Facilitating Learner-Centered Teaching PDF

FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING Metacognition  refers to the process of thinking about your own thinking. It involves being aware of your thoughts, understanding how you learn, and monitoring and regulating your cognitive processes. In essence, metacognition involves the ability to re...

FACILITATING LEARNER-CENTERED TEACHING Metacognition  refers to the process of thinking about your own thinking. It involves being aware of your thoughts, understanding how you learn, and monitoring and regulating your cognitive processes. In essence, metacognition involves the ability to reflect on and control your own mental processes in order to enhance learning, problem-solving, and decision-making. The term "metacognition" was coined by John Flavell. According to Flavell (1979, 1987), metacognition consists of both metacognitive knowledge and metacognitive experiences or regulation. Metacognition, simply put, is "thinking about thinking" or "learning how to learn". It refers to higher-order thinking which involves active awareness and control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning. Metacognitive knowledge refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive processes, knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. There are two main components of metacognition: Metacognitive Knowledge: This involves understanding your own cognitive abilities, knowing different strategies for learning or problem-solving, and being aware of what strategies are most effective for a particular task. It's about knowing what you know and what you don't know. Metacognitive knowledge into three categories: Person Variables. -This includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker. Knowledge of person variables refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and process information, as well as individual knowledge of one's own learning processes. Task Variables. -Knowledge of task variables includes knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing demands that it will place upon the individual. It is about knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. Strategy Variables. Knowledge of strategy variables involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and evaluating whether this strategy is effective. If you think your strategy is not working, then you may think of various strategies and try out one to see if it will help you learn better.  Meta-attention is the awareness of specific strategies so that you can keep your attention focused on the topic or l task at hand.  Meta-memory is your awareness of memory strategies that work best for you. Metacognitive Regulation: This refers to the processes of planning, monitoring, and evaluating your cognitive activities. It involves setting goals, monitoring your progress, and adjusting your strategies if you realize they're not effective. It's essentially the self directed control of your cognitive processes. Here are some examples of teaching strategies to develop metacognition: (Work hard on applying these strategies now in your role as a student. It will surely be a rewarding learning experience for you.) 1. Have students monitor their own learning and thinking. (Example: have a student monitor a peer's learning/thinking/behaving in dyad) 2. Teach students study or learning strategies.  TQLR - This can be taught to younger students (primary grades). It is a metacognitive strategy before listening to a story or presentation. Tune in. It is first important for the learner himself to be aware that he is paying attention, and that he is ready to learn. Question. The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about what he will soon learn. Listen. The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes aware if he is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again. Remember. The learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was learned.  PQ4R —This is usually for older students in the intermediate levels and onwards. This strategy is used to study a unit or chapter. Preview. Scan the whole chapter before delving into each paragraph. Check out the objectives. Look for outlines or advance organizers that will give you an idea about the important topics and ideas in the chapter. Read the summary of the chapter first. (But please don't stop at the summary alone. No. No. No. This is not a good idea at all. Read the whole chapter!) Question. Read the guide questions provided, or think of your own questions about the topic. Read. Check out subheadings as you read. Pay attention to words that are printed in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of words that are not clear to you. Use a marker or colored pencil to highlight important words or phrases. (Do not highlight the whole paragraph!) Recite. Work on answering the questions you had earlier. Review. Pinpoint topics you may need to go back to and read in order to understand better. Reflect. Think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are the main points you learned? How is this relevant or useful to you? 3. Have students make predictions about information to be presented next based on what they have read. 4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures. (It is important to have relevant knowledge structures well learned.) 5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about what's going on around them (Have you asked a good question today?) 6. Help students to know when to ask for help. (He/she must be able to self-monitor; require students to show how they have attempted to deal with the problem of their own.) 7. Show students how to transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, skills to other situations or tasks. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN NOVICE AND EXPERT LEARNERS Aspect of Learning Novice Learners Expert Learners Learning/thinking Employ rigid strategies that Design new strategies that would Strategies may not be appropriate to the be appropriate to the task at hand task at hand Selectivity in Attempt to process all Select important information to Processing information they receive process; able to breakdown information to manageable chunks Production of output Do not examine the quality of Check their errors and redirect their work, nor stop to make their efforts to maintain quality revisions output Knowledge in Have limited knowledge in the Have deeper knowledge in different different subject areas different subject\areas subject areas because they look for interrelationships in the things, they learn Problem solving Satisfied at just scratching the First try to understand the urface; hurriedly gives a problem, look for boundaries, and solution to the problem create a mental picture of the problem LEARNER-CENTERED PSYCHOLOGICAL PRINCIPLE You, the learner, are the center of instruction. The world of instruction revolves around you. This module is focused on the fourteen (14) principles that run through the twenty-five (25) modules. The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles were put together by the American Psychological Association. The following 14 psychological principles pertain to the learner and the learning process. The 14 principles have the following aspects: They focus on psychological factors that are primarily internal to and under the control of the learner rather than conditioned habits or physiological factors. However, the principles also attempt to acknowledge external environment or contextual factors that interact with these internal factors. The principles are intended to deal holistically with learners in the context of real- world learning situations. Thus, they are best understood as an organized set of principles; no principle should be viewed in isolation. The 14 principles are divided into those referring to (1) cognitive and metacognitive, (3) developmental and social, and Finally, the principles are intended to apply to all learners - from children to teachers, to administrators, to parents, and to the community) members involved in our educational system.  The Learner-Centered Psychological Principles COGNITIVE AND METACOGNITIVE FACTORS Principle 1: Nature of the learning process.  The learning of complex subject matter is most effective when it is an intentional process of constructing meaning from information and experience. Principle 2: Goals of the learning process.  The successful learner, over time and with support and instructional guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of knowledge. Principle 3: Construction of knowledge.  The successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge in meaningful ways. Principle 4: Strategic thinking  The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals. Principle 5: Thinking about thinking  Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations facilitate creative and critical thinking. Principle 6: Context of learning  Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, technology, and instructional practices. MOTIVATIONAL AND AFFECTIVE FACTORS Principle 7: Motivational and emotional influences on learning  What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner's motivation. Motivation to learn, in turn, is influenced by the individual's emotional states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking. Principle 8: Intrinsic motivation to learn  The learner's creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests, and providing for personal choice and control. Principle 9: Effects of motivation on effort  Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner effort and guided practice. Without learners' motivation to learn, the willingness to exert this effort is unlikely without coercion. DEVELOPMENTAL AND SOCIAL FACTORS Principle 10: Developmental influence on learning  As individuals develop, they encounter different opportunities and experience different constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and social domains is taken into account. Principle 11: Social influences on learning  Learning is influenced by social interactions, interpersonal relations, and communication with others. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES FACTORS Principle 12: Individual differences in learning  Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for learning that are a function of prior experience and heredity. Principle 13: Learning and diversity  Learning is most effective when differences in learners' linguistic, cultural, and social backgrounds are taken into account. Principle 14: Standards and assessment  Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the learner and learning progress-including diagnostic, process, and outcome assessment-are integral parts of the learning process. REVIEW OF THEORIES RELATED TO THE LEARNERS' DEVELOPMENT The educational trend brought out by a number of ground-breaking researches tells that one can be an effective facilitator of learning if one has a good working knowledge of the learners' development. “ The teacher must orient his work not on yesterday’s development in the child but on tomorrow.” -Lev Vygotsky "Healthy children will not fear life if their elders have integrity enough not to fear death." -Erik Erikson "Right action tends to be defined in terms of general individual rights and standards that have been critically examined and agreed upon by the whole society." -Lawrence Kohlberg "The principal goal of education in the schools should be creating men and women who are capable of doing new things, not simply repeating what other generations have done" -Jean Piaget "The mind is like an iceberg; it floats with one-seventh of its bulk above water." -Sigmund Freud "We as a nation need to be reeducated about the necessary and sufficient conditions for making human beings human. We need to be reeducated not as parents—but as workers, neighbors, and friends; and as members of the organizations, committees, boards—and, especially, the informal networks that control our social institutions and thereby determine the conditions of life for our families and their children." -Urie Bronfenbrenner Development Theories and Proponent Theories of development provide a framework for thinking about human growth and learning. An understanding of child development is essential because it allows us to fully appreciate the cognitive, emotional, physical, social, and educational growth that children go through from birth and into early adulthood. Sigmund Jean Piaget Erik Erikson Lawrence Lev Urie Freud Kohlberg Vygotsky Bronfenbrenner Cognitive Psycho-Social Psychoanalytic Theory Theory Of and Moral Socio-Cultural Ecological Of Development Development Development Theory Theory Psychosexual Theory Personality-based Seeks to describe Describes growth States that we Learning is an Views child theories endorsed and explain the and change progress through inherently social development as a by Sigmund Freud. development of throughout life, three levels of process. Through complex system of He believed a thought processes focusing on social moral interacting with relationships person's childhood and mental states. interaction and thinking that build others, learning affected by multiple experiences, It also looks at conflicts that arise on our cognitive Becomeintegrated levels of the coupled with how these thought during different development. into an individual's surrounding unconscious processes stages of understanding of environment, from desires, influence how we development. the world. immediate settings determine that understand and of family and school person's interact wit the to broad cultural behavior. These world. values, laws, and two customs. Theories complement each other in practice and application. STUDENT DIVERSITY INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES "Everyone is unique.“ As a facilitator of learning, the teacher is tasked to consider the individual differences among the students in planning for effective instruction. Factors that Bring about Student Diversity In all learning environments, individuals interact with others who are in some ways different from them. Recall how these differences were shown in your class tally— gender and racial, ethnic, or cultural background (nationality, province, language). This diversity also comes from other factors like the following: 1. Socioeconomic status - The millionaires' lifestyle differs from that of the middle-income or lower-income group. 2. Thinking/ learning style - Some of you learn better by seeing something; others by just listening; and still others by manipulating something. 3. Exceptionalities - In class, there may be one who has difficulty in spoken language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc. HOW STUDENT DIVERSITY ENRICHES THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENT 1. Students' self-awareness is enhanced by diversity  given reference points or comparative perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values, and behaviors 2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development  gaining access to perspectives of peers  To learn from other students aside from the l instructors 3. Prepares the learners for their role as responsible members of society  The classroom becomes a "public place" where community can be practiced 4. Promotes harmony  As a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relations  Encouragement to interact and collaborate with one another SOME TIPS ON STUDENT DIVERSITY 1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experiences. Students will be made to realize that they have something in common with the rest. They also differ in several ways. 2. Integrate learning experiences and activities that promote students' multicultural and cross-cultural awareness. 3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity that transcend group differences. 4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups. 5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in learning styles. 6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse backgrounds. 7. Adapt to the students' diverse backgrounds and learning styles by allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it. 8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning. 9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning styles, different cultural background, etc. Learning / Thinking Styles and Multiple Intelligences One factor that brings about student diversity is thinking/ learning styles. Individuals think and learn in distinct ways in any group of learners there will always be different learning characteristics, particularly in the learner’s manner of processing information. Some would absorb the lesson better when they work with their hands than when they just listen. Others would prefer to watch a video about a topic. Students likewise have preferred ways of expressing their thoughts feelings and ideas. Some would prefer to write others would draw or even dance or sing. These preferences involve thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences. Thinking / Learning Styles Learning/Thinking styles refer to the preferred way an individual processes information. They describe a person's typical mode of thinking, remembering, or problem-solving. Furthermore, styles are usually considered to be bipolar dimensions. For instance, your particular learning/thinking style would lie at a point in a continuum. Having a particular learning/thinking style simply denotes a tendency to behave in a certain manner. Your style is usually described as a personality dimension that influences your attitudes, values, and social interaction. There are several perspectives on learning-thinking styles. We shall focus on sensory preferences and the global-analytic continuum. Sensory Preferences. Individuals tend to gravitate toward one or two types of sensory input and maintain dominance in one of the following types: Visual Learner These learners must see their teacher's actions and facial expressions to fully understand the content of a lesson. They tend to prefer sitting in front so no one would block their view. They may think in pictures and learn best from visual aids including diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and hand-outs. During a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information. Ri Charde further breaks down visual learners into: Visual-iconic. Those who prefer this form of input are more interested in visual imagery such as film, graphic displays, or pictures in order to solidify learning.  They usually have good “picture memory,” a.k.a. iconic imagery, and attend to pictorial detail. They would like to read a map better than to read a book. Visual-symbolic. Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable with abstract symbolism such as mathematical formulae or the written word. They would prefer to read a book than a map and would like to read about things than hear about them. They tend to be good abstract thinkers who do not require practical means for learning. Auditory Learners They learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through, and listening to what others have to say. Auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech by listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed, and other nuances. Written information may have little meaning until it is heard. These learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder. They can attend aurally to details, translate the spoken word easily into the written word, and are not easily distracted in their listening ability. Two categories of Auditory learners The "Listeners". This is the more common type. 'Listeners' most likely do well in school. Out of school too, they remember things said to them and make the information their own. They may even carry on mental conversations and figure out how to extend what they learned by reviewing in their heads what they heard others say. The "Talkers". They are the ones who prefer to talk and discuss. They often find themselves talking to those around them. In a class setting when the instructor is not asking questions, auditory-verbal processors (talkers) tend to whisper comments to themselves. They are not trying to be disruptive and may not even realize that they need to talk. Tactile/Kinesthetic Learners. Tactile/Kinesthetic persons benefit much from a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. They may find it hard to sit still for long periods. They may not benefit so much from the discussion or the written materials and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration. Those preferring this form of input move toward active, sensorimotor learning. They tend to prefer "learning by doing," preferring the use of psychomotor skills to, say, abstract thinking skills. They tend to have good motor memory and motor coordination. Global - Analytic Continuum Analytic. Analytic thinkers tend toward Global. Global thinkers lean towards non- the linear, step-by-step processes of linear thought and tend to see the whole learning. They tend to see finite elements pattern rather than particle elements. of patterns rather than the whole; they They are the "forest seers" who give are the "tree seers." They are more attention only to the overall structure and comfortable in a world of details and sometimes ignore details. hierarchies of information. Left-brain/Right-brain continuum Several theorists have tied the global-analytic continuum to the left-brain/right-brain continuum. In accordance with Roger Sperry's model, the left-brained dominant individual is portrayed as the linear (analytic), verbal, mathematical thinker while the right brained person is one who is viewed as global, non-linear, and holistic in thought preferences. Both sides of the brain can reason but through different strategies In an individual, one side may be more dominant than the other. The left brain is regarded as analytic in approach while the right is described as holistic or global. A successive processor (left brain) prefers to learn in a step-by-step sequential format, beginning with details leading to a conceptual understanding of a skill. A simultaneous processor (right brain) prefers to learn beginning with the general concept and then going on to specifics. See the comparison below: Multiple Intelligences (MI) The theory of multiple intelligences (MI) was first described by Howard Gardner in Frames of Mind (1983). Gardner defines intelligence as "an ability or set of abilities that allow a person to solve a problem or fashion a product that is valued in one or more cultures". Gardner believes that different intelligences may be independent abilities—a person can be low in one domain area but high in another. All of us possess the intelligence but in varying degrees of strength. His most current research indicates that there are nine distinct forms of intelligences. In order to facilitate learning effectively, teachers should use strategies that match these kinds of intelligences. The nine kinds are: Visual/Spatial Intelligence (Picture Smart)  learning visually and organizing ideas spatially. Seeing concepts in action in order to understand them. The ability to "see" things in one's mind in planning to create a product or solve a problem. Verbal/Linguistic (Word Smart)  learning through the spoken and written word. This intelligence is always valued in the traditional classroom and in traditional assessments of intelligence and achievement. Mathematical/Logical (Number Smart/Logic Smart)  learning through reasoning and problem solving. Also highly valued in the traditional classroom where students are asked to adapt to logically sequenced delivery of instruction. Bodily/Kinesthetic (Body Smart)  learning through interaction with one's environment. This intelligence is the domain of "overly active" learners. It promotes understanding through concrete experience. Musical (Music Smart)  learning through patterns, rhythms and music. This includes not only auditory learning but also the identification of patterns through all the senses. Intrapersonal (Self Smart)  learning through feelings, values and attitudes. This is a decidedly affective component of learning through which students place value on what they learn and take ownership for their learning. Interpersonal (People Smart)  learning through interaction with others. Not the domain of children who are simply "talkative" or "overly social." This intelligence promotes collaboration and working cooperatively with others. Naturalist (Nature Smart)  learning through classification, categories and hierarchies. The naturalist intelligence picks up on subtle differences in meaning. It is not simply the study of nature; it can be used in all areas of study. It is important for teachers to use their knowledge about thinking/ learning styles and multiple intelligences in planning activities to help their students learn effectively. While research on these typologies continues, it is clear that the teachers can no longer just teach the textbook. It is a sensible practice to teach each child according to his/her thinking/learning styles and multiple intelligences. Teaching Strategies guided by Thinking/Learning Styles and Multiple Intelligence 1. Use questions of all types to stimulate various levels of thinking from recalling factual information to drawing implications and making value judgments. 2. Provide a general overview of the material to be learned, i.e., structured overviews, advance organizers, etc., so that students' past experiences will be associated with the new ideas. 3. Allow sufficient time for information to be processed and then integrate using both the right and left-brain hemispheres. 4. Set clear purposes before any listening, viewing, or reading experience. 5. Warm up before the lesson development by using brainstorming, set induction, etc. 6. Use multisensory means for both processing and retrieving information. (Write directions on the board and give them orally.) 7. Use a variety of review and reflection strategies to bring closure to learning (writing summaries, creating opinion surveys, etc.). 8. Use descriptive feedback rather than simply praising ("The example you've provided is an excellent one to point to the concept of..."). (From Cornett, C. E. (1983). What you should know about teaching and learning styles. Bloomington, IN: Phi Delta Kappa Educational Foundation). LEARNERS WITH EXCEPTIONALITIES Persons with exceptionalities are persons who are different from the normal or average. They are those with special needs related to cognitive abilities behavior social functioning physical and sensory impairments emotional disturbances and giftedness. They a lot of understanding as well as special education and related services if they are to reach their full potential of development. The person’s adjustment entails the support of the people around him. As a future, teacher you would probably encounter learners with special needs, more so special education is your major. It is therefore necessary that you have the right information and proper attitude in dealing with special learners. This will help you perform your task to facilitate learning. Disability - measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn. It may refer to a physical, sensory, or mental condition (Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). 1987 Philippine Constitution, Article XIV, Sec. 2, uses the word “disabled” in paragraph (5) Provide adult citizens, the disabled, and out-of-school youth with training. Handicap - a disadvantage that occurs as a result of a disability or impairment. The degree of disadvantage (or the extent of the handicap) is often dependent on the adjustment made by both the person and his environment. The extent to which a disability handicap can vary greatly. Two persons may have the same disability but not the same degree of being handicapped. For example, they both have a hearing impairment, one knows sign language and can read lips while the other cannot. The first individual would not have as much handicap as the second one. Another example is two persons to move around in a wheelchair, the one is studying in a school campus with wheelchair accessibility in all areas would be less handicapped than the one in a school without wheelchair accessibility. CATEGORIES OF EXCEPTIONALITIES There are different ways of presenting categories of exceptionalities. Special education practitioners would have varying terms and categories. For this short introduction of categories, we are basing it on the categories found in Omrod’s Educational Psychology (2000). SPECIFIC COGNITIVE OR ACADEMIC DIFFICULTIES Learning disabilities. Learning disabilities involve difficulties in specific cognitive processes like perception, language memory or metacognition that are not due to other disabilities like mental retardation, emotional or behavioral disorders, or sensory impairment. Examples of learning disabilities include dyslexia (reading), dyscalculia (number operations) and dysgraphia (writing).  ✓ Attention-Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder:  ADHD is manifested in either or both of these: (1) difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention (2) recurrent hyperactive and impulsive behavior. ✓ Speech and Communication Disorders.  There is difficulty in spoken language including voice disorders, inability to produce the sound correctly... stuttering, and difficulty in spoken language comprehension that significantly hamper classroom performance. ✓ Social/Emotional and Behavioral Difficulties.  Autism. Autism is a condition manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and communication, repetitive behaviors, and limited interest. Individuals with autism usually have an intense need for routine and unpredictable environments. ✓ Mental Retardation.  Mental retardation refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive behavior. There is difficulty in managing activities of daily living and in conducting themselves appropriately in social situations. ✓ Emotional/Conduct Disorders.  This involves the presence of emotional states like depression and aggression over a considerable amount of time that they notably disturbed learning and performance. Physical Disabilities and Health Impairment ✓ Physical and health impairments.  This involves physical or medical conditions (usually long-term) including one or more of these: (1) limited energy and strength, (2) reduce mental alertness and/or (3) little muscle control. ✓ Severe and Multiple Disabilities.  This refers to the presence of two or more different types of disability, at times at a profound state. The combination of disabilities make it necessary to make adaptations and have more specialized educational programs. ✓ Sensory Impairments Visual impairment.  These are conditions when there is a malfunction of the eyes or optic nerves that prevent normal vision with corrective lenses. ✓ Hearing Impairments.  These involve malfunction of the auditory nerve that hinders perception of sound within the frequency range of normal speech. ✓ Giftedness Giftedness.  This involves a significantly higher level of cognitive development. There is unusually high ability or aptitude in more of these aspects: intellectual ability, aptitude and academic creativity, visual or performing arts, or leadership. People-First Language This language trend involves putting the person first not the example person with a disability not a disabled person does this first language tells us what conditions people have not what this is similar to saying?  avoiding generic labels (people with mental retardation is preferred to be called mentally retarded)  emphasizing abilities, not limitations (for instance, using a wheelchair is preferable to being confined to a wheelchair)  avoiding euphemisms (such as physically challenged with regarded as condescending and avoiding the real issues that result from the ability); and  avoiding implying illness or suffering (having polio is preferable to a polio victim, and having multiple sclerosis is preferable to suffering multiple sclerosis) (Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, 2000; Schiefelbusch Institute, 1996). Using people-first language and applying the guidelines above remind you to have a more respectful and accepting attitude toward learners with exceptionalities. The presence of impairments requires us to exert more effort to do things that others like us find quite easy to do. They are learners who may turn to you for assistance. Beginning with the right attitude, one of compassion (not of pity nor ridicule), will give you a more effective teacher, one with the hand and the heart who will facilitate their learning and adjustment BEHAVIORIST PERSPECTIVE The theory of behaviorism focuses on the study of observable and measurable behavior. It emphasizes that behavior is mostly learned through conditioning and reinforcement (reward and punishment). It does not give much attention to the mind and the possibility of thought processes occurring in the mind. Contributions to the development of the behaviorist theory largely came from Pavlov, Thorndike, Watson, and Skinner. Classical Conditioning - Ivan Pavlov Behaviorism Ivan Pavlov, a Russian physiologist, is well known for his work in classical conditioning or stimulus substitution. Pavlov’s most renowned experiment involves meat, a dog, and a bell. Initially, Pavlov was measuring dog salivation in order to study digestion. This is when he stumbled upon classical conditioning. Pavlov’s Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell (neutral stimulus) caused no response from the dog. Placing the food (unconditioned stimulus) in front of the dog initiated salivation (unconditioned response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, the ringing of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation (conditioned response). This is classical conditioning. Pavlov also had the following findings: Stimulus Generalization. Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell it will salivate at other similar sounds. Extinction. If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salvation will eventually cease in response to the bell. Spontaneous Recovery. Extinguished responses can be “recovered” at an elapsed time, but will soon extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food. Discrimination. The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not. Higher-Order Conditioning. Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the bell. Connectionism Theory - Edward Thorndike Edward Thorndike’s Connectionism Theory gave us the original S-R framework of behavioral psychology. More than a hundred years ago, he wrote the textbook entitled, Educational Psychology. He was the first one to use this term. He explained that learning is the result of associations forming between stimuli (S) and responses(R). Such associations or “habits” become strengthened or weakened by the nature and frequency of the S-R pairings. This model for S-R theory was trial and error learning in which certain responses came to be repeated more than others because of rewards. The main principle of connectionism (like all behavior theory) was that learning could be adequately explained without considering an unobservable internal state. Thorndike‘s theory on connectionism states that learning takes place when a strong connection or bond between stimulus and response is formed. He came up with three primary laws: The Law of Effect. The law of effect states that a connection between stimulus and response is strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between the stimulus and response is weakened when the consequence is negative. Thorndike later on, revised this law when he found that negative rewards (punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds and that some seemingly pleasurable consequences do not necessarily motivate performance. Law of Exercise. This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus-response) bond is practiced the stronger it will become. “Practice makes perfect” seems to be associated with this. However, like the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance. Law of Readiness. This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the stronger it will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person. For example, if the teacher says “OK we will now watch the movie (stimulus) you’ve been waiting for.” And suddenly the power goes off. The students will feel frustrated because they were ready to respond to the stimulus but were prevented from doing so. Likewise, if the person is not all ready to respond to a stimulus and is asked to respond, that also becomes annoying. For instance, the teacher calls the student to stand up and recite, and then the teacher asks the question and expects the student to respond right away when he is still not ready. This will be annoying to the student. That is why teachers should remember to say a question first and wait for a few seconds before calling anyone to answer. Principles derived from Thorndike’s Connectionism 1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/exercise) 2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same action sequence (law of readiness). 3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations. 4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections Learned John Watson John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov’s ideas. He too was initially involved in animals that, then later became involved in human behavior research. He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus- response association through conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that if he was given a dozen healthy infants, he could make them into anything he wanted them to be, basically through making stimulus-response connections through conditioning. Experiment on Albert Watson applied classical conditioning in his experiment concerning Albert, a young child, and a white rat. In the beginning, Albert was not afraid of the rat; but Watson made a sudden loud noise each time Albert touched the rat. Because Albert was frightened by the loud noise, he soon became conditioned to fear and avoid the rat. Later, the child’s response was generalized to other small animals. Now he was most afraid of small animals. Watson then “extinguished” or made the child “unlearn” fear by showing the rat without the loud noise. Surely, Watson’s research methods would be questioned today; nevertheless, he’s work did clearly show the role of conditioning in the development of emotional responses to certain stimuli. This may help us understand the fears, phobias, and prejudices that people develop. Burrhus Frederick Skinner Like Pavlov, Watson, and Thorndike, Skinner believed in the response patterns of conditioned behavior. His theory zeroed in only on changes in observable behavior, excluding any likelihood of any processes taking place in the mind. Skinner’s 1948 book, Walden Two is about a utopian society based on operant conditioning. He also wrote, Science and Human Behavior, (1953) in which he pointed out how the principles of operant conditioning function in social institutions such as government law, religion, economics, and education. Skinner’s work differs from that of the three behaviorists before him in that he studied operant behavior (voluntary behaviors used in operating in the environment). Thus, his theory came to be known as Operant Conditioning. Operant Conditioning Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual ‘s response to events (stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence of such as defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded) the individual is conditioned to respond. Reinforcement Is the key element in Skinner’s SR theory a reinforcer is anything that strengthens the desired response there is a positive reinforcer and A negative reinforcer. A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response. An example of positive reinforcement is when a teacher promises extra time in the play area for children who behave well during the lesson. Another is a mother who promises a new cell phone for her son who gets good grades. still, other examples include verbal praise, star stamps, and stickers. Negative Reinforcement A negative reinforcement is different from a punishment because a punishment is a consequence intended to result in reduced responses. An example would be a student who always comes late is not allowed to join a group work that has already began (punishment) and, therefore, loses points for that activity. The punishment was done to reduce the response of repeatedly coming to class late. Shaping of Behavior An animal in a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever, and for pressing the lever Behavioral Chaining comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied to a child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards) until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned. Reinforcement Schedules. Once The Desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval schedules and ratio schedules. Fixed interval Schedules. The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last reinforcement. For example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes regardless of how many times it presses the bar. Variable interval schedules. This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that must pass between reinforcement varies. For example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) at different intervals not every 10 minutes. Fixed Ratio Schedules. A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur. For example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) every time it presses the bar five times. Variable Ratio Schedules. The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies. For example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar three times, then after 10 times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs to press the bar before it gets food again. Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more persistent rates of response because the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that they will eventually succeed. An example of this is why people continue to buy a lotto tickets even when an almost negligible percentage of people actually win. While it is true that very rarely there is a big winner, but once in a while somebody hits the jackpot (reinforcement) people cannot predict when the jackpot can be reached (variable interval) so they continue to buy tickets (repetition of response). Principles Derived From Skinners Operant Conditioning 1. Behaviour that is positive a reinforced will re-occur; internal reinforcement is particularly effective. 2. information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be reinforced (“shaping”). 3. reinforcements will generalize across similar is stimuli (stimulus generalization) producing secondary conditioning. Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for programmed instruction. 1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) - answer (response) frames which expose the student to the subject in gradual steps. 2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate feedback. 3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and hence, a positive reinforcement. 4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such as verbal praise, prizes and good grades. NEO BEHAVIORISM: TOLMAN AND BANDURA TOLMAN’S PURPOSIVE BEHAVIORISM (EDWARD TOLMAN) Also Known as “SIGN LEARNING THEORY” and is often seen as the link between behaviorism and cognitive theory. Learning is cognitive process It is a psychological concept that suggests people go through life with the goal of satisfying their needs. TOLMAN’S KEY CONCEPTS 1. Learning is always purposive and Goal-Directed  Individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes, changing conditions, and they strive toward goals. 2. Cognitive maps  In his famous experiment on rats concluded that organism or individual to be exact learned the Location and will select the shortest or easiest path to achieve goal. Example: Going to school everyday. 3. Latent learning  Learning that remains or stays with the individual until needed. Learning that is outwardly manifested at once Example: A 2 year old handling remote for the first time 4. The concept of Intervening variable  Variables that are not readily seen but serves as determinants of behavior.  Learning is mediated or influenced by expectations, perceptions, representations, needs, and other internal or environmental variables. Example: Experiment on Rats-Hunger “ Reinforcement not essential for learning” Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides an incentive for performance. In his study, he observed that a rat was able to acquire knowledge of the way through a maze. ALBERT BANDURA'S SOCIAL LEARNING THEORY Albert Bandura  The bobo doll experiment  Observational Learning and Modeling  Reciprocal Determinism  Self -efficacy General principles of social learning theory 1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those behaviors. 2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. 3. Cognitive plays a role in learning 4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist learning theories and cognitive learning theories. How the environment reinforces and punishes modeling 1. The observer is reinforced by the model. 2. The observer is reinforced by a third person. 3. The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences. 4. Consequences of the model's behavior affect the observer's behavior vicariously. This is known as vicarious reinforcement. Contemporary perspective: 1. Contemporary theory proposes that both reinforcement and punishment have indirect effects on learning. They are not the sole or main cause. 2. Reinforcement and punishment influence the extent to which an individual exhibits a behavior that has been learned. 3. The expectation of reinforcement influences cognitive processes that promote learning. Cognitive Factors in Social Learning  Learning without performance (latent learning)  Cognitive processing (attention)  Expectations  Reciprocal causation  Modeling (live and symbolic models) Conditions Necessary for Effective Modeling Four conditions:  attention,  retention,  motor reproduction,  Motivation Effects of Modeling on Behavior  Teaching new behaviors  Influencing frequency of previously learned behaviors  Encouraging previously forbidden behaviors  Increasing frequency of similar behaviors Educational Implications of Social Learning Theory  Students learn from observing others  Consequences of behavior influence learning  Modeling as an alternative to shaping  Importance of modeling appropriate behaviors  Exposing students to various models COGNITIVE ASPECT-GESTALT PSYCHOLOGY  the initial cognitive response to behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature of visual perception.  a german word meaning FORM or CONFIGURATION.   the focus of Gestalt theory was the idea of GROUPING. MAX WERTHEIMER WOLFGANG KOHLER KURT KOFFKA Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang Kohler and Kurt Koffka who studied perception, concluded that;  Learners were not passive, but rather active.  Learners do not just collect information as is but they actively process and restructure data in order to understand it.  Factors like past experiences, needs, attitudes and one 's present situation can affect their perception. Gestalt Principles LAW OF PROXIMITY  Elements that are closer together will be perceived as coherent object.  Objects near each other tend to be grouped together. The circles on the left appear to be grouped in vertical columns, while those on the right appear to be grouped in horizontal rows. LAW OF SIMILARITY  Elements that similar will be perceived as part of the same form. There seems to be a triangle in the square. We link similar elements together LAW OF CLOSURE  We tend to fill the gaps or "close" the figures we perceive. We enclose a space by completing a contour and ignoring gaps in the figure.  Objects grouped together are seen as a whole. We tend to ignore gaps and complete contour lines In the image above, there are no triangles or circles, but our minds fill in the missing information to create familiar shapes and images. LAW OF GOOD CONTINUATIONS  Individuals have the tendency to continue contours whenever the elements of the pattern establish an implied direction. People tend to draw a good continuous line. LAW OF GOOD PRAGNANZ  The stimulus will be organized into as good as figure as possible. In this example, good refers to symmetry, simplicity, and regularity. The figure is perceive as a square overlapping a triangle, not a combination of several complicated shapes. Based on our experiences with perception, we "expect" certain patterns and therefore perceive that expected pattern LAW OF GOOD FIGURE/GROUND  We tend to pay attention and perceive things in the foreground first. A stimulus will be perceived as separate from its ground. Insight Learning The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he describes experiments with apes where tha apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to solve problems. In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not reinforcement, but coordination or discovery learning. Kohler proposed the view that insight follows from the characteristic objects under consideration. His theory suggested that learning could occur when an individual perceives the relationships of the elements before him and reorganizes these elements and comes to a greater understanding or insight. Learning could occur without reinforcement, and once it occurs no review, training, or investigation is necessary. Gestalt Principles and the teaching- learning process Kurt Lewin expounded on Gestalt psychology. His theory focuses on “ life space” adhered to Gestalt psychology. He said that an individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perception. Relevance of Gestalt psychology to education according to Marion Polito Gestalt psychology is focused on the experience of contact that occurs in the here and now. It takes an interest in the complexity of experience, without neglecting anything, but accepting and amplifying all that emerges. It stimulates learning as experience and the experience as a source of learning. Knowledge is conceived as continuous organization and rearrangement of information according to needs, purposes and meanings. Autonomy and freedom of the student is stimulated by the teacher. The contact experience between the teachers and students is given value. An authentic meeting based on sharing ideas and affections. INFORMATION PROCESSING INFORMATION PROCESSING is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on the teaching-learning process. Information Processing Theory  Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive, perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn.  All these notions comprise what is called the information processing theory.  IPT describes how the learner receives information (stimuli) from the environment through the senses and what takes place in between determines whether the information will continue to pass through the sensory register. The short term memory and the long term memory. Certain factors would also determine whether the information will be retrieved or "remembered" when the learner needs it. "TYPES" OF KNOWLEDGE General vs. Specific  This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or only in one. Declarative  This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things are. They may be in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address, a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush. Procedural  This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator. Episodic  This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation. Conditional  This is about "knowing when and why" to apply declarative or procedural strategies. STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.). THREE PRIMARY STAGES IN IPT Encoding  Information is sensed, perceived and attended to Storage  The information is stored for either a brief or extended period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding. Retrieval  The information is brought back at the appropriate time and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of effective memory. SENSORY REGISTER The first step in the IP model holds all sensory information for a very brief time.  Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what our minds can hold or perceive.  Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief period - in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.  There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more persistent than visual. THE ROLE OF WEAKNESS ATTENTION  Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the material; when there is conscious control over attention, or when information involves novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.  Before information is perceived, it is known as "precategorical" information. This means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the categorical membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in as uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge, interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. SHORT-TERM MEMORY  STM or Working Memory  Capacity: Only Holds 5 to 9 "chunks" of information (7+/- 2).  Duration: 18 second or Less.  Maintenance Rehearsal: Repetition to keep information active in STM. LONG-TERM MEMORY  The final or permanent storing house for memory information  Capacity: Unlimited.  Duration: Indefinite EXECUTIVE CONTROL PROCESSES  Involve the executive processor or what is referred to as metacognitive skills.  Guide the flow of Information.  Examples: Attention, rehearsals, organization. FORGETTING  the inability to retrieve or access information when needed. There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs: Decay: Information fades if not attended to. Interference: New or old information blocks access. METHODS FOR INCREASING RETRIEVAL Rehearsal - Repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud. Meaningful Learning - making connections between new information and prior knowledge. Organization - Info that is organized efficiently should be recalled. Elaboration - It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning. Visual Imagery - forming a “Picture of the information.” Generation - Things we ‘produce’ are easier to remember than things we “hear" Context - Remembering the situation helps recover information. Personalization - It is making the information relevant to the individual. OTHER MEMORY METHODS  Serial Position Effect  Part learning  Distributed practice  Mnemonic aids GAGNE’S CONDITIONING OF LEARNING Robert Mills Gagne  In his theory, Gagne specified several different types or levels of learning.  He stressed that different internal and external conditions are needed for each type of learning, thus his theory is called conditions of learning.  He also provided nine instruction events that serve as basis for the sequencing of instruction. Gagne's theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is on intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all domains. In the earlier version of the theory, special attention was given to military training settings. Later, Gagne also looked into the role of instructional technology in learning. Gagne's Principles 1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes. Gagne named five categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes. Category of learning Example of Learning outcome Condition of Learning Verbal information Stating previously learned material,  Draw attention to distinctive such as facts, concepts, principles, and features by variation in print or procedures, e.g., listing the 14 Learners speech Centered psychological principles  Present information so that it can be made into chunks  Provide meaningful context for effective encoding of information  Provide cues for effective recall and generation of Intellectual Skills: Discriminations, Discriminations: Distinguishing 1. Call attention to distinctive features. Concrete Concepts, Defined objects, features or symbols, e.g., 2. Stay within the limits of working Concepts, Rules, Higher Order Rules distinguishing an even and an odd memory. number Concrete Concepts: 3. Stimulate the recall of previously Identifying classes of concrete objects, learned component skills. features or events, e.g., picking out all 4. Present verbal cues to the ordering the red beads from a bowl of beads or combination of component skills. Defined Concepts: classifying new 5. Schedule occasions for practice and examples of events or ideas by their spaced review. definition, e.g., noting "she sells sea 6. Use a variety of contexts to promote shells" as alliteration transfer. Cognitive Strategies Employing personal ways to guide 1. Describe or demonstrate the learning, thinking, acting and feeling, strategy. e.g., constructing concept maps of 2. Provide a variety of occasions for topics being studied practice using the strategy. 3. Provide informative feedback as to the creativity or originality or outcome. Of the strategy. Attitudes Choosing personal actions based on 1. Establish an expectancy of success internal states of understanding and associated with the desired attitude. feeling, e.g. deciding to avoid soft 2. Assure student drinks and identification with an admired human model. drinking a least 8 glasses of water 3. Arrange for everyday communication or demonstration of choice of personal action. 4. Give feedback for successful performance; or allow observation of feedback in the human model. Motor Skills Executing performances involving the 1. Present verbal or other guidance to use of muscles, e.g... doing the steps of cue the executive the singkil dance subroutine. 2. Arrange repeated practice. 3. Furnish immediate feedback as to the accuracy of performance. 4. Encourage the use of mental practice. 2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a sequence of instruction. 3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions of learning. The theory includes nine instructional events and corresponding cognitive processes: 1 gaining attention (reception) 2. informing learners of the objective (expectancy) 3.stimulating recall of prior learning (retrieval) 4.presenting the stimulus (selective perception) 5. providing learning guidance (semantic encoding) 6. eliciting performance (responding) 7. providing feedback (reinforcement) 8. assessing performance (retrieval) 9. enhancing retention and transfer (generalization). AUSUBEL’S MEANINGFUL VERBAL/LEARNING SUBSUMPTION THEORY Many educational psychology theories often criticize the expository or presentational manner of teaching. They say that teachers assume such a major role in learning as providers of information, while students remain as passive receivers of information. David Ausubel, instead of criticizing this manner of teaching, proposed ways of improving it. He suggested the use of advance organizers. His ideas are contained in his theory of Meaningful Verbal Learning. Focus of Ausubel's Theory 1. The most important factor influencing learning is the quantity, clarity and organization of the learner's present knowledge. This present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, prepositious theories and raw perceptual data that the learner has available to him/her at any point. This comprises his/her cognitive structure. 2. Meaningful learning takes place when an idea to be learned is related in some sensible way to ideas that the learner already possess. Ausubel's believed that before new material can be presented effectively, the student's cognitive structure should be strengthened. When this is done, acquisition and retention of new information is facilitated. The way to strengthen the students cognitive structure is by using advance organizers that allow students to already have an bird's eye view or to see the "big picture" of the topic to be learned even before going to the details. Ausubel's belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the principle of subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was subsumption: a process which new material is related to relevant ideas in the existing cognitive structure. Likewise, Ausubel's pointed out that what is learned is based on what is already known. This signifies that one's own prior knowledge and biases limit and affect what is learned. Also, retention of new knowledge is greater because it is based on prior concrete concepts. Meaningful learning can take place through four processes: 1. Derivative subsumption  this describes the situation in which the new information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already learned. 2. Correlative subsumption  In a sense, you might say that is more "valuable" learning than that of a derivative subsumption since it enriches the higher-level concept. 3. Superordinate learning  Imagine that a child was well acquainted with banana, mango, dalandan, guava, etc. but the child did not know, until she was taught, that these were examples of fruit. 4. Combinatorial learning  this is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts. The first three learning processes all include the new information that relates to a hierarchy at a level that is either below or above previously acquired knowledge. Combinatorial learning is different; it describes a process by which the new idea is derived from another idea that is neither higher nor lower in the hierarchy, but at the same level ( in a different, but related, "branch). It is a lot like as learning analogy. Advance Organizers The advance organizer is a major Instructional tool proposed by Ausubel. The advance organizer, gives you two benefit. 1. You will find it easier to connect new information with what you already know about the topic, and 2. you can readily see how the concepts in a certain topic are related to each other. What is an Advance Organizer?  an instructional unit that is used before direct instruction or before a new topic; this is called a hook, set, induction, or anticipatory set.  popularized by David Ausubel, first in 1968  introduced in advance direct instruction  presented at a higher level of abstraction than the information presented later.  designed to bridge the gap between what the learner already knows and what she needs to know  use of advance organizers has shown through several research studies, to improve levels of understanding and recall. TYPES OF ADVANCE ORGANIZERS 1. EXPOSITORY  describes the new concept. 2. NARRATIVE  describes the new content. 3. SKIMMING  is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic overview. 4. GRAPHIC ORGANIZER  visuals to set up or outline the new information. This may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept maps. APPLICATION OF PRINCIPLES 1. The most general ideas of a subject should be presented first and the progressively differentiated in terms of detail and specifity. He called this progressive differentiation is to increase the stability and clarity of anchoring ideas. 2. Instructional materials should attempt to integrate new material with previously presented information through comparisons and cross-referencing of new and old ideas.