Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Midterm Review PDF

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Thirteenth Edition MIDTERM REVIEW Lecture Presentation by Shannon Davidson - Fanshawe College Copyright © 2021 Pearson Educ...

Essentials of Human Anatomy & Physiology Thirteenth Edition MIDTERM REVIEW Lecture Presentation by Shannon Davidson - Fanshawe College Copyright © 2021 Pearson Education, Inc. All Rights Reserved Figure 1.1 Levels of Structural Organization (1 of 7) Maintaining Life: Necessary Life Functions Maintaining boundaries Movement Responsiveness (irritability) Digestion Metabolism – chemical reactions within the body Excretion Reproduction Growth Survival Needs Nutrients Oxygen Water Normal body T* Atmospheric pressure Figure 1.9 The Elements of a Homeostatic Control System (1 of 6) Figure 1.4a The Anatomical Position and Regional Terms (2 of 2) Figure 1.4b The Anatomical Position and Regional Terms Figure 1.6 Body Cavities Figure 3.1 Structure of the Plasma Membrane Figure 3.4 Structure of the Generalized Cell Membrane Transport (4 of 21) Two basic methods of transport Passive processes: substances are transported across the membrane without any input from the cell Diffusion (simple or osmotic) or filtration or facilitated diffusion Active processes: the cell provides the metabolic energy (ATP) to drive the transport process 2 most important types are active transport (pumps) and vesicular transport (exo and endocytosis) Figure 3.11 Operation of the Sodium-Potassium Pump, a Solute Pump (1 of 4) Body Tissues Tissues Groups of cells with similar structure and function Four primary types: 1. Epithelial tissue (epithelium) 2. Connective tissue 3. Muscle tissue 4. Nervous tissue Epithelial Tissue (1 of 14) Locations: Body coverings Body linings Glandular tissue Functions: Protection Absorption Filtration Secretion Connective Tissue (4 of 14) Types of connective tissue from most rigid to softest, or most fluid: Bone Cartilage Dense connective tissue-tendons, ligaments Loose connective tissue-areolar, reticular, adipose Blood Matter and Energy (1 of 5) Matter—anything that occupies space and has mass Matter may exist as one of three states Solid: definite shape and volume Liquid: definite volume; shape of container Gaseous: neither a definite shape nor volume Matter and Energy (3 of 5) Energy—the ability to do work Has no mass and does not take up space Kinetic energy: energy is doing work Potential energy: energy is inactive or stored Matter and Energy (4 of 5) Forms of energy Chemical energy is stored in chemical bonds of substances Electrical energy results from movement of charged particles Mechanical energy is energy directly involved in moving matter Radiant energy travels in waves; energy of the electromagnetic spectrum Composition of Matter (1 of 2) Elements—fundamental units of matter 96 percent of the body is made from four elements: 1. Oxygen (O)—most common; 65% of the body’s mass 2. Carbon (C) 3. Hydrogen (H) 4. Nitrogen (N) Periodic table contains a complete listing of elements ATOMS, MOLECULES, COMPOUNDS Table 2.4 Factors Increasing the Rate of Chemical Reactions Factor Mechanism to increase the number of collisions  inc re as in g temperature  the kinetic energy of the molecules, which in inc re as in g turn move more rapidly and collide more   forcefully. concentration of reacting the number of collisions because of increased  inc re as in g inc re as in g particles numbers of reacting particles. d ecrea sing particle size Smaller particles have more kinetic energy and  move faster than larger ones, hence they take part in more collisions. Presence of catalysts the amount of energy the molecules need to d ecrea sing interact by holding the reactants in the proper positions to interact.  Biochemistry: The Chemical Composition of Living Matter Inorganic compounds Lack carbon Tend to be small, simple molecules Include water, salts, and many (not all) acids and bases Organic compounds Contain carbon All are large, covalent molecules Include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids Figure 5.2 Classification of Bones on the Basis of Shape Figure 5.3a The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) (1 of 3) Figure 5.3c The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Figure 5.3b The Structure of a Long Bone (Humerus of Arm) Table 5.1 Bone Markings (1 of 3 SKELETAL SYSTEM KNOW ALL THE BONY LANDMARKS ON THE BONES IN APPENDICULAR / AXIAL SKELETON USE SLIDES / TEXTBOOK /VISIBLE BODY Figure 5.29 General Structure of a Synovial Joint Joints (8 of 8) Types of synovial joints based on shape Plane joint Hinge joint Pivot joint Condylar joint Saddle joint Ball-and-socket joint  Joint Names Facets/zygapophyseal Costovertebral TMJ (jaw) Sternocostal Sternoclavicular Intervertebral Acromioclavicular Sacroiliac Glenohumeral (shoulder) Acetabulofemoral/coxal (hip) Scapulothoracic Tibiofemoral (knee) Humeroulnar (elbow) Superior tibiofibular Radioulnar (proximal) Inferior tibiofibular Radiocarpal (wrist) Patellofemoral Intercarpals Talocrural (ankle) Metacarpophalangeal Subtalar Interphalangeal (all digits) Intertarsal 1 Carpometacarpal Tarsometatarsal Metatarsophalangeal The Muscular System Muscles are responsible for all types of body movement Three basic muscle types are found in the body 1. Skeletal muscle 2. Cardiac muscle 3. Smooth muscle Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (1 of 3) Table 6.1 Comparison of Skeletal, Cardiac, and Smooth Muscles (2 of 3) Table 6.2 The Five Golden Rules of Skeletal Muscle Activity 1. With a few exceptions, all skeletal muscles cross at least one joint. 2. Typically, the bulk of a skeletal muscle lies proximal to the joint crossed. 3. All skeletal muscles have at least two attachments: the origin and the insertion. 4. Skeletal muscles can only pull; they never push. 5. During contraction, a skeletal muscle insertion moves toward the origin. Interactions of Skeletal Muscles in the Body (2 of 2) Prime mover/agonist—muscle with the major responsibility for a certain movement Antagonist—muscle that opposes or reverses a prime mover Synergist—muscle that aids a prime mover in a movement or reduces undesirable movements Fixator—specialized synergists that hold a bone still or stabilize the origin of a prime mover MUSCLES REVIEW MUSCLES ON VISIBLE BODY AND IN POWER POINT LECTURES Figure 6.4a Motor Units Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular Junction Step 4: A C h diffuses across the synaptic cleft and attaches to receptors on the sarcolemma of the muscle cell The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential Step 5: If enough ACh is released, the sarcolemma becomes temporarily more permeable to sodium ions (Na+ ) More sodium ions enter than potassium ions leave Entry of sodium ions produces an imbalance in which interior has more positive ions (depolarization), thereby opening more Na+ channels The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential Depolarization opens more sodium channels that allow sodium ions to enter the cell An action potential is created Once begun, the action potential is unstoppable Conducts the electrical impulse from one end of the cell to the other The result is a contraction of the muscle fiber. Figure 6.5 Events at the Neuromuscular Junction Step 6: Acetylcholinesterase (AChE) breaks down acetylcholine into acetic acid and choline A C h E ends muscle contraction The muscle fiber relaxes until the next ACh is released A single nerve impulse produces only one contraction The Nerve Stimulus and Action Potential (7 of 7) Cell returns to its resting state when: 1. Potassium ions (K + ) diffuse out of the cell 2. Sodium-potassium pump moves sodium and potassium ions back to their original positions Figure 6.8 Diagrammatic Views of a Sarcomere The Cross Bridge Cycle STEP ONE Cross Bridge Formation STEP TWO The Power Stroke STEP THREE Cross Bridge Detachment STEP FOUR Reactivation of Myosin Head A&P Flix : The Cross Bridge Cycle https://mediaplayer.pearsoncmg.com/a ssets/apf-cross-bridge-cycle PUTTING IT ALL TOGETHER!!! Video is ~ 11 mins long but WORTH IT!!!! Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole (1 of 7) Graded responses Graded responses are different degrees of skeletal muscle shortening Muscle fiber contraction is “all-or-none,” meaning the muscle fiber (not the whole muscle) will contract to its fullest extent when stimulated adequately Within a whole skeletal muscle, not all fibers may be stimulated during the same interval Different combinations of muscle fiber contractions may give differing responses Contraction of a Skeletal Muscle as a Whole (2 of 7) Graded responses can be produced in two ways By changing the frequency of muscle stimulation By changing the number of muscle cells being stimulated at one time Types of Muscle Contractions 1.) Isotonic ("same tone") contractions Myofilaments are able to slide past each other during contractions The muscle shortens, and movement occurs Example: bending the knee; lifting weights, smiling 2.) Isometric ("same measurement / length) contractions Muscle filaments are trying to slide, but the muscle is pitted against an immovable object Tension increases, but muscles do not shorten Example: pushing your palms together in front of you Muscle Tone Muscle tone State of continuous partial contractions Result of different motor units being stimulated in a systematic way Muscle remains firm, healthy, and constantly ready for action Think of these motor units as being "on duty" in case action is required Effect of Exercise on Muscles Exercise increases muscle size, strength, and endurance Aerobic (endurance) exercise (biking, jogging) results in stronger, more flexible muscles with greater resistance to fatigue Makes body metabolism more efficient Improves digestion, coordination Doesn't really increase muscle size Resistance (isotonic/isometric) exercise (weight-lifting) increases muscle size and strength Individual muscle fibers enlarge