of 13 and 24 who are living independently of parents and/or caregivers, but do not have the means or ability to acquire a stable, safe or consistent residence. ​ Young people who are homeless (ages 13-24) make up approximately 20 percent of the homeless population in Canada. Leaving Home ​ Young adults are currently leaving home later than their parents expected for a variety of reasons: ○​ enjoy the security of home ○​ may be responsible for taking care of a parent ○​ may have established a good adult relationship with parents ○​ shortage of affordable housing ○​ still in school ○​ higher income parents can give a better life ​ Different types of conflict in the home may lead young adults to leave earlier: ○​ parents may demand too much from them ○​ parental conflict ○​ divorce, especially if parents remarry ○​ lower income parents Developmental Theories Erik Erikson - Psychosocial stages of development ​ Each stage has a conflict/crisis, by resolving the conflict one can deal with the next stage, A failure to resolve the conflict may cause problems later in life ○​ Stage 1: Trust vs. Mistrust (Infancy from birth to 18 months) ○​ Stage 2: Autonomy vs. Shame and Doubt (Toddler years from 18 months to three years) ○​ Stage 3: Initiative vs. Guilt (Preschool years from three to five) ○​ Stage 4: Industry vs. Inferiority (Middle school years from six to 11) ○​ Stage 5: Identity vs. Confusion (Teen years from 12 to 18) ○​ Stage 6: Intimacy vs. Isolation (Young adult years from 18 to 40) ○​ Stage 7: Generativity vs. Stagnation (Middle age from 40 to 65) ○​ Stage 8: Integrity vs. Despair (Older adulthood from 65 to death) ​ Being unsuccessful results in role confusion Jane Loevinger - Theory of Ego Development ○​ Pre-Social (Infancy): The baby has no real sense of self and is entirely dependent on caregivers. It begins to form an ego by distinguishing itself from others. ○​ Impulsive: Young children are driven by emotions and immediate needs. They see the world as “good” if it meets their needs and “bad” if it doesn’t, focusing only on the present. ○​ Self-Protective: The child starts to develop basic self-control and follows rules to avoid punishment. Their actions are guided by rewards and the desire to avoid getting caught. ○​ Conformist: Awareness of belonging to a group grows. Children adopt group norms and trust group members, often viewing outsiders with suspicion. ○​ Self-Aware: Adults typically reach this stage by 25. They develop self-criticism, recognize differences between their true self and societal expectations, and explore different possibilities in life. ○​ Conscientious: People internalize societal rules but acknowledge exceptions. They feel guilt for harming others and take responsibility for their choices. They also see others as complex individuals. ○​ Individualistic: A focus on personal individuality and respect for differences emerges. There’s greater sensitivity to inner experiences and life’s complexities. ○​ Autonomous: Self-fulfillment and acceptance take priority. People respect others’ autonomy, embrace life’s complexities, and make nuanced moral decisions. ○​ Integrated: Few reach this stage, marked by wisdom, deep empathy, and self-actualization. The mature ego values individuality and has a strong sense of self-acceptance. Klaus Riegel - Dimensions of Development ​ NOT predictable stages ​ People develop and grow based on the working of their biological and social clocks: ○​ INTERNAL: ​ Psychological dimensions=emotional and mental maturity and independence ​ Biological dimension = physical and sexual maturity ○​ EXTERNAL: ​ Cultural dimensions = expectations and opportunities provided by society ​ Environmental dimension = physical, economic, political environment in which one lives ​ Development occurs when a change in one dimension requires an adjustment in one or more of the other dimensions Leonard Pearlin - Theory of Psychological Distress ​ Disagreed with stages ​ Changes in life are due to times of distress ​ 4 elements determine one's path ○​ (1) Individual characteristics: gender, race, IQ, family, personality, education ○​ (2) Coping skills to deal with stress ○​ (3) Availability of social support ○​ (4) The type and timing of stress ​ Pearlin described a life course of continuous changes required by distress. He defined distress as stimulus that requires a psychological response ​ Individuals might experience occasional periods of stability in their lives if there was no distress at that time ​ Cohort effect: changes in behaviour that result from socialized responses to a common external social clock, rather than from age-linked inner changes Daniel Levinson - Theory of the Seasons of Life ​ Seasons are 25 yrs each ​ During adolescence the following happens: ○​ Emotional separation from family ○​ Complete education and make plans for work ○​ Master 4 tasks: ​ Form a Dream (sense of self) ​ Form an Occupation ​ Form a mentor relationship ​ Form a love relationship ​ Early adult transition (17‐22): Leaving home, leaving family; making first choices about career and education ​ Entering the adult world (22‐28): Committing to an occupation, defining goals, finding intimate relationships ​ Age thirty transition (28‐33): Reevaluating those choices and perhaps making modifications or changing one’s attitude toward love and work ​ Settling down (33 to 40): Reinvesting in work and family commitments; becoming involved in the community ​ Midlife transition (40‐45): Reevaluating previous commitments; making dramatic changes if necessary; giving expression to previously ignored talents or aspirations; feeling more of a sense of urgency about life and its meaning ​ Entering middle adulthood (45‐50): Committing to new choices made and placing one’s energies into these commitments Jeffrey Arnett - Theory of Emerging Adulthood ​ Distinct stage in the life course between adolescence and adulthood ​ Arnett argues individuals from 18-25 in industrialized countries are not yet adults but no longer adolescents ​ Emerging adults focus identity exploration in a variety of possible life directions in love, work, and worldviews ​ REASONING: ○​ 1. The ages 18 to 25 are marked by instability. Individuals are semi-autonomous as they move in and out of the parental home, but few have achieved the financial independence required to live independently. ○​ 2. Most young adults do not feel that they have reached adult status. Young adults identify accepting responsibility for one’s self, independent decision-making, and financial independence as the criteria for adulthood ○​ 3. emerging adulthood offers opportunities for identity exploration separate from and prior to making decisions for adulthood Unit 3 Mate Selection Theories Evolutionary Psychology Theory ​ Survival of the human race! ​ WOMEN = looked for men who are strong! (protection/security/good genes) ​ MEN = looked for women who were fertile! (breasts and hips) ​ Adaptive behaviours: strategies that enabled individuals to compete successfully for limited resources, to survive, to reproduce and to raise children ​ Adaptive behaviours gave individuals an evolutionary advantage ​ The theory of natural selection explains that individuals with an evolutionary advantage passed on their genes and their culture to the next generation ​ Humans today have inherited the unconscious mating strategies that made our ancestors successful ​ Anthropological evidence showed that attraction preferences in the past ensured that children were born and survived to adulthood to produce ​ Helen Fisher identified adaptive behaviours for sexual attraction ○​ Women preferred to mate with men who had the resources to be good providers for themselves and their children because women were unable to both care for infants and gather enough food ○​ Men preferred to mate with women who could bear healthy babies who could feed their children and who had the intelligence and temperament to raise them well Social Homogamy Theory ​ Similar social and cultural backgrounds (age, race, religion) ​ Similar values and expectations ​ Proximity (same area, school, religious/culture events/centres) ​ You will marry someone LIKE YOU! ​ Proximity is a major factor in mate selection ​ Individuals are attracted to, fall in love with, and marry those who live and work nearby, belong to the same religious community, or attend the same cultural events ​ Explains how individuals are attracted to people from similar social and cultural backgrounds so that they share social, cultural and economic values and lifestyle expectations ​ Highest correlations found in age, race, ethnic background, religion, socio-economic status and political views Ideal Mate Theory ​ Believes that we have an unconscious image of our ideal mate ​ We end up comparing everyone to to determine their level of attractiveness ​ Explains attraction from a symbolic interactionist perspective ○​ Attraction is based on an individual’s unconscious image of the ideal mate formed from their own perceptions of the meaning of certain characteristics ​ Supports the concept of love at first sight ○​ Everyone has an unconscious ideal with which they compare a person to find him or her attractive or to make the immediate judgment of the person as lovable Fair Exchange Theory ​ The exchange theory suggests that attraction is based more on what people are really like than on what is ideal. ​ It explains that almost everyone, regardless of how attractive they might be, finds a mate in his or her society because individuals are attracted to different people, so they don’t all search for the same ideal mate. ​ It answers the puzzling question “What do they see in each other?” ​ Individual preferences determine who is attractive as a potential mate, but finding someone appealing does not guarantee that the feeling is mutual ​ Individuals must compete with others to win the hand of the man or woman of their dreams ​ Social Exchange Theory suggests that attraction is based more on reality than fantasy ​ Almost everyone, regardless of how attractive they might be, finds a mate in their society because individuals are attracted to different people so they don’t all search for the same ideal mate ​ People assess the resources they have to offer and look for the best possible mate who will be attracted by these resources Older Men and Younger Women Theory ​ Men marry younger women worldwide (Buss, 2006). The age difference can be explained by evolutionary psychology. ​ The average age difference for Canadian men and women is 2 years (one of the lowest in the world) ​ The age difference can be explained by evolutionary psychology ​ Older men who have proven resources are considered more desirable by women in all societies ​ Younger women are considered more sexually desirable by men ​ Social Exchange Theory suggests that younger, more attractive women have greater resources to offer older, successful men ​ Conflict and Feminist Theories suggest that a match between an older man and a younger woman ensures that the man has greater resources and that the younger woman will need his resources to acquire an improved lifestyle, the age difference is necessary for men to maintain a dominant status in a patriarchal marriage. Parental Image Theory ​ Freud felt that since our parents are the first people we love, we tend to look for a mate that resembles our opposite sexed parent. ​ This is the basis for his Oedipal & Electra complexes. ○​ Oedipal complex: boy’s father stands in the way of the boy's love for his mother. He feels aggression and envy towards his father but he’s afraid his father will castrate him if he finds out about his desire. This castration anxiety surpassess his desire for his mother, so he represses it. ​ ○​ Electra complex: starts when the little girl first notices that she doesn’t have a penis and she blames her mother for losing it (mom castrated her). Her love for her father becomes erotic and envious as she wants a penis of her own (penis envy) Sternberg’s Love Triangle Theory ​ Passion, a strong feeling of sexual desire for another, develops the most quickly of the three. This probably results from a biological drive to reproduce. ○​ Ex. Romeo and Juliet ​ The intense friendship of intimacy develops more slowly, as each individual shares his or her experiences, thoughts, and feeling with another and becomes willing to meet the other’s psychological needs ​ Commitment to maintaining the relationship grows as the rewards of being in this relationship instead of in others become evident and individuals accept reciprocal roles and mutual interdependence ​ Sternberg chose to represent love as a triangle so that relationships with various proportions of passion, intimacy and commitment could be depicted by varying the length of the sides ​ Love relationships based on intimacy require the individuals to fully appreciate each other’s uniqueness and separateness ​ A companionate relationship requires an understanding of what one has to offer another and what one needs from another in return Filter Theory ​ Potential mates pass through a series of filters ​ As relationship becomes more serious, the filters become finer until only one person passes through it ​ Filters: 1. Field of Eligibles​ Who is out there, the general population.​ 2. Propinquity Filter​ Who is close to us? An available group to choose from. (proximity)​ 3. Attraction Filter (Physical attraction/Personality)​ Judgment based on appearance and individual characteristics​ 4. Homogamy Filter (Age, Race, Education, Socio-Economic Class, Religion)​ Judgment based on how similar these factors are to the individual.​ 5. Compatibility Filter (Temperament, Attitudes and Values, Needs, Roles, Habits)​ Judgment based on similarities of these more qualities​ 6. Trial Filter (Cohabitation, Engagement)​ Statement of commitment here. Test of the compatibility of all previous filters.​ 7. Decision Filter​ Final decision is made here to see if the individual is the right choice.​ 8. Marriage Dating ​ Courting ○​ Couples speaking ○​ Walking out together ○​ Keeping company after confirmation of mutual attraction ○​ A couple had to be formally introduced before being able to speak to each other ○​ Only then would they be left alone in the parlour to get to know each other ○​ In courtship men displayed resources to show their potential of being good providers ○​ Women displayed qualities to make them desirable and show them as nurturing ​ Dating emerged in the 1900s ○​ By the 1910s boys were expected to ask girls out, organize, and pay for the date ○​ During the 20s-30s dating involved going to parties and high school events ○​ A new vocab emerged (crush, boyfriend, girlfriend, going steady) ​ Stages in dating: ​ Informal dating ​ Going steady ​ Getting pinned ​ Getting engaged ​ Getting married ​ 1960s - age of marriage rose and dating became less ritualized ​ 1970s dating and it's clearly defined rules and expectations began to break down 6 possible causes of the emergence of dating (1)​ Co-education (2)​ Continuing freedom of women (single women working) (3)​ Freedom of youth from parental control (parents went to work, kids to school) (4)​ Rising standard of living (parents no longer need kids’ income) (5)​ Increased amount of leisure time (6)​ Increased mobility (the car!) Purpose of Marriage ​ Anthropological view ○​ It is a rite of passage that signifies a transition into adulthood in many societies (but not all). It is due to the pair bond, which is how people ensure their continued existence by reproducing and then protecting their offspring. Men and women both have a biological urge to produce children. ​ Functionalist View ○​ Marriage is a social institution that serves to organize society and meet human basic needs, such as sexual reproduction, socialization of children, and division of labor. ​ Social Exchange View ○​ The desire to marry reflects a belief that being married will be better than being single. ​ WHY? ○​ Marriage is often due to personal reasons more than biological reasons. Getting married gives the couple adult status, an opportunity to have children and share resources. It is a cultural expectation in many countries, such as Canada. Time Period How are marriages formed? What are the obligations of What are the expectations of How can an spouses? the marriage relationship? unsatisfactory marriage be ended? Ancient Arranged between patriarchal extended The bride had value as a The wife was expected to Divorce Hebrew families to produce sons. A betrothal potential mother, which was obey her husband and Marriage may have been formed when the symbolized by her bride price. produce male heirs. She could couple were children. She also had a dowry so she be divorced if she did not have could establish a home for her any sons. new family. This gave her dower rights to property from her husband. They had mutual obligations which were recorded in a marriage contract. Ancient They were patrilineal, patriarchal, and Strictly monogamous The wife was expected to Divorce could be initiated Rome patrilocal, meaning their purpose was relationship. Women had to run keep a household when her by men or women. the production of male heirs. the household while the man husband was away. was away as the Roman Empire expanded. Middle Ages Informal system which was very loosely Men and women had to enter Husband and wife were In the 12th century, the organized. Common law was the marriage contract willingly. expected to be faithful to each Catholic Church began to widespread and just as legal as church The priest would question other. regulate marriages, marriages. Marriage was a public event whether anyone had a reason to meaning divorce was and marriage banns were instituted. object, to ensure there were no greatly frowned upon. reasons to invalidate the But, the Catholic Church marriage. did not regulate all marriages. Early Indigenous peoples, with tribes that Indigenous men and women Men and women had a clear Divorce? Canada were matrilineal and matrilocal. were seen as equals. Women division of labour, they had provided stability to the social complementary roles that organization of the society. were highly valued. European The European men created temporary They had temporary marriages Very short because men left to Divorce? The men left. Contact marriages so they could be with to Indigenous women because go back to Europe. Women Indigenous women while away from there were not many European had no say in the marriage. their European wives. The colonist's women around. system was the patriarchal and patrilineal system of the Christian church. 19th Century Most immigrants were from Europe and Followed more of a nuclear Most often men would be the Divorce was rated as brought the custom of nuclear structure, so one would go out breadwinners and women marriage was seen as a households. Many arranged marriages, and work (mainly men) and the would stay at home to keep sacrament by Catholics but the majority were free choice. other would stay at home with the house and care for and a sacred institution Couples exploring marriage socialized the children. The primary goal children. by Protestants. under their parents’ supervision. Timing was reproduction. responded to the agricultural cycle. 20th Century Marriage is based more on romance, 1921 - marriage contracts were Marriage contracts gave Access to divorce was but also a necessity and the purpose of introduced. Temporary husbands a binding extremely limited in reproduction. marriages declined. responsibility to provide for Canada until a change in their wives and children. divorce law was enacted by the federal government in 1968. Divorce was illegal in Ontario until 1930 and in Quebec until 1968. Now Marriage is being rejected by both men Expected to express love for Marriage must be Annulment if marriage and women. Timing depends on the each other. consummated, or it may be isn't consummated within social clock and individual readiness. annulled. a dedicated time frame. No longer a significant rite of passage. Divorce is common. Delaying allows for post-secondary education and a career. Based on romance. Term or Phrase Historical Significance 1. polygyny Used to be quite common since a man can get multiple women pregnant at once, but a woman can only have one pregnancy at a time. This increased their chances of having a male heir. 2. polyandry Common in places such as rural Nepal. This occurs when a culture is so poor that several men are required to support a wife and children. 3. betrothal Common during the time of the Ancient Hebrews to ensure marriage. 4. bride price The bride price determined how valuable the woman was considered to be as a mother. 5. dowry Allowed the bride to establish a home for her new family. Common in Ancient Times. 6. dower rights The woman gained property rights from her husband due to her support. 7. bann A ritual that occurred in ancient times as marriage became a public event and a sacrament in the Catholic Church. 8. patrilineal In the Ancient Times, Hebrew marriages were the basis for a Patrilineal household. 9. matrilineal In the early 19th century, Indigenous marriages in Canada followed the matriline because women provided stability to the social organization of society. 10. Marriage à la façon du pays Common law marriage 11. les filles du roi The King's Daughters - french girls immigrated to New France Religious reform movement in Europe in the 12. Protestant Reformation 1500s Tasks of Marriage 1. Learning to Communicate Effectively 2. Learning to Resolve Conflicts 3. Establishing a Common Outlook on Life as a Couple 4. Learning to Give & Receive Emotional Support 5. Achieving a Satisfactory Sexual Relationship 6. Working Out Mutually Acceptable & Realistic Systems of Managing Family Income 7. Setting Up a Home 8. Working Out Mutually Acceptable Shares of Household Chores & Responsibilities 9. Establishing Acceptable Social Activities 10. Developing Satisfactory Relationships with Both Families of Orientation Cohabitation Pros Cons ​ Less permanent ​ Couples who cohabit and then get ​ Opportunity to share resources married are more likely to get divorced ​ Trial run to see if the relationship will ​ Feeling stuck in the relationship but work also feeling unable to leave ​ Less expensive than marriage ​ No legal protection ​ Theoretically easier to get out of ​ Key feelings regarding living together ​ Avoid the expenses and headaches may be overlooked - lack of of divorce communication ​ Opportunity to learn how to live ​ Divvying up assets can be messy together and work out problems without a lawyer before being committed ​ Financial disputes ​ No long term commitment Common Law ​ occurs when two people live together in a conjugal relationship, generally for at least a year (or more depending on the province they reside in) Same-Sex Marriage ​ Same-sex marriage has been legal in Canada since 2005. ​ Sociologists and psychologists have noticed that regardless of sexual orientation, all individuals have the same expectations of their relationships. 5 Types of Marriage ​ Conflict-habituated ○​ Conflict and tension are common but controllable ○​ Spouses are aware of tension in the marriage ○​ Almost any incident can cause an argument, though not violent ○​ During crisis, couple is able to suspend fighting ​ Devitalized ○​ One that used to be very loving ○​ Decline in loving and sexual relationship ○​ Share few interests, spend little time together ○​ Less satisfying sexual relationship ○​ Life is seen as routine ​ Passive-congenial ○​ Similar to devitalized marriages except it was not a decline in excitement; rather, the excitement was never there ○​ Partners did not seek/expect to find emotional intensity ○​ Often dedicated to careers ​ Vital ○​ Couple enjoys being together and gain satisfaction from sharing activities ○​ They will make sacrifices in order to spend time together ○​ In conflict, they avoid placing blame and resolve problems quickly because the relationship is vital to both partners. ​ Total ○​ Similar to vital relationships ○​ Sharing is carried over into almost all areas of partner’ lives ○​ Value each other’s abilities and care deeply about one another Divorce Facts ​ Divorce results from the failure of marriage to ​ meet the expectations of one or both ​ marriage partners. ​ Divorce is the legal term given to the ​ permanent dissolution of a legal marriage. ​ What is Canada’s current divorce rate? ○​ 40% ○​ Year 14.5 of marriage (average year for divorce) Phases of Divorce ​ Awareness phase – individual initiates divorce. ○​ Partners begin to withdraw from relationships by shifting energies to other roles. ○​ Who initiates first more often? ​ Separation phase – couple breaks up. ○​ Settle child custody & financial issues, notify friends & family, create separate households. ○​ Couples must accept the economic realities of divorce. ​ Recognition phase – individuals establish separate lives and negotiate their new parental roles if they have kids History of Divorce Pre-1968 Divorce Act 1968 Divorce Act 1986 -​ Only due to adultery -​ Now grounds included -​ Now grounds were for and cruelty (but was “marriage breakdown” after 1 yr of difficult to prove) after period of 3 yrs of separation (note 3) -​ Was socially separation -​ “No-fault” divorce embarrassing -​ “M.b.” is defined as introduced living separately for -​ Act encourages one year, one spouse mediation (negotiation adulterous, or one before litigation) spouse guilty of -​ Can jointly file for cruelty divorce -​ Rates jumped and -​ Rates jumped and then leveled then leveled Styles of Love ​ Agape - kind, unselfish ​ Storgic - love as friendship or companionship ​ Pragmatic - practical approach to love ​ Erotic - passionate, romantic ​ Manic - obsessive, jealous, addictive ​ Ludic - love as a game Unit 4 Childbearing and Child-Rearing Childbearing Through History ​ Industrial Revolution: Shifted children from economic contributors to financial dependents. Family roles adjusted as men became sole breadwinners. ​ Post-WWII Baby Boom (1947-1966): ○​ Birth rate surged due to economic prosperity and government policies like Family Allowance. ○​ Societal encouragement for women to return to domestic roles. ○​ Mandatory schooling and child labor laws extended children’s financial dependency on parents. ​ Modern Influences: ○​ Declining birth rates due to women’s workforce participation and access to contraception. Parenting Philosophies ​ Authoritative: Close, nurturing relationship with clear expectations. Leads to well-adjusted children with high self-esteem. ​ Authoritarian: Strict rules with minimal explanation. Fosters fear and decision-making difficulties. ​ Permissive: Warm but lenient; results in impulsive, anxious, and irresponsible children. Discipline and Punishment ​ Positive Discipline: Mutual respect promotes self-discipline. ​ Gentle Discipline: Supportive teaching from birth. ​ Boundary-Based Discipline: Clear limits teach respect. ​ Emotion Coaching: Helps children express emotions appropriately. ​ Power-Assertive Discipline: Physical punishment; linked to fear, aggression, and low self-esteem. Voluntary Childlessness ​ Reasons to Be Child-Free: 1.​ Freedom and self-fulfillment. 2.​ Focus on marriage or career. 3.​ Financial savings. 4.​ Environmental concerns. 5.​ Dislike of children or doubts about parenting ability. 6.​ Fear of pregnancy/childbirth. 7.​ Perceived dangers in the world for children. Fertility and Fertility Trends Key Terms ​ Fertility Rate: Average number of children born to women during their lifetime. ○​ Canada’s fertility rate: 2.1 (replacement rate). ​ Replacement Rate: Number of children needed to sustain population size. ​ Pronatalist Policies: Encouraged higher birth rates (e.g., post-war Family Allowance). Global Fertility Trends ​ Decline linked to female education and alternative roles beyond motherhood. ​ Demographic Transitions: ○​ 1st Transition (1870-1945): Family wages, child labor laws, and mandatory schooling. ○​ 2nd Transition (1967): Legalized birth control, gender equality, and delayed parenthood. Parent-Child Relationships Attachment ​ Secure Attachment: Responsive caregiving; children feel safe and valued. ​ Insecure Attachments: ○​ Avoidant: Unresponsive caregiving; children avoid seeking comfort. ○​ Ambivalent: Inconsistent caregiving; children remain distressed. ○​ Disorganized: Abusive caregiver; children show confusion or fear. Parent-Child Interactions ​ Oxytocin: ○​ Increases bonding between parents and children. ○​ Mother’s amygdala remains highly active post-pregnancy; fathers’ oxytocin rises with caregiving. ​ Impact of Parenting Style on the Brain: ○​ Less responsive caregiving increases cortisol (stress hormone). ○​ Babies of neglectful parents develop larger hippocampus to manage stress independently. Historical Context ​ 1500s-1700s Europe: ○​ Upper-class: Children ensured family lineage and inheritance. ○​ Lower-class: Children contributed labor to the family. ○​ Treatment: Harsh parenting; children considered property. ​ Indigenous Parenting: ○​ Valued children; raised them with care and respect. ○​ Egalitarian family structures with shared responsibilities. Divorce and Its Impact Custody Arrangements ​ Joint Custody: Shared decision-making. ​ Physical Custody: Child lives primarily with one parent (usually mother). ​ Shared Custody: Equal time with both parents (10% of cases). Impact on Children ​ 25% experience long-term effects: ○​ Emotional and social issues. ○​ Poor academic performance. ○​ Higher likelihood of substance abuse and divorce. Child Poverty in Canada ​ 1 in 10 children live in poverty. ​ Most affected: Lone-parent families. ​ Consequences: ○​ Poor academic and health outcomes. ○​ Developmental delays and adult depression. ​ Solutions: ○​ Quality childcare and early-learning programs. ○​ Increased maternal employment opportunities. Marriage Satisfaction ​ Equal partnership and shared responsibilities improve satisfaction. Dependency Crisis ​ Declining fertility creates fewer young workers to support an aging population. Middle Age (40-60) ​ Erikson’s Generativity vs. Stagnation: ○​ Generativity: Contributing to family and community; leads to accomplishment. ○​ Stagnation: Failing to contribute; leads to disconnection and unproductivity. Retirement ​ Canada Pension Plan (CPP): ○​ Monthly benefits begin at age 60. ○​ Amount depends on contributions and income. ​ RRSPs: ○​ Tax-deferred retirement savings. ○​ Encourages early and consistent contributions. Contemporary Theories of Aging 1.​ Stability Template Model: ○​ Personality formed in childhood remains stable into adulthood. ○​ Behaviour is consistent and predictable. 2.​ Orderly Change Model: ○​ Identity evolves through environmental interactions. ○​ Midlife prompts reevaluation of life goals. 3.​ Random Change Theory: ○​ Life events (e.g., social changes, cohort effects) shape identity and behaviour.