ANAPHY (1) PDF - Human Anatomy and Physiology

The Human Organism 6. Medical or pathological anatomy – study of anatomical changes caused by Characteristics of Living Things disease 1. Organization a. Chemical Level - atoms...

The Human Organism 6. Medical or pathological anatomy – study of anatomical changes caused by Characteristics of Living Things disease 1. Organization a. Chemical Level - atoms combine to form Cell physiology – study of the function of cells molecules Special physiology – study of the function of b. Cell Level - molecules form organelles, such organs as the nucleus, the mitochondria, which make System physiology – study of the function of up cells organ systems c. Tissue Level - similar cells and surrounding Pathological physiology – study of changes in materials make up tissues function caused by d. Organ Level - different tissues combine to Disease form organs, such as the urinary bladder e. Organ System Level - organs such as the Organ systems of the human body and their urinary bladder and makeup an organ system associated organs f. Organism Level - organ systems make up an organism 2. Responsiveness 3. Growth and Differentiation 4. Reproduction 5. Movement 6. Metabolism and Excretion Anatomy and Physiology Anatomy is the study of the structures of the body Systemic anatomy is the study of the body by organ systems Regional anatomy is the study of the body by areas Surface anatomy uses superficial structures to locate deeper structures Physiology is the study of the processes and functions of the body Studies in Anatomy Microscopic Anatomy 1. Cytology – study of cells 2. Histology – study of tissues Gross Anatomy 1. Regional anatomy - the study of the body by areas 2. Systemic anatomy - the study of the body by organ systems 3. Surface anatomy - uses superficial structures to locate deeper structures 4. Developmental anatomy – study of structure throughout the lifespan 5. Embryology – study of structural development from fertilization to birth. Homeostasis Existence and maintenance of a relatively constant internal environment set point is the ideal normal value (body temperature) normal range is the fluctuation around set point Homeostatic regulation a. Autoregulation a cell, tissue or organ automatically adjusts to a change in the environment. Example: inflammation b. Extrinsic regulation When the nervous or endocrine system controls or adjusts the activity of tissues, organs or organ systems in response to a change in the environment. Homeostatic Regulatory Mechanism Terminology and Body Plane Body Positions Anatomical position human standing erect with the face directed forward, the arms hanging to the sides, and the palms facing forward Supine – person lying face up Prone – person laying face down Directional Terms (Always refer to anatomical position) Right Left Superior Inferior Cephalic Caudal Anterior Posterior Ventral Dorsal Proximal Stimulus – a change in an environmental Distal factor Lateral Receptor (sensor) – a sensor that is Medial sensitive to the environmental change Superficial Control center (integration center) – Deep receives and processes the stimulus. If needed send a message to the effector Effector – usually a muscle or a gland. Proves the response to the stimulus. The action of the effector determines if the response will take place through negative feedback or positive feedback. Homeostasis is maintained by negative and positive feedback mechanisms Negative feedback reduces the initial stimulus Positive feedback enhances the initial stimulus (is usually harmful to the body) Homeostatic Imbalance A homeostatic imbalance is a disease Signs – characteristics of a disease that can be measured Symptoms – characteristics of a disease that cannot be measured Body Planes Sagittal plane: divides the body into left and right parts Transverse plane: divides the body into superior and inferior parts Frontal (coronal) plan: divides the body into anterior and posterior parts Organ Planes Longitudinal section: along its long axis Cross (transverse) section: right angle to the long axis Oblique section: across the long axis at an angle other than a right angle Serous Membranes Parietal membrane: lines the wall of the cavity Visceral membrane: is in contact with the internal organs Serous fluid: secreted by the serous membrane and protects organs against friction Body Cavities Thoracic cavity: bounded by the ribs and the diaphragm Abdominopelvic cavity: Contains two subdivisions ○ Abdominal cavity: bounded by the Pericardial cavity: has the pericardium diaphragm and the abdominal that surrounds the heart muscles Pleural cavities: has the pleura that ○ Pelvic cavity: surrounded by the surround the lungs pelvic bones  Peritoneal cavity: has the peritoneum that surrounds certain abdominal and pelvic organs Mesenteries hold the abdominal organs in place and provide a passageway for blood vessels and nerves to organs Retroperitoneal organs are located “behind” the parietal peritoneum  Chapter 2: Cells and Tissues Membrane Lipids Phospholipids form a lipid bilayer Cell Structure and Function ○ Hydrophilic (water-loving) polar heads ○ Hydrophobic (water- fearing) nonpolar heads Cholesterol ○ Determines fluid nature of membrane ○ 20% of membrane lipid is cholesterol The cell is the smallest unit of life All organisms are made of one or more cells Cells only arise from other cells Functions of the Cell Basic unit of life Protection and support Movement Communication Cell metabolism and energy release Inheritance/ Reproduction Cell Main Parts a. Plasma Membrane Outer cell boundary, selective permeable barrier b. Cytoplasm intracellular fluid packed with organelles, Membrane Proteins small structures that perform specific cell Integral or intrinsic functions ○ Extend from one surface to the c. Nucleus other controls all the cellular activities Peripheral or extrinsic ○ Attached to either the inner or Plasma Membrane outer surfaces of the lipid bilayer Intracellular versus extracellular Membrane potential Membrane Proteins Function and Tasks Glycolipids and glycoproteins A. Transport Fluid-mosaic model Protein that spans the membrane Physical barrier may provide a hydrophilic Selective permeability channel across the membrane Communication that is selective for a particular Cell recognition solute. Some transport proteins hydrolyze ATP as an energy source to actively pump substances across the membrane  Marker Molecules B. Receptors for Signal Transduction Allow cells to identify one another or A membrane protein exposed to the other molecules outside of the cell may have a binding Glycoproteins site that fits the shape of a specific Glycolipids chemical messenger such as Examples: hormone ○ Immune system When bound, the chemical ○ Recognition of oocyte by sperm messenger may cause a change in a cell shape in the protein that initiates a chain of chemical reactions in the cell C. Enzymatic Activity A membrane protein may be an enzyme with its active site exposed to substances in the adjacent solution. A team of several enzymes in a membrane may catalyze sequential steps of a metabolic pathway as indicated D. Cell-cell Recognition Some glycoproteins (proteins banded to short chains of sugars which help Membrane Carbohydrates & Glycocalyx to make up the glycocalyx) serve as Glycolipids & glycoproteins identification tags that are specifically Glycocalyx recognized by other cells. E. Attachment to the Cytoskeleton and Cell Junctions Extracellular Matrix (ECM) Tight Junctions Elements of the cytoskeleton and the Desmosomes extracellular matrix (fibers and other Gap Junctions substances outside the cell) may anchor to membrane proteins Channel Proteins Helps maintain cell shape, fixes the Non gated ion channels location of certain membrane ○ Always open proteins, and plays a role in cell Ligand gated ion channel movement. ○ Open in response to small F. Cell-to-cell Joining molecules that bind to proteins or Membrane proteins of adjacent cells glycoproteins may be hooked together in various Voltage-gated ion channel kinds of intercellular junctions ○ Open when there is a change in Some membrane proteins (cell charge across the plasma adhesion molecules or CAMs0 of this membrane group provide temporary binding sets that guide cell migration and other cell-to-cell interactions Receptors Receptor molecules Concentration or density gradient ○ Exposed receptor site ○ Difference between two points Linked to channel proteins Viscosity ○ Acetylcholine ○ How easily a liquid flows Linked to G proteins ○ Alter activity on inner surface of plasma membrane 1. Simple Diffusion substances diffuse directly through the lipid bilayer Enzymes and Carrier Proteins 2. Facilitated Diffusion transported substance either (1)binds to carrier proteins (2)channel proteins. 3. Osmosis diffusion of a solvent, through a selectively permeable membrane Osmosis Diffusion of water (solvent) across a selectively permeable membrane Important because large volume changes caused by water movement disrupt normal cell function Extremely important in determining the distribution of water in the various fluid- containing compartments of the body (cells, blood, and so on) occurs whenever the water concentration differs on the two sides of a membrane Movement through the Plasma Membrane Tonicity refers to the ability of a solution Diffusion to change the shape (or plasma Osmosis membrane tension) of cells by altering Filtration the cells internal water volume Mediated transport mechanisms ○ Facilitated diffusion Cell shrinkage or swelling ○ Active transport ○ Isotonic: cell neither shrinks nor ○ Secondary active transport swells Diffusion ○ Hypertonic: cell shrinks movement of molecules or ions from an area (crenation) where they are in higher concentration to an ○ Hypotonic: cell swells (lysis) area where they are in lower concentration (concentration gradient).  Secondary Active Transport Mediated Transport Mechanisms Vesicular Transport Facilitated diffusion Moves substances into the cell ○ Higher to lower concentration without (endocytosis) and out of the cell metabolic energy (exocytosis). Primary Active transport It is also used for combination processes ○ process in which solutes are moved such as transcytosis and vesicular across cell membranes against trafficking electrochemical gradients using Transcytosis energy supplied directly by ATP. moves substances into, across, and then Secondary active transport out of the cell ○ Ions or molecules move in same endothelial cells lining blood vessels (symport) or different direction because it provides a quick means to get (antiport) substances from the blood to the ○ transport is driven by energy stored in interstitial fluid. concentration gradients of ions Vesicular trafficking created by primary active transport moves substances from one area (or pumps membranous organelle) in the cell to another Endocytosis process in which a cell internalizes non- particulate materials such as proteins by engulfing them in an energy-dependent manner ○ Phagocytosis ○ Pinocytosis ○ Receptor-mediated endocytosis. Exocytosis processes that eject substances from the cell interior into the extracellular fluid Cytoplasm Cellular material outside nucleus but inside plasma membrane is the site of most cellular activities Cytosol ○ is the viscous, semi transparent fluid in which the other cytoplasmic elements are suspended. ○ It is a complex mixture with properties Cilia of both a colloid and a true solution Appendages projecting from cell Cytoskeleton: Supports the cell surfaces ○ Microtubules Capable of movement ○ Microfilaments Moves materials over the cell surface ○ Intermediate filaments Cytoplasmic inclusions Organelles Small specialized structures for particular functions Most have membranes that separates interior of organelles from cytoplasm Related to specific structure and function of the cell are the metabolic machinery of the cell. Each type of organelle carries out a specific Flagella function for the cell some synthesize proteins, Similar to cilia but longer others generate ATP, and so on Usually only one exists per cell Move the cell itself in wavelike fashion Centrioles Example: Sperm cell In specialized zone near nucleus: Centrosome Each unit consists of microtubules Before cell division, centrioles divide, move to ends of cell and become spindle fibers  Golgi Apparatus Modification, packaging, distribution of proteins and lipids for secretion or internal use Flattened membrane sacs stacked on each other Ribosomes Sites of protein synthesis Composed of a large and small subunit Types ○ Free ○ Attached to endoplasmic Reticulum Function of Golgi Apparatus Endoplasmic Reticulum Types Rough ○ Attached ribosomes ○ Proteins produced and modified Smooth ○ Not attached ribosomes Action of Lysosomes ○ Manufacture lipids Cisternae: Interior spaces isolated from rest of cytoplasm Peroxisomes and Proteasomes Chromosome Structure Peroxisomes Smaller than lysosomes Contain enzymes to break down fatty and amino acids Hydrogen peroxide is a by-product of breakdown Proteasomes Consist of large protein complexes Include several enzymes that break down and recycle proteins in cell Overview of Cell Metabolism Mitochondria Provide energy for cell Major site of ATP synthesis Membranes ○ Cristae: Infoldings of inner membrane ○ Matrix: Substance located in space formed by inner membrane Overview of Protein Synthesis Nucleus Transcription DNA dispersed throughout Copies DNA to form mRNA Consists of : tRNA carries amino acids to ribosome ○ Nuclear envelope: Separates nucleus from cytoplasm and regulates Translation movement of materials in and out Synthesis of a protein at ribosome ○ Chromatin: Condenses to form chromosomes during cell division ○ Nucleolus: Assembly site of large and small ribosomal units Tissues Functions of Epithelium Protecting underlying structures Acting as barriers Permitting the passage of substances Secreting substances Absorbing substances Classification of Epithelium Simple ○ Squamous, cuboidal, columnar Stratified ○ Squamous, cuboidal, columnar Pseudostratified Tissues and Histology ○ columnar Groups of cells that are similar in structure Transitional and perform a common or related function. ○ Cuboidal to columnar when not There are four primary tissue types stretched and squamous-like when stretched Four Types of Tissues Epithelial Types of Epithelium Connective 1. Simple Squamous Muscle composed of single layer of flat and Nervous scale-like cells Histology microscopic study of tissues Epithelium Characteristics Consists almost entirely of cells Covers body surfaces and forms glands Has free and basal surface Specialized cell contacts Avascular Undergoes mitosis 2. Stratified Squamous composed of multiple layer of flat and scale- like cells 6. Transitional composed of multiple layer of cells that could be somehow squamous, cuboidal or columnar 3. Simple Cuboidal composed of single layer of cube-shaped cells 4. Simple Columnar composed of single layer of columnar cells Connective Tissue Abundant Consists of cells separated by extracellular matrix Diverse Performs variety of important functions Functions of Connective Tissue 5. Pseudostratified Columnar Enclosing and separating as capsules pseudo – false around organs conveys the erroneous impression that there Connecting tissues to one another as is more than one layer of tendons and ligaments cells. Supporting and moving as bones True simple epithelium: since all the cells rest Storing as fat on the basement membrane (usually ciliated) Cushioning and insulating as fat Transporting as blood Protecting as cells of the immune system Connective Tissue Cells Specialized cells produce the extracellular matrix Suffixes ○ blasts: create the matrix ○ cytes: maintain the matrix ○ clasts: break the matrix down for remodeling Adipose or fat cells Mast cells that contain heparin and histamine White blood cells that respond to injury or infection Dense Connective Tissue Macrophages that phagocytize or provide a. Dense regular - has abundant collagen fibers protection Tendons: Connect muscles to bones Stem cells (BTM) Ligaments: Connect bones to bones Extracellular Matrix (BLB) Components b. Dense regular elastic - Ligaments in vocal Protein fibers folds ○ Collagen which is most common c. Dense irregular - Scars protein in body d. Dense irregular collagenous - Forms most of ○ Reticular fill spaces between tissues skin dermis and organs e. Dense irregular elastic - In walls of elastic ○ Elastic returns to its original shape arteries after distension or compression Ground substance Dense Regular-Dense Irregular ○ Shapeless background Fluid Connective Tissue Categories Embryonic or mesenchyme Adult ○ Loose ○ Dense ○ Connective tissue with special properties ○ Cartilage ○ Bone ○ Blood Loose Connective Tissue Also known as areolar tissue Loose packing material of most organs and tissues Attaches skin to underlying tissues Contains collagen, reticular, elastic fibers and variety of cells  Cartilage Composed of chondrocytes located in spaces called lacunae Next to bone as firmest structure in body Types of cartilage ○ Hyaline ○ Fibrocartilage ○ Elastic ○ Hyaline Cartilage Found in areas for strong support and some flexibility ○ Rib cage and cartilage in trachea Connective Tissues with Special Properties and bronchi a. Adipose tissue Forms most of skeleton before replaced Consists of adipocytes by bone in embryo Types Involved in growth that increases bone Yellow (white) - most abundant, white at birth length and yellows with age Brown - found only in specific areas of body as axillae, neck and near kidneys Fibrocartilage Slightly compressible and very tough Found in areas of body where a great b. Reticular tissue deal of pressure is applied to joints Forms framework of lymphatic tissue ○ Knee, jaw, between vertebrae Characterized by network of fibers and cells Elastic Cartilage Blood Rigid but elastic properties Matrix between the cells is liquid ○ External ears, epiglottis Hemopoietic tissue ○ Forms blood cells ○ Found in bone marrow ○ Yellow ○ Red Bone Hard connective tissue that consists of living cells and mineralized matrix Organic and inorganic Types ○ Cancellous or spongy bone ○ Compact bone Bone Marrow  THE INTEGUMENTARY SYSTEM Divided into 4-5 layers (stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, CONSIST OF: stratum lucidum, and stratum corneum) Skin Hair Epidermal Cells Nails Cell types Glands ○ Keratinocytes: Produce keratin for strength FUNCTIONS: ○ Melanocytes: Contribute to skin Protection color Sensation ○ Langerhans cells: Part of the Temperature regulation immune system Vitamin D production ○ Merkel’s cells: Detect light touch Excretion and pressure Desquamate: Older cells slough off The Skin Keratinization: Cells die and produce The largest and primary protective organ outer layer that resists abrasion and Function includes temperature regulation and forms permeability layer protection against ultraviolet (UV) light, trauma, pathogens, microorganisms and Epidermal Strata toxins Stratum Basale ○ Deepest portion of epidermis and single layer ○ High mitotic activity and cells become keratinized Stratum Spinosum ○ Limited cell division Stratum Granulosum ○ In superficial layers nucleus and other organelle degenerate and cell dies Stratum Lucidum ○ Thin, clear zone Stratum Corneum ○ Most superficial and consists of cornified cells Epidermal Strata and Keratinization 1. Epidermis Provides a waterproof barrier contributes to skin tone made up of stratified squamous keratinized epithelium Avascular Layers or strata  Skin Color Determined by 3 factors ○ Pigments Melanin: Provides for protection against UV light Albinism: Deficiency or absence of pigment Carotene: Yellow pigment Blood circulating through the skin ○ Imparts reddish hue and Thick & Thin Skin increases during blushing, anger, Thick skin inflammation ○ Has all 5 epithelial strata ○ Cyanosis: Blue color caused by ○ Found in areas subject to pressure or decrease in blood oxygen friction content ○ Palms of hands, fingertips, soles of Thickness of stratum corneum feet Thin skin Hair ○ More flexible than thick skin Found everywhere on human body ○ Covers rest of body except palms, soles, lips, nipples, parts of external genitalia, and distal segments 2. Dermis of fingers and toes Found beneath epidermis Contains connective tissue, hair follicles, Hair Structure blood vessels, lymphatic vessels, and sweat Composed of shaft and root glands ○ Shaft protrudes above skin made up of fibrous/collagenous connective surface tissue ○ Root located below surface and holds blood vessels, nerves, hair follicles, base forms the hair bulb sweat &, sebaceous glands Structural strength Cleavage lines Two layers (Reticular & Papillary) 3. Hypodermis Deeper subcutaneous tissue Made of fat and connective tissue made up of areolar and adipose tissues binds skin to underlying tissues; insulation Skin rests on this, but not a part Consists of loose connective tissue Types of cells: (Fibroblasts, Adipose cells, Macrophages) Glands Subcutaneous tissue Sebaceous or oil glands, Sudoriferous or Superficial fascia sweat glands, Ceruminous glands and Mammary glands Oil and Sweat Glands Sebaceous glands ○ Produce sebum ○ Oils hair and skin surface Sudoriferous glands  ○ Merocrine or eccrine ○ Most common ○ Numerous in palms and soles Apocrine ○ Found in axillae, genitalia, ○ around anus Rule of Nine Nails Anatomy ○ Nail root proximally ○ Nail body distally: Eponychium or cuticle Growth ○ Grow continuously unlike hair Aging Skin more easily damaged Skin becomes drier Functioning melanocytes decrease or increase as with age spots Sunlight ages skin more rapidly Clinical Disorders Bacterial infections (eg Acne) Viral Infections (eg Chicken pox, German measles, cold sores) Burns Decubitus ulcers or bedsores (eg are tissue damage that results from heat, Ischemia and necrosis) overexposure to the sun or other radiation, or Cancer chemical or electrical contact ○ Basal cell carcinoma First Degree ○ Squamous cell carcinoma 1st layer of the skin ○ Malignant melanoma Mild Second Degree the outer layer of your skin as well the dermis – the layer underneath – has been damaged Third Degree “full thickness burn” this type of injury destroys two full layers of your skin  THE CARDIOVASCULAR SYSTEM The Heart Cardiovascular System  Generating Blood Pressure  responsible for delivering blood to different  Routing blood parts of the body o Heart separates pulmonary and  Organs: systemic circulation o Heart: Pumping device  Ensuring one-way blood flow o Blood vessels o Heart valves ensure one-way o Veins flow o Arteries  Regulating blood supply o Capillaries o Changes in contraction rate and force match blood delivery to changing metabolic needs  Size of a closed fist  Shape o Apex: Blunt rounded point o Base: Flat part at opposite of end of cone  Located in thoracic cavity in Mediastinum  Consists of plate of fibrous connective tissue between atria and ventricles  Fibrous rings around valves to support  Serves as electrical insulation between atria and ventricles  Provides site for muscle Attachment Cardiac Muscle  Elongated, branching cells containing 1- 2 centrally located nuclei  Contains actin and myosin myofilaments  Intercalated disks: Specialized cell-cell contacts  Desmosomes hold cells together and gap junctions allow action potentials  Electrically, cardiac muscle behaves as single unit Size, Shape, Location of theHeart Heart Wall Heart Cross Section  Atrioventricular o Tricuspid o Bicuspid or mitral  Semilunar o Aortic o Pulmonary  Prevent blood from flowing back Heart Wall Three layers of tissue  Epicardium o This serous membrane of smooth outer surface of heart  Myocardium o Middle layer composed of cardiac muscle cell and responsibility for heart contracting  Endocardium o Smooth inner surface of heart chambers External Anatomy Heart Chambers  Four chambers  Atria o 2 atria o Right - Receives blood from 3 o 2 ventricles veins (superior vena cava, the  Auricles inferior vena cava and the  Major veins coronary sinus) o Superior vena cava o Left - forms most of the base of o Pulmonary veins the heart and receives blood from  Major arteries the lungs through four pulmonary o Aorta veins  Pulmonary trunk  Ventricles o Right - receives blood from the right atrium and pumps this blood out into the pulmonary circulation (the lungs). o Left - receives blood from the left atrium and pumps this blood out into the systemic circulation (the rest of the body) via the aorta. Blood Circulation through the heart  The right heart pump receives deoxygenated blood (blood that has given up some of its oxygen to the cells) from the tissues and pumps it out into the pulmonary circulation (the lungs).  The left heart pump receives oxygenated blood from the pulmonary circulation and pumps it out to the rest of the body (the systemic circulation). Systemic and Pulmonary Circulation Conducting System of the Heart - Electric Cardiac Cycle Pathways Blood Circulation through the heart  Within the heart there is a specialized  Blood moves through circulatory system network of electrical pathways dedicated to from areas of higher to lower pressure. ensuring the rapid transmission of electrical  Contraction of heart produces the impulses. pressure  This ensures that the myocardium is excited o Systole: the contraction of a rapidly in response to an initiating impulse so heart chamber (atrium or that the chambers contract and relax in the ventricle). right order and the different pairs of chambers o Diastole: the relaxation of a heart (atria and ventricles) contract at the same chamber (atrium or ventricle) time.  Once the impulse has been ‘held’ in the AV Electrocardiogram node it is then transmitted down the bundle of  the electrical activity that stimulates this His (AV bundle) to the fast pathways of the mechanical action can be seen by the two bundle branches (one bundle branch per use of an ECG ventricle). The bundles then divide into the  an electrical tracing produced by smaller and smaller branches of the Purkinje attaching electrodes to the patient’ skin system, which transmits the impulses to the and generated by an ECG machine muscles of the ventricles Heart Sounds  Afterload  First heart sound or “lubb” o refers to the pressure in the o Atrioventricular valves and arteries leading from the surrounding fluid vibrations as valves ventricles (aorta or pulmonary close at beginning of ventricular arteries) that the ventricle must systole overcome in order to eject blood.  Second heart sound or “dupp” o 80 mmHg in the aorta and 8 o Results from closure of aortic and mmHg in the pulmonary arteries. pulmonary semilunar valves at beginning of ventricular diastole, lasts Heart Rate longer  Autonomic nervous system activity  Third heart sound (occasional) o noradrenaline o Caused by turbulent blood flow into o leads to the excitation of the SA ventricles and detected near end of node and an increase in its first one-third of diastole production of action potentials and thus an increase in heart Factors affecting Cardiac Output rate.  Stroke Volume  Hormone activity o Preload o Adrenaline – from the adrenal o Force of contraction medulla. Adrenaline has the o Afterload same effect as noradrenaline  Heart Rate released by the sympathetic o autonomic nervous system activity nervous system. o hormone activity o Thyroxine – from the thyroid gland. Released in large Stroke Volume quantities, thyroxine has the  Preload effect of increasing the heart rate o The force the cardiac muscle fibers contract with during systole is affected Baroreceptor And Chemoreceptor Reflexes by the amount of stretch they are subjected to (the greater the stretch, the greater the force). o The stretch of the cardiac muscle is directly related to the amount of blood in the ventricle at the end of diastole o dependent on the volume of blood returned to the heart via the veins (venous return) o venous return is related to the force of contraction of the ventricles  Force of Contraction o Hormones, such as adrenaline, Baroreceptor glucagon and thyroxine, all increase  cardiovascular center of the medulla the force of contraction. oblongata o Sympathetic nervous system activity  cardioinhibitory center directly controls increases the force of contraction parasympathetic outflow to the heart: through the action of noradrenaline. Increase outflow, reduce heart rate o Contractility can be reduced by  Vasomotor center acidaemia (excess hydrogen ions in o Presser Area: moderated by the blood) and high potassium levels nerves transmitting impulses in the blood o Depressor Area   Sinus arrhythmia o Heart rate varies 5% during respiratory cycle and up to 30% during deep respiration  Premature atrial contractions o Occasional shortened intervals between one contraction and succeeding, frequently occurs in healthy people Summary: Heart Regulation  Intrinsic regulation: Results from normal functional characteristics, not on neural or hormonal regulation (Starling’ s law of the heart)  Extrinsic regulation: Involves neural and hormonal control o Parasympathetic stimulation  Supplied by vagus nerve, decreases heart rate, acetylcholine secreted o Sympathetic stimulation  Supplied by cardiac nerves, increases heart rate and force of contraction, epinephrine and norepinephrine released Summary: Aging effects on Heart  Gradual changes in heart function, minor under resting condition, more significant during exercise  Hypertrophy of left ventricle  Maximum heart rate decreases  Increased tendency for valves to function abnormally and arrhythmias to occur  Increased oxygen consumption required to pump same amount of blood. Cardiac Arrhythmias  Tachycardia o Heart rate in excess of 100bpm  Bradycardia o Heart rate less than 60 bpm  THE CIRCULATION 3. Platelets The Cardiovascular System  small blood cells consisting of some cytoplasm surrounded by a Blood  plasma membrane  Red blood cells  megakaryocytes  White blood cells  Remove macrophage  Platelets  Platelets plug  Plasma Hemostasis & Coagulation Function of the blood  hemostasis is a sequence of responses  The Cardiovascular System that stops bleeding and can prevent  Transport of gases, nutrients, and waste hemorrhage from smaller blood vessels products o Vasoconstriction  Transport of processed molecules o Platelet Aggregation  Transport of regulatory molecules o Coagulation  Maintenance of body temperature  Protection against foreign substances Blood clotting  Clot formation  Thromboplastinogenase is an enzyme released by the blood platelets and 1. Red blood cells combines with antihemophilic factor to  Erythrocytes convert the plasma protein  Hemoglobin thromboplastinogen into thromboplastin.  Bone Marrow  Thromboplastin combines with calcium  Erythroblast ions to convert the inactive plasma protein prothrombin into thrombin.  Thrombin acts as a catalyst to convert the soluble plasma protein fibrinogen into insoluble plasma protein fibrin.  The fibrin threads trap blood cells to form a clot.  Once the clot is formed, the healing of the damaged blood vessel takes place, which restores the integrity of the blood vessel. Blood Grouping Terms to Remember: 1. Transfusion  transfer of blood or blood components from one individual to another. 2. Infusion  introduction of a fluid other than blood 2. White blood cells 3. Donor  granulocytes (contain granules in the  person who gives blood cytoplasm) 4. Recipient o neutrophils  person who receives blood o eosinophils 5. Transfusion reactions o basophils  caused by antigens and antibodies,  agranulocytes (despite the name contain a resulting few granules in the cytoplasm) o Clumping, rupture, clotting within o monocytes blood vessel o Lymphocytes Blood Typing o Fenestrated (Have pores) o Sinusoidal  Large diameter with large fenestrae Capillary Network Diagnostic Blood Tests  Blood flows from arterioles through  Blood typing metarterioles, then through capillary  Cross match network  CBC  Venules drain network  Differential WBCount  Smooth muscle in arterioles,  Platelet count metarterioles, precapillary sphincters  Prothrombin time regulate blood flow  Blood Chemistry  BLOOD VESSELS  Arteries  Veins  Capillaries Blood Vessel Structure  Arteries o Elastic, muscular, arterioles  Capillaries o Blood flows from arterioles to capillaries o Most of exchange between blood and interstitial spaces occurs across the Structure of Arteries and Veins walls Three layers except for capillaries and venules o Blood flows from capillaries to venous  Tunica intima system o Endothelium  Veins  Tunica media o Venules, small veins, medium or large o Vasoconstriction & Vasodilation veins  Tunica adventitia o o Merges with connective tissue Capillaries surrounding blood vessels  Capillary wall consists mostly of endothelial cells  Types classified by diameter/permeability o Continuous o Do not have fenestrae Structure of Arteries and Veins Structure of Veins  Venules and small veins o Tubes of endothelium on delicate basement membrane o Medium and large veins  Valves o Allow blood to flow toward heart but not in opposite direction  Arteriovenous anastomoses o Allow blood to flow from arterioles to small veins without passing through capillaries Blood Vessel Comparison Structure of Arteries  Elastic or conducting arteries o Largest diameters, pressure high and fluctuates  Muscular or medium arteries o Smooth muscle allows vessels to regulate blood supply by constricting Peripheral Circulation and Regulation or dilating  Arterioles o Transport blood from small arteries to capillaries Aging of the Arteries  Arteriosclerosis o General term for degeneration changes in arteries making them less elastic  Atherosclerosis o Deposition of plaque on walls Peripheral Circulatory System Major Arteries  Systemic vessels o Transport blood through most all body parts from left ventricle and back to right atrium  Pulmonary vessels o Transport blood from right ventricle through lungs and back to left atrium  Blood vessels and heart regulated to ensure blood pressure is high enough for blood flow to meet metabolic needs of tissues  Moves blood to and from the lungs  Pulmonary trunk Head and Neck Arteries o Arises from right ventricle  Pulmonary arteries o Branches of pulmonary trunk which project to lungs  Pulmonary veins o Exit each lung and enter left atrium Systemic Circulation: Arteries  Aorta o From which all arteries are derived either directly or indirectly  Parts Arteries of the Brain o Ascending o descending o Thoracic o abdominal  Coronary arteries o Supply the heart Branches of the Aorta Head and Thorax Major Arteries Arteries of Upper Limp and Shoulder Arteries of Pelvis and Lower Limb Arteries of Lower Limb Systemic Circulation: Veins  Return blood from body to right atrium  Major veins Arteries of Abdomen and Pelvis o Coronary sinus (heart)  Superior vena cava (head, neck, thorax, upper limbs)  Inferior vena cava (abdomen, pelvis, lower limbs)  Types of veins o Superficial, deep, sinuses Major Veins Veins of Neck and Head Veins of Thorax Head and Thorax Vein Veins of Should and Upper Limb Veins of Abdomen and Pelvis Veins of Pelvis and Lower Limb Blood Pressure  Measure of force exerted by blood against the wall  Blood moves through vessels because of blood pressure  Measured by listening for Korotkoff sounds produced by turbulent flow in arteries as pressure released from blood pressure cuff  Neuronal regulation o through the autonomic nervous system Veins of Lower Limb  Hormonal regulation o adrenaline, noradrenaline, renin and others  Autoregulation o through the renin-angiotensin system Laminar and Turbulent Flow  Laminar flow o Streamlined o Outermost layer moving slowest and center moving fastest  Turbulent flow o Interrupted Blood Pressure Measurement o Rate of flow exceeds critical velocity o Fluid passes a constriction, sharp turn, rough surface Dynamics of Blood Circulation  Interrelationships between o Pressure o Flow Physiological factors regulating blood o Resistance pressure o Control mechanisms that regulate  Cardiac Output blood pressure  Circulating Volume o Blood flow through vessels  Peripheral Resistance  Blood Viscosity  Hydrostatic Pressure Control of arterial blood pressure  Baroreceptors  Chemoreceptors  Circulating Hormones  The Renin-angiotensin system  The hypothalamus  THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM Ventilation  Movement of air into and out of lungs Two types of Respiration  External Respiration o Gas exchange between air in lungs and blood o Transport of oxygen and carbon dioxide in the blood  Internal Respiration o Gas exchange between the blood and tissues Nasal Cavity and Pharynx Functions  Gas exchange o Oxygen enters blood and carbon dioxide leaves  Regulation of blood pH o Altered by changing blood carbon dioxide levels  Voice production o Movement of air past vocal folds makes sound and speech  Olfaction o Smell occurs when airborne Nose molecules drawn into nasal cavity  External & Internal  Protection  Functions o Against microorganisms by o Passageway for air preventing entry and removing them o Cleans the air o Humidifies, warms air Upper & Lower Respiratory Tract o Smell o Along with paranasal o sinuses are resonating o chambers for speech Anatomy  Upper tract o Nose, pharynx and associated  Lower tract o Larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs Pharynx Trachea (wind pipe)  Common opening for digestive and  Divides to form respiratory systems o Primary bronchi  Three regions o Carina: Cough reflex o Nasopharynx  lined with pseudostratified ciliated o Oropharynx columnar epithelium o Laryngopharynx  Function o carries air from the larynx down towards the lungs  Tracheobronchial Tree (Conducting zone)  Trachea to terminal bronchioles which is ciliated for removal of debris Larynx  Functions o Maintain an open passageway for air movement o Epiglottis and vestibular folds prevent swallowed material from moving into larynx o Vocal folds are primary source of sound production Lungs  Two lungs o Principal organs of respiration  Right lung o Three lobes  Left lung o Two lobes  Divisions o Lobes, bronchopulmonary segments, lobules  Pleural fluid o produced by pleural membranes o Acts as lubricant  Helps hold parietal and visceral pleural membranes together  o transport of gases – how oxygen and carbon dioxide are transported between the lungs and body tissues; o internal respiration – how oxygen is delivered to and carbon dioxide collected from body cell Gas Law Physical Principles of Gas Exchange  Diffusion of gases through the respiratory membrane  Depends on membrane’ s thickness, the diffusion coefficient of gas, surface areas of membrane, partial pressure of gases in alveoli and blood  Relationship between ventilation and pulmonary capillary flow Blood supply  Increased ventilation or increased  conduction and respiratory regions of the pulmonary capillary blood flow increases lungs receive blood from different arteries gas exchange  Deoxygenated blood  Physiologic shunt is deoxygenated blood o From right and left arteries ---> returning from lungs Lobules via capillaries  Reoxygenated blood Pulmonary Ventilation (Mechanism) o sent back to the left-hand side of the  In order to happen heart via one of four pulmonary veins, o Change in pressure ready to be ejected into systemic  During inspiration circulation o Thorax expands o Intrapulmonary pressure falls Respiration below ATM pressure  The process by which oxygen and carbon o As explained by the Boyle's and dioxide are exchanged between the Dalton's Law atmosphere and body cells is called respiration  Four phases o pulmonary ventilation - how air gets in and out of the lungs; o external respiration – how oxygen diffuses from the lungs to the bloodstream and how carbon dioxide diffuses from blood and to the lungs   Vital capacity o Sum of inspiratory reserve volume, tidal volume, and expiratory reserve volume  Total lung capacity o Sum of inspiratory and expiratory reserve volumes plus the tidal volume and residual volume External respiration  Respiratory bronchioles  the diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli Work of Breathing into pulmonary circulation (blood flow  Energy required by the respiratory muscles to through the lungs) and the diffusion of overcome these hindering forces carbon dioxide in the opposite direction  Hindrances  High concentration to low concentration o Natural Elastic Recoil of lung tissue o Resistance to airflow through narrow airways o surface tension forces at the liquid–air interface in the lobule all oppose thoracic expansion o Requires energy  Lung compliance: Ease of stretch Factors influencing diffusion Volumes and capacities  The solubility/type of gas  measure or estimate the amount of air  Surface area passing in and out of the lungs  Concentration Difference  TLC: each lung, dependent age, sex, and  Membrane Thickness height Ventilation and perfusion Pulmonary Volume  to ensure a good enough supply of  Tidal volume oxygen the alveoli have to be adequately o Volume of air inspired or expired ventilated during a normal inspiration or expiration  Inspiratory reserve volume o Amount of air inspired forcefully after inspiration of normal tidal volume  Expiratory reserve volume o Amount of air forcefully expired after expiration of normal tidal volume  Residual volume o Volume of air remaining in respiratory passages and lungs after the most forceful expiration  Inspiratory capacity o Tidal volume plus inspiratory reserve volume  Functional residual capacity o Expiratory reserve volume plus the residual volume Transport of Gases Rhythmic Ventilation  Starting inspiration o Medullary respiratory center neurons are continuously active o Center receives stimulation from receptors and simulation from parts of brain concerned with voluntary respiratory movements and emotion o Combined input from all sources causes action potentials to stimulate respiratory muscles Transport of Gases  Increasing inspiration  Oxygen o More and more neurons are o 98.5%, is transported attached to activated hemoglobin in the erythrocyte (red  Stopping inspiration blood cell) o Neurons stimulating also o Oxygen Saturation/Capacity responsible for stopping o reliant upon the presence of an inspiration and receive input from adequate supply of erythrocytes and pontine group and stretch hemoglobin receptors in lungs. Inhibitory o Hypoxia and hypoxanemia neurons activated and relaxation  Carbon Dioxides of respiratory muscles results in o Carbon dioxide is transported as expiration. bicarbonate ions (70%) in combination with blood proteins Modification Ventilation (23%) and in solution with plasma  Cerebral and limbic system (7%) o Respiration can be voluntarily o Hemoglobin that has released oxygen controlled and modified by binds more readily to carbon dioxide emotions than hemoglobin that has oxygen  Chemical control bound to it (Haldane effect) o carbon dioxide is major regulator o In tissue capillaries, carbon dioxide o Increase or decrease in pH can combines with water inside RBCs to stimulate chemo- sensitive area, form carbonic acid which dissociates causing a greater rate and depth to form bicarbonate ions and of respiration hydrogen ions  Oxygen levels in blood affect respiration o In lung capillaries, bicarbonate ions when a 50% or greater decrease from and hydrogen ions move into RBCs normal levels exists and chloride ions move out. Bicarbonate ions combine with Ventilation in Exercise hydrogen ions to form carbonic acid.  Ventilation increases abruptly The carbonic acid is converted to o At onset of exercise carbon dioxide and water. The carbon o Movement of limbs has strong dioxide diffuses out of the RBCs. influence o Increased plasma carbon dioxide o Learned component lowers blood pH. The respiratory  Ventilation increases gradually system regulates blood pH by o After immediate increase, regulating plasma carbon dioxide gradual increase occurs (4-6 levels minutes)  o Anaerobic threshold is highest level of exercise without causing significant change in blood pH o If exceeded, lactic acid produced by skeletal muscles Effects of Aging  Vital capacity and maximum minute ventilation decrease  Residual volume and dead space increase  Ability to remove mucus from respiratory passageways decreases  Gas exchange across respiratory membrane is reduced  MUSCULAR SYSTEM Gross anatomy of skeletal muscles  Consist of: The Muscular System o adipose tissue  composed of specialized cells called muscle o fascia fibers. o connective tissue  Their predominant function is contractibility.  epimysium  Muscles, attached to bones or internal organs  perimysium and blood vessels, are responsible for  endomysium movement.  Intramuscular Injection  Nearly all movement in the body is the result of muscle contraction Function  maintains posture  produces movement  stabilizes joints  protection  generates heat Types of Muscle Tissues Three Major types:  Smooth and visceral  Skeletal  Cardiac Muscle Microanatomy of Skeletal System Skeletal Smooth Cardiac Muscle Muscle Muscle Attached to Found in the Located in bones or skin walls of the walls of (facial hollow the heart muscles only) visceral organs and blood vessels Microanatomy of Skeletal System Single, long, Single, Branching cylindrical narrow, rod- chains of cells shaped cells cells Striated, Non-striated, Non-striated, multinucleated uninucleated uninucleated cells cells cells Under Involuntary Involuntary voluntary control control control Composition of skeletal muscle tissue  contain other types of tissues: o blood vessels o connective and o nervous tissue Types of Muscle Fibers  are considered to be organs  Slow oxidative fiber  Muscle Fibers: Each cell in skeletal muscle  Fast oxidative–glycolytic fibers tissue  Fast glycolytic fibres  Multinucleated Blood Supply in the Muscle – collectively known as oxidative  Skeletal muscles have a very extensive blood phosphorylation supply and receive a total of 1 L of blood each  OXYGEN DEBT: strenuous activity is minute, which equates to 20% of the resting undertaken and a muscle relies on cardiac output. anaerobic respiration to supply its energy  This increases to 15–20 L min−1 when needs exercising intensively. As a general rule, each skeletal muscle is supplied by an artery Muscle Fatigue and one or two veins, and each muscle fiber  occurs when a muscle fiber can no is in close contact with a network of longer contract despite continued neural microscopic capillaries within the stimulation and occurs as a result of the endomysium oxygen debt that occurs during prolonged muscle activity Skeletal Muscle contraction and Relaxation  Controlled by the nervous system Organization of the skeletal muscular system  Motor Neuron  skeletal muscles is attached at a  Stimulation ----> An action potential minimum of two points to bone or other o Release Ach connective tissue o The binding of ACh at he motor plate  One part of the skeleton is moved by o The conduction of action potentials by muscle contraction, related parts have to the sarcolemma be steadied by other muscles for the o Muscle relaxation movement to be effective  a muscle is on the stationary bone where it begins, and the muscle ends at an insertion on the bone that moves  named according to size, shape, location and number of origins, associated bones and the action of the muscle  The body’s skeletal muscles can be divided into four areas o head and neck muscles o muscles of the upper limbs (shoulder, arm, forearm) o trunk (thorax and abdomen) o muscles of the lower limbs (hip, pelvis/thigh, leg) Muscle Names Energy sources for Muscle Contraction  Creatinine Phosphate  Anaerobic Respiration Aerobic respiration  95% ATP is used at rest and during exercise (moderate)  comes from aerobic respiration involving a series of metabolic pathways that use oxygen THE NECK AND HEAD The Muscle of the Upper Limb (Shoulder, arm and hand) THE TRUNK THE LOWER LIMBS  Type of Muscle Movements  Extension  Flexion  Abduction  Adduction  Circumduction  Supination  Pronation  Plantar Flexion  Dorsiflexion  Rotation Effects of Ageing  Loss of Elasticity  Decrease in size of muscle fibers (wasting)  Age-related reduction in CV Performance Skeletal Muscle Movement  occurs as a result of more than one muscle moving, and muscles invariably move in groups;  when a muscle contracts at a joint, one bone remains fairly stationary and the other one moves  origin of a muscle is on the stationary bone and the insertion of a muscle is on the bone that moves.  each muscle is dependent upon how the muscle is attached to either side of a joint and also the kind of joint it is associated with.  THE SKELETAL MUSCLE Anatomy of Skeletal System The Skeletal System  basic framework of a body and the entire body are built around the hard framework of Skeleton  206 adult bones  Axial and Appendicular Skeleton Axial Skeleton  forms the central axis of the body and consists of 80 bones  skeleton supports the head (including the bones in the ear), neck and the torso (this is also referred to as the trunk)  consists of the skull, the vertebral column, the ribs and the sternum Function  The skeletal system – and this includes the bones of the skeleton, the ligaments, cartilage and connective tissues that provide stability or attach the bones – has a number of key functions o provides support o enables movement o stores minerals and lipids o protects the body o produces blood cells Bone formation and growth (ossification) Appendicular Skeleton  Protein Matrix - strength, resilience and  bones of the upper and lower extremities – elasticity the arms and the legs as well as the bones  Number of minerals deposited in the that attach them to the axial skeleton. bone  126 Bones  3rd month of pregnancy - skeleton of fetus is completely formed (primary cartilage) Embryonic formation  Mesenchyme  Hyaline Cartilage  Osteoblast  Ossification Begins  Bone formation and growth (ossification) Intramembranous ossification Endochondral ossification 1. The Mesenchyme cells is the site of the  Cartilage that is replaced by bone ossification  Mesenchymal cells --> chondroblast --> 2. The calcification Hyaline Cartilage(extracellular matrix) 3. Formation of trabeculae 4. Development of the periosteum Bone Remodeling Bone structure and blood supply (histology)  new cells occurs and bone continually renews itself through bone remodeling.  Old to new bones Bone Fructures  Tucker (2011) defines a fracture as the breakage of bone due either to an injury or disease. There are a number of types of fracture, including: o Simple o compound o comminuted o greenstick (incomplete) Blood Supply Blood supply to the bone comes via three routes:  the Haversian canals  the Volkmann canals  the vessels Organization of bone Flat bones Bones are classified according to:  found where there is a need for muscle  based on shape attachment or for protection of soft or o long important aspects of the body o short  Allows extensive muscle attachment o fl