Experimental Psychology Manual 2024 PDF

1 Experimental Psychology Second Edition, 2024 Copyright. Republic Act 8293 Section 176 provides that “No copyright shall subsist in any work of the Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties. “ Borrowed materials included in this module are owned by their respective copyright holders. Every effort has been exerted to reach and seek permission to use these materials from their respective copyright owners. The University and authors do not claim ownership over them. Learning Module Development Team Writers: Jayvie Villazor, Assistant Professor 2 Evaluators: Raymond Huevos, Assistant Professor 4 Lawrence Balana, Instructor III Camille De Leon, Instructor II Quality Management Team: Arlene I. Pascual Focal Person, University Gender and Development Cristina G. Rivera Chair, Oversight Committee on Curriculum Development Arlene D. Ibañez Chair, Oversight Committee on Textbook and Instructional Materials Jesselyn C. Mortejo, EdD Director, Quality Assurance Office Thelma D. Manansala, EdD Vice President for Academic Affairs 2 Experimental Psychology by Jayvie Villazor, PhD, RPsy, RPM, MHFP, CHRA Bataan Peninsula State University-Balanga Campus College of Social and Behavioral Science 3 About the Course Facilitator Jayvie Villazor finished his bachelor's degree in psychology at Bataan Peninsula State University as Cum Laude, Leadership Awardee and Best Practicum in 2012. He finished his Master in Psychology, specializing in Clinical Psychology, at the Polytechnic University of the Philippines—Sta. Mesa in 2015. He finished his Ph.D. in Clinical Psychology (2022) at the University of Sto. Tomas as Cum Laude. He is a college scholar, an iskolar ng bayan during his Masters, and a Ph.D. scholar at the Commission on Higher Education. He is a Certified Mental Health First Responder, a Certified Human Resource Associate, a Licensed Psychometrician, and a Licensed Psychologist. More so, he is a volunteer in various government and private offices. He has been teaching different psychology classes at Bataan Peninsula State University since June 2012. Some of the classes he has taught are General Psychology, Psychological Statistics, Experimental Psychology, Environmental Psychology, Competency Enhancement Course, Psychology of Exceptional Children, Developmental Psychology, Field Methods, Psychological Assessment, Understanding the Self, and Assessment of Learning. He is also a resilience coach and psychologist at the Psyzygy Psychological Center. Since 2023, he has been serving as a consultant at Recuenco General Hospital in Taguig City and continues in this role to the present. In addition, he operates an online clinic through the Serous MD App. He had six journal articles published. In addition, he received six research awards at numerous international research conferences and the St. Magnus Albertus Award from the University of Sto. Tomas. He is a frequent presenter at a variety of Philippine and international research conferences. Psychotraumatology, positive psychology, and gerontology are among his areas of research interest. 4 Table of Contents About the Course Facilitator…………………………………………………………................3 Course Overview……………………………………………………………………...................5 _Topic 01: Introduction to Experimental Psychology……………………………................ _Topic 02: Ethics in Research………………………………………………………................ _Topic 03: Review of Related Literature……………………………………………................ _Topic 04: Alternatives to Experimentation………………………………………............... _Topic 05: Formulating Hypothesis………………………………………………................. _Topic 06: Writing IMRAD: Introduction and Methodology…………………….............. _Topic 07: Basics of Experimentation…………………………………………….................. _Topic 08: Experimental Designs…………………………………………………................. _Topic 09: Exploring Statistics…………………………………………………….................. _Topic 10: Writing IMRAD: Results and Discussion…………………………..................... 5 Course Overview Introduction This course is designed to introduce students to Experimental Psychology, a distinct subfield of Psychology. This course endeavors to investigate and comprehend behavior through empirical research techniques. Experimental psychology can enrich our understanding of human behavior and various experiences by studying how people behave, how behavior is shaped throughout life, and other theoretical questions. Thus, it tends to improve the understanding of the self and look for solutions to human dilemmas and issues. The discipline investigates a vast array of topics, such as learning, memory, sensation, and attention, among others. Key Learning Competencies Apply the concepts of experimentation to implementing a treatment that promotes solutions to human issues connected with mental health. Course Details: _Course Code: PSYCH 202 _Course Title: Experimental Psychology _No. of Units: 5 units _Classification: Lecture-based and Laboratory _Pre-requisite / Co-Requisite: Psychological Statistics _Semester and Academic Year: 2nd semester Academic Year 2024-2025 _Name of Faculty: Jayvie Villazor _Contact Details Email: [email protected] Mobile Number: 09284025060 6 Learning Management System _Synchronous or asynchronous _Lecture _Field Work _Consultation _Statistical Package for Social Science _Google Classroom _YouTube Module Overview The following are the topics to be discussed in the module: _Topic 01: Introduction to Experimental Psychology _Topic 02: Ethics in Research _Topic 03: Review of Related Literature _Topic 04: Alternatives to Experimentation _Topic 05: Formulating Hypothesis _Topic 06: Writing IMRAD: Introduction and Methodology _Topic 07: Basics of Experimentation _Topic 08: Experimental Designs _Topic 09: Exploring Statistics _Topic 10: Writing IMRAD: Results and Discussion Learning Outcomes Create an experiment that seeks to explain a specific phenomenon or to provide a remedy for human issues related to mental health. Minimum Technical Skills Requirement Create a journal article and a poster relating to the experiment's selected topic. Learning Management System 7 Face-to-face Lecture, Field Work, Consultation, Statistical Package for Social Science, Google Classroom, YouTube. Duration _Topic 01: Introduction to Experimental Psychology (6 hours) _Topic 02: Ethics in Research (12 hours) _Topic 03: Review of Related Literature (6 hours) _Topic 04: Alternatives to Experimentation (6 hours) _Topic 05: Formulating Hypothesis (3 hours) _Topic 06: Writing IMRAD: Introduction and Methodology (12 hours) _Topic 07: Basics of Experimentation (12 hours) _Topic 08: Experimental Designs (24 hours) _Topic 09: Exploring Statistics (15 hours) _Topic 10: Writing IMRAD: Results and Discussion (24 hours) Delivery Mode Topics are synchronous and asynchronous. 8 Acknowledgement I would like to express my sincere appreciation to Curtis Daniel Santiago for his invaluable contribution to the statistical matrix in Chapter 9. Special thanks go to Jaeo Jasper Mustar for his meticulous layout of the module, which has greatly enhanced its clarity and accessibility. I am also deeply grateful to Jonathan Pangilinan Jr. for designing the module's cover, perfectly capturing the essence of this work. Their combined efforts and dedication have been instrumental in bringing this module to fruition. 9 Topic 01: Introduction to Experimental Psychology “He who experiments must, while doing so, divest himself of every preconception. It is clear then that if we wish to make use of a method of experimental psychology, the first thing necessary is to renounce all former creeds and to proceed by means of the method in the search for truth.” Maria Montessori Objectives Define Environmental Psychology and its scope. Trace the development of Environmental Psychology as a distinct field Appreciate Environmental Psychology as a distinct field. Introduction Welcome to the Experimental Psychology course! When you hear the word experiment, the first thing that springs to mind is probably chemicals, laboratories, and the like. Is this true of experimental psychology? I know you're inundated with definitions of psychology. I hope you've figured out by now that experimental psychology isn't about substances. We'll be studying experimental psychology for the next five months, and I hope you're thrilled and hopeful about learning new things. Above all, you want to use the experimental approach to develop knowledge in psychology. This is the inception of your journey to contribute knowledge and discoveries in the field of psychology. 10 Pre-assessment Write the correct letter or answer in the space provided. ___1. Who is considered to be the Father of Experimental Psychology? a. Albert Bandura b. Wilhelm Wundt c. Sigmund Freud d. Alfred Adler ___2. Experimental psychology emphasis is: a. Testing correlational hypothesis b. Validating hypothetical situations c. Knowing the significant effect of a therapy d. Identifying causal relationship ___3. Experiments are conducted in order to: a. All of these b. Replicate and extend previous findings c. Just see what happens. d. Test theories ___4. A research hypothesis is considered experimental in nature when it assesses: a. Difference b. Relationship c. Structure d. Prediction ___5. Psychologists attempt to make different groups of participants as similar as possible via: a. Randomization c. Correlation b. Confounding d. Regression to the Mean 11 Introduction to Experimental Psychology What is experiment? An experiment is a research method in which: - conditions are controlled - so that one or more independent variables - can be manipulated to test a hypothesis about a dependent variable, which allows an: - evaluation of causal relationships among variables; while ensuring best efforts to manage confounding. Experimentation A process undertaken to test a prediction (hypothesis) that particular behavioral events will occur reliably in certain, specifiable situations (Myers, 2006). Experimental Research - Geared towards understanding future outcomes or behaviors - Evaluates the effect or outcome of a change or treatment - Characterized by intentional and systematic control and manipulation of stimulus, treatments and conditions “...the most sophisticated, exacting and powerful research method for testing hypothesis, for establishing cause-effect relationships and for developing and discovering an organized body of knowledge” (Gay, 1976; Best & Khan, 1989; Mitchell, 2015; Clay, 2020). Formalizing Experimental Psychology/ History The chronological events in the realm of experimental psychology are derived from the works of Dr. Kliatco. 12 1874 - Wilhelm Wundt published the first experimental psychology textbook, Grundzüge der physiologischen Psychologie (Principles of Physiological Psychology). Known as the father of Psychology because of his establishment of the first laboratory. Established the first journal in Psychology 1875 - William James opened a psychology lab in the United States. The lab was created for the purpose of class demonstrations, rather than to perform original experimental research. 1879 - The first experimental psychology lab was founded in Leipzig, Germany. Modern experimental psychology dates back to the establishment of the very first psychology laboratory by pioneering psychologist Wilhelm Wundt during the late nineteenth century. 1883 - G. Stanley Hall opened the first experimental psychology lab in the United States at John Hopkins University. 1885 - Herman Ebbinghaus published his famous Über das Gedächtnis ("On Memory"), which was later translated to English as Memory. A Contribution to Experimental Psychology. In the work, he described his learning and memory experiments that he conducted on himself. 1887 - George Truball Ladd published his textbook Elements of Physiological Psychology, the first American book to include a significant amount of information on experimental psychology. 1887 - James McKeen Cattell established the world's third experimental psychology lab at the University of Pennsylvania. 1890 - William James published his classic textbook, The Principles of Psychology. 1891 - Mary Whiton Calkins established an experimental psychology lab at Wellesley College, becoming the first woman to form a psychology lab. 1893 - G. Stanley Hall founded the American Psychological Association, the largest professional and scientific organization of psychologists in the United States 1920 - John B. Watson and Rosalie Rayner conducted their now famous Little Albert Experiment, in which they demonstrated that emotional reactions could be classically conditioned in people. 1929 - Edwin Boring's book A History of Experimental Psychology was published. Boring was an influential experimental psychologist who was devoted to the use of experimental methods in psychology research. 13 1955 - Lee Cronbach published Construct Validity in Psychological Tests, which popularized the use of the construct validity in psychological studies. 1958 - Harry Harlow published The Nature of Love, which described his experiments with rhesus monkeys on attachment and love. 1961 - Albert Bandura conducted his now-famous Bobo doll experiment, which demonstrated the effects of observation on aggressive behavior. Psychology in the Philippines Psychology was taught in the Philippines in the University of San Carlos and University of Santo Tomas (17th century) 1938 – Fr. Angel de Blas established the first experimental psychology laboratory in the Philippines, in UST Characteristics of Modern Science Think again if you believe science is unimportant to you. Science touches us all, every day of the year, from the moment we wake up until we go to bed. Science has brought you your digital alarm clock, the weather report, the asphalt you drive on, the bus you ride in, your decision to eat a baked potato instead of fries, your cell phone, the antibiotics that treat your sore throat, the clean water that comes from your faucet, and the light that you turn off at the end of the day (Berkeley). Modern science is defined as science that is based on experimentation to produce observable and repeatable outcomes. Modern science is concerned with issues that affect humanity as a whole, rather than just self-interest. Below are the characteristics of modern science by Myers and Brigs (2012). 1. Scientific Mentality 2. Gathering Empirical Data 3. Seeking General Principles 4. Good Thinking 5. Self-Correction 14 6. Publicizing Results 7. Replication Types of Experiment This portion of the introduction is an excerpt from Simply Psychology. The type of experimental psychology is specified along with its strengths and limits. 1. Lab Experiment - A laboratory experiment is one that is carried out under highly controlled settings (not necessarily in a laboratory) in order to obtain precise measurements. Strength: - A laboratory experiment is easy to replicate (i.e., copy). This is due to the employment of a uniform procedure. - They have the advantage of allowing exact control of extraneous and independent variables. This enables the establishment of a cause-and-effect link. Limitation: - Because the environment is artificial, it may induce abnormal behavior that does not mirror actual life, resulting in low ecological validity. This indicates that the findings cannot be generalized to a real-world scenario. - Demand characteristics or experimenter effects may skew the results and introduce confounding variables. 2. Field Experiment - Field experiments are conducted in the subjects' everyday (i.e., real-life) environments. The researcher continues to manage the independent variable, but this time in a real-world environment (so they can't actually control extraneous variables). Strength: - Because of its natural context, behavior in a field experiment is more likely to mimic actual life, resulting in higher ecological validity than a lab experiment. 15 - Because participants may be unaware that they are being examined, there is less chance that demand characteristics may influence the results. This happens when the investigation is undercover. Limitation: - One limitation is that there is less control over extraneous variables that could skew the results. This makes it impossible for another researcher to reproduce the findings precisely. 3. Natural Experiment Natural experiments are conducted in the participants' everyday (i.e., real life) context, but the experimenter has no control over the independent variable because it occurs naturally in real life. Strength: - Because of the natural context, behavior in a natural experiment is more likely to represent actual life, i.e., very high ecological validity. - Because participants may be unaware that they are being examined, there is less chance that demand characteristics may influence the results. - It can be utilized in instances when manipulating the independent variable would be unethical, for as when researching stress. Limitations - They may be more expensive and time-consuming than laboratory experiments. - There is no control over extraneous variables that could skew the results. This makes it impossible for another researcher to reproduce the findings precisely. Generalization An experiment is an effective method of study design that identifies the relationships between causes and their subsequent effects. This has led to the development of a great deal of ideas, theories, and information. It's probable that a student or researcher will find the process of pleading for it to be tough, but the ultimate result is worthy of praise. The idea that experimental psychology is not very prevalent in our society is another point that is brought up in Topic 1. The 16 author has great hopes that once you have completed all of the requirements for your degree, you will give careful thought to using an experimental approach as the methodology behind your research. And for the time being, keep maintaining your attentiveness, as well as your enthusiasm, for the next subject. Activity/Assessment I. Upon studying the introductory part of experimental psychology, kindly answer the following questions below: 1. What is the essence of experimental psychology? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. What's the relationship between causation and correlation? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Is experimental psychology applicable to studying religion? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 17 4. Can both science and religion lead us to the truth? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Kindly think of a variable or phenomenon in psychology that will be best described or explained by experimental psychology. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 6. What are the purposes of science? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 7. What question(s) can be answered by experimental psychology? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 8. What do you think are the strengths and weaknesses of Experimental Psychology? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 18 9. How will you apply experimental psychology to our culture, or Sikolohiyang Filipino? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 10. What are the topics that you want to study in experimental psychology? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ II. The Impact of Eye Contact and Smiling on Social Interactions Objective: To investigate how making eye contact and smiling of BPSU-Balanga Students affect social interactions and responses from others in various public settings. Materials: Notebook or digital device for recording observations Stopwatch or timer Comfortable clothing suitable for various public settings Participants: One or many primary participants who will make eye contact and smile (male or female or both) Various unknowing participants (students of BPSU-Balanga Campus) Procedure: 1. Brief the primary participant on the objective and procedure of the experiment. 2.Ensure the participant is comfortable with making eye contact and smiling at strangers. 3. Choose diverse public settings for the experiment, such as: ▪ library 19 ▪ corregidor of CSBS ▪ BYC, etc. 4. In each location, the primary participant will follow these steps: - Spend 5 minutes observing the surroundings and the general behavior of people without making any intentional eye contact or smiling. Note the baseline behavior. - For the next 15 minutes, the primary participant will make deliberate eye contact and smile at every third person they encounter. The eye contact should last for about 2-3 seconds, followed by a genuine smile. 5. After each interaction, the participant will record the reactions and responses of the individuals in a notebook or digital device. Categories for reactions can include: ▪ Positive response (smile back, nod, verbal greeting) ▪ Neutral response (no change in behavior, glance away) ▪ Negative response (frown, avoid eye contact, verbal negative response) 6. Data Collection: - Repeat the observation and interaction periods in each chosen location. - Ensure the participant records the time, location, and any notable environmental factors (e.g., weather, crowd density). Analysis: - Compile the data collected from all locations. - Analyze the frequency and types of responses in different settings. - Compare the baseline behavior with the responses during the interaction periods. Conclusion: - Draw conclusions on how eye contact and smiling impact social interactions. - Identify any patterns or significant differences in responses based on location, time of day, or other factors. Ethical Considerations: 20 - Ensure the primary participant understands the importance of respecting personal boundaries. - Be prepared to explain the nature of the experiment if asked by participants or authorities. Variable (sample only) Observation (Frequency) Eye Contact Smiling 1. Gender of participant 2. Location 3. Time 4. Weather 5. Type of dress Discussions: 21 References Powerpoint Presentation and Lectures of Dr Kliatco Berkeley University of California. What has science done for you lately? https://undsci.berkeley.edu/understanding-science-101/what-has-science-done-for-you- lately/#:~:text=Your%20digital%20alarm%20clock%2C%20the,of%20the%20day%20have %20all Myers ( ). Experimental Psychology Simply Psychology. Experimental Methods in Psychology https://www.simplypsychology.org/experimentalmethod.html?fbclid=IwAR2eSuysROO FJXl38MSOsADu7YFCE_LqqCw9XmgrKHFBkAjYUNZkouplt20 22 Learner’s Feedback Form Name of Student : __________________________________________________________ Program : __________________________________________________________ Year Level : ____________________ Section : _____________________________ Faculty : __________________________________________________________ Schedule : __________________________________________________________ TopicNumber : ___________________ Title : _________________________________ How do you feel about the topic or concept presented?  I completely get it.  I’m struggling.  I’ve almost got it.  I’m lost. In what particular portion of this course packet, you feel that you are struggling or lost? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Did you raise your concern to you instructor?  Yes  No If Yes, what did he/she do to help you? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ If No, state your reason? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ To further improve this course packet, what part do you think should be enhanced? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ How do you want it to be enhanced? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 23 Topic 02: Ethics in Research "Even the most rational approach to ethics is defenseless if there isn't the will to do what is right." Alexander Solzhenitsyn Objectives To be familiar with the ethical guidelines that govern experimental research. To value acting ethically when conducting research. In the context of research, the capability to determine whether or not a specific conduct should be considered unethical. Ability to make an informed consent. Introduction Research ethics dictate the conduct standards for scientific researchers. To protect the dignity, rights, and welfare of research participants, adherence to ethical principles is essential. As a result, all human subjects research should be reviewed by an ethics committee to ensure adherence to the appropriate ethical standards. Central to ethical review is the discussion of the ethical principles of beneficence, justice, and autonomy (WHO, 2016). Pre-assessment Answer the following questions. 1. Is it ok to kill animals for the sake of research? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 24 2. How will participants' confidentiality and anonymity be maintained? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 3. Will there be any incentives to enhance participation or response rates? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 4. How will the welfare of potential participants be ensured? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 5. Who will have access to and where will the study data be stored? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 25 Ethics in Research 1. Respect for Persons and Community Respect for persons and community is a fundamental ethical principle in research, emphasizing the autonomy and dignity of individuals. This principle ensures that individuals have the right to decide whether or not to participate in research, and their decision must be respected regardless of their status in life, race, nationality, gender, or culture. This respect is crucial in creating an ethical research environment that honors the diversity and intrinsic value of all participants. 2. Beneficence Beneficence is the ethical obligation to do no harm and to actively contribute to the well-being of research participants. Researchers are responsible for the physical, mental, and social well-being of participants throughout the study. To uphold this principle, participants must be informed that their data will remain confidential, and they must provide informed consent before participating (UN Women, n.d.). This ensures that participants are aware of the study's purpose, procedures, and potential risks, fostering a trustful and ethical research process. 3. Justice Justice in research ethics demands that no single group of participants should be exposed to risk solely for the benefit of others (UN Women, n.d.). This principle promotes fairness in the distribution of the benefits and burdens of research. It ensures that all groups are treated equitably and that the selection of participants is not based on convenience or vulnerability. By adhering to this principle, researchers can avoid exploitation and ensure that all participants are treated with fairness and respect. It is crucial to identify and give special consideration to vulnerable participants in research to ensure ethical practices are upheld. Vulnerable participants, as identified by UN Women, include but not limited to: - The Poor 26 -Survivors of Gender Based Violence -Pregnant Women -Persons with disabilities -Children -Prisoners -Mentally Ill -Populations with limited education -Those with limited access to health services -Sex workers -Undocumented migrants I. Code of Ethics for Philippine Psychology and Psychometrician (2022) The first publication of the code of ethics occurred around 2008. Due to the pandemic, which fundamentally altered the landscape of psychological services in the Philippines, including research, it was revised in 2022. It is essential to understand and adhere to our code of ethics. Section 10 of said code of ethics is provided below. A. Rights and Dignity of Participants 1. In all aspects, we respect the rights, safeguard the dignity, and protect and promote the welfare of research participants. 2. Before beginning any research work in a community not our own or not familiar to us, we obtain essential information about their mores, culture, social structure, customs, and traditions. 3. We respect and abide by their cultural expectations, provided that this does not contravene any of the ethical principles of this Code of Ethics. 4. We respect the rights of research participants should they wish to discontinue their participation at any time. We are responsive all throughout the research to participants’ non-verbal indications of a desire to withdraw from participation, especially if the person 27 has difficulty with verbal communication, is a young child, or is culturally unlikely to communicate. 5. We do not contribute nor engage in research which contravenes international humanitarian law, such as development of methods intended to torture persons, development of prohibited weapons, or destruction of the environment. 6. It is our duty to ask participants about any factors that could bring forth potential harm, such as preexisting medical conditions, and to detect, remove, or correct any foreseeable undesirable consequences prior to research proper. 7. To ensure that participants’ rights are protected, we seek independent and sufficient ethical review of the possible risks our research may pose to them. B. Informed Consent to Research 1. We do not just ask participants to sign in the consent form; we recognize that informed consent happens due to the willingness of the participants to work collaboratively with us. 2. We make sure that the consent form is translated in language or dialect that the participants understand. We will take reasonable measures to guarantee that the information was understood. 3. When we conduct research with persons below 18 years of age, we obtain informed assent from them and informed consent from their parents or legal guardian. 4. When we conduct research with adult participants who have difficulties in comprehension or communication, we obtain informed consent from adult family members of the participants and approval from independent advisors. 5. When we conduct research with detained persons, we pay attention to special circumstances which could affect the latter’s ability to give informed consent. 6. When obtaining informed consent as required in section III.J. of this Code of Ethics, it is our duty to inform research participants about: a. the purpose of research, expected duration, and procedures; b. mutual responsibilities; 28 c. their right to decline to participate and to withdraw from the research once participation has begun; d. the foreseeable consequences of declining or withdrawing; e. reasonably foreseeable factors that may be expected to influence their willingness to participate such as potential risks, discomfort, or adverse effects; f. how to rescind consent if desired; g. any prospective research benefits; h. protections and limits of confidentiality and/or anonymity; i. incentives for participation; j. whom to contact for questions about the research and research participants’ rights; and k. contact details of mental health professionals in case participants experience distress due to the study. We shall provide an opportunity for prospective participants to ask questions and receive answers. 7. When conducting intervention research using experimental treatments, it is our duty to clarify to participants at the beginning of research the following: a. experimental nature of the treatment b. services that will or will not be available to the control group(s) if appropriate; c. means by which assignment to treatment and control groups will be made; d. available treatment alternatives if an individual does not wish to participate in the research or wishes to withdraw once a study has begun; and, e. compensation for or monetary costs of participating, and if appropriate, including whether reimbursement from the participant or a third-party payor will be sought. 8. In longitudinal research, we may need to obtain informed consent on more than one occasion. 9. In conducting online data gathering procedures using digital survey platforms, we ensure that informed consent is obtained in the same rigorous manner as in face-to-face surveys. 29 Such consent to participate in the study must be secured before the respondent gains access to the actual survey or data gathering instruments. C. Informed Consent for Recording Voices and Images in Research 1. It is our duty to obtain informed consent from research participants before recording their voices or images for data collection, except when: a. the research consists only of naturalistic observations in public places, and it is not anticipated that the recording will be used in a manner that could cause personal identification or harm; and, b. the research design includes deception, and consent for the use of the recording is obtained during debriefing. D. Research Participation of Client, Students and Subordinates 1. When we conduct research with our clients, students or subordinates, we do not coerce them to participate, rather, we inform them about their right not to participate and we do not reprimand or penalize them for doing so. 2. When research participation is a course requirement or an opportunity for extra credit, we inform our clients, students or subordinates about equitable alternative activities that could fulfill their educational or employment goals. E. Dispensing with Informed Consent for Research 1. We may dispense informed consent only on the following conditions: a. when we believe that the research would not distress or create harm to participants or general welfare or when our study involves: i. the study or normal educational practices, curricula, or classroom management methods conducted in educational settings; ii. only anonymous questionnaires, naturalistic observations, or archival research for which disclosure of responses would not place participants at 30 risk of criminal or civil liability or damage their financial standing, employability, or reputation, and confidentiality is protected; iii. the study of factors related to job or organization effectiveness conducted in organizational settings which would not affect the participants’ employability, and when confidentiality is protected; or, b. when it is mandated by law or is an institutional regulation. F. Offering Inducements for Research Participation 1. We may fairly compensate participants for the use of their time, energy, and knowledge, unless such compensation is refused in advance. 2. We make reasonable efforts not to offer undue, excessive or, inappropriate reward, financial or other inducements for research participation, which could likely pressure or coerce participation. 3. When we offer psychological and professional services as an incentive for research participation, it is our duty to clarify the nature of the services, including the risks, obligations and limitations. G. Deception in Research 1. We refrain from conducting research involving deception, except: a. when we have determined that the use of deceptive techniques is justified by the study’s significant prospective scientific, educational, medical, or applied value; and, b. when effective non- deceptive alternative procedures are not possible. 2. We do not deceive prospective research participants about our study that is reasonably expected to interfere with their decision to give informed consent. We ensure that the level of risk, discomfort, or inconvenience that could cause physical pain or severe emotional distress is not withheld from the participants. 3. It is our duty to explain any deception as an integral feature of design and conduct of an experiment to those who participated in research as soon as possible, preferably at the end of their participation but not later than the end of data gathering. 31 H. Debriefing 1. We debrief by informing the participants that they have contributed to the body of knowledge and we make sure that they have also learned from their participation. 2. We give participants an opportunity to obtain the nature, results, and conclusions of the research. We also take reasonable steps to correct any misconceptions participants have about our research, especially when the participants were led to believe that the research has a different purpose. 3. When participants’ trust may have been lost due to incomplete disclosure or temporarily leading participants to believe that the research had a different purpose, we seek to re- establish trust and assure them that the research procedures were carefully structured and necessary for scientifically valid findings. 4. If scientific or humane values justify delaying or withholding this information, we take reasonable measures to reduce the risk of harm. 5. When we become aware that our research procedures have harmed a participant, we act to correct and minimize the harm. 6. If after debriefing, the participants decided to withdraw their data, we shall respect and grant their request. The participants have the right to appeal that their own data, including recordings, be destroyed. I. Observational Research We respect the privacy and psychological well-being of persons studied based on observational research. This method is acceptable only when those being observed would expect to be observed by strangers. J. Humane Care and Use of Animals in Research 1. We do not use animals in research, except when there is a sufficient reason to say that it is the only way to: a. further increase understanding of the structures and processes underlying human or animal behavior; 32 b. increase understanding of the specific species used in the study; or c. eventually augment benefits to the health and welfare of humans or other animals. 2. We comply with current laws, regulations and professional standards when we acquire, care for, use, and dispose animals used in research. 3. We take reasonable steps to ensure that animals used in research are treated humanely and are not exposed to unnecessary discomfort, pain, or disruption. If possible, a psychology practitioner trained in research methods and experience in care of laboratory animals shall supervise all procedures in researches of this kind. 4. We make sure that all individuals under our supervision have received clear instructions and guidelines in research methods and in care, maintenance, and handling of animals or specific species being used, to the extent that is appropriate to their role. 5. We use a procedure causing pain, stress, and privation to animals only when: a. an alternative procedure is unavailable; b. the goal is justified by its prospective scientific, educational, or applied value; and, c. we make reasonable efforts to minimize the discomfort, infection, illness, and pain of animal subjects. 6. We perform surgical procedures with appropriate anesthesia and we follow techniques to avoid infection and minimize the pain during and after surgery. 7. Only when it is appropriate that an animal’s life be terminated, then we proceed rapidly, with an effort to minimize pain and in accordance with accepted procedures. K. Care for the Environment We shall avoid procedures/methodologies that will adversely affect the environment. L. Reporting Research Results 1. When reporting results of research activities, we will use language that is appropriate and comprehensible to the target population. 33 2. Whenever feasible and appropriate, we consult with groups, organizations, or communities being studied the findings of our research so as to increase the accuracy of interpretation and to minimize the risk of misunderstanding, misinterpretation or misuse. 3. We are cautious when reporting results of our research regarding vulnerable groups or communities and we ensure that the results will not be misinterpreted or misused in the development of social policy, attitude, and practices. 4. In research involving children, we are cautious when discussing the results with parents, legal guardians, or teachers and we make sure that there is no misinterpretation or misunderstanding. 5. We do not fabricate data. 6. If we discover significant errors in our published data, we act quickly to correct such errors in a correction, retraction, erratum, or other appropriate publication means. 34 M. Plagiarism We do not present any portions of other’s work or data as our own, even if the source is cited occasionally. N. Publication Credit 1. We take responsibility and credit only for work we have actually done and credit others (including students and research assistants) for work they have actually performed or to which they have substantially contributed. 2. We ensure that principal authorship and co-authorship accurately reflect the relative scientific or professional contributions of the individuals involved, regardless of their relative status. Mere possession of an institutional position, such as department chair or head of the research unit, does not justify authorship credit. Minor contributions to the research or to the writing for publications must be acknowledged appropriately, such as in footnotes or an introductory statement. 3. We do not claim credit or authorship in a publication that is substantially based on our student’s thesis or dissertation if we do not have substantial contributions to the research beyond our regular duties as thesis/dissertation mentor or advisor. As faculty advisors, we should discuss with students, publication credit at the outset and throughout the research and publication process based on our relative contributions to the research work. 4. In a multiple-authored article that is partly and/or substantially based on the student’s thesis or dissertation, we shall give appropriate publication credit to the student based on the student’s contribution relative to the other authors. When the article is mainly based on the student’s thesis or dissertation, we credit the student with primary authorship. O. Duplicate Publication of Data We do not publish data that have been previously published and claim them as original data. However, this does not prohibit republishing of data as long as proper acknowledgement is clearly stated. 35 P. Sharing Research Data for Verification It is our duty to share and not to withhold our data to other competent professionals, who seek to verify and reanalyze the research results and substantive claims of our publication, provided that: 1. the latter obtain prior written agreement for the use of data; 2. the latter intend to use the data solely for the purpose declared; 3. the latter will hold responsibility for costs associated with the release of data; and, 4. confidentiality of participants can be protected. Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude such release, then the latter should seek permission from the concerned institution, organization or agency. Unless legal rights concerning proprietary data preclude such release, then the latter should seek permission from the concerned institution, organization or agency. Q. Reviewers When we review material submitted for presentation, publication, grant, or research proposal review, we respect the confidentiality and the proprietary rights of those who submitted it. R. Limitations of the Study 1. We acknowledge the limitations of our knowledge, methods, findings, interventions, interpretations, and conclusions. 2. In cases wherein our research touches on social policies and structures of communities which we do not belong, we thoroughly discuss the limits of our data with respect to their social policy. 3. We do not conceal disconfirming evidence about our findings and views and we acknowledge alternative hypotheses and explanations. 36 II. Informed Consent The code of ethics mentioned informed consent. It is a fundamental component of experimental research and one of the cornerstones of research ethics. Its purpose is to ensure that human participants can enter research voluntarily, with complete knowledge of what participation entails, and that they provide informed consent prior to entering research. The following is the instruction utilized by the Bataan Peninsula State University PREC. TITLE OF STUDY [Insert title] PRINCIPAL INVESTIGATOR [Name] [Department] [Address] [Phone] [Email] I. PURPOSE OF STUDY - You are being asked to take part in a research study. Before you decide to participate in this study, it is important that you understand why the research is being done and what it will involve. Please read the following information carefully. Please ask the researcher if there is anything that is not clear or if you need more information. - The purpose of this study is to [Briefly describe purpose of study.] II. STUDY PROCEDURES - List all procedures, preferably in chronological order, which will be employed in the study. Point out any procedures that are considered experimental. Clearly explain technical and medical terminology using non-technical language. Explain all procedures using language that is appropriate for the expected reading level of participants. 37 - State the amount of time required of participants per session, if applicable, and for the total duration of the study. - If audio taping, videotaping, or film procedures are going to be used, provide information about the use of these products. III. RISKS - List all reasonably foreseeable risks, if any, of each of the procedures to be used in the study, and any measures that will be used to minimize the risks. - You may decline to answer any or all questions and you may terminate your involvement at any time if you choose. IV. BENEFITS - List the benefits you anticipate will be achieved from this research. Include benefits to participants, others, or the body of knowledge. If there is no direct benefit to the participant, state so. For example, “There will be no direct benefit to you for your participation in this study. However, we hope that the information obtained from this study may….” - When applicable, disclose alternative procedures or courses of treatment, if any, which might be advantageous to participants. V. CONFIDENTIALITY - Your responses to this [survey] will be anonymous. Please do not write any identifying information on your [survey]. OR For the purposes of this research study, your comments will not be anonymous. Every effort will be made by the researcher to preserve your confidentiality including the following: - [State measures taken to ensure confidentiality, such as those listed below:] Assigning code names/numbers for participants that will be used on all research notes and documents. 38 Keeping notes, interview transcriptions, and any other identifying participant information in a locked file cabinet in the personal possession of the researcher. - Participant data will be kept confidential except in cases where the researcher is legally obligated to report specific incidents. These incidents include, but may not be limited to, incidents of abuse and suicide risk. VI. COMPENSATION - If there is no compensation, delete this section. - Indicate what participants will receive for their participation in this study. Indicate other ways participants can earn the same amount of credit or compensation. State whether participants will be eligible for compensation if they withdraw from the study prior to its completion. If compensation is pro-rated over the period of the participant's involvement, indicate the points/stages at which compensation changes during the study. VII. CONTACT INFORMATION If you have questions at any time about this study, or you experience adverse effects as the result of participating in this study, you may contact the researcher whose contact information is provided on the first page. If you have questions regarding your rights as a research participant, or if problems arise which you do not feel you can discuss with the Primary Investigator, please contact the Institutional Review Board at (865) 354-3000, ext. 4822. VIII. VOLUNTARY PARTICIPATION - Your participation in this study is voluntary. It is up to you to decide whether or not to take part in this study. If you decide to take part in this study, you will be asked to sign a consent form. After you sign the consent form, you are still free to withdraw at any time and without giving a reason. Withdrawing from this study will not affect the relationship you have, if any, with the researcher. If you withdraw from the study before data collection is completed, your data will be returned to you or destroyed. 39 Note: Please delineate the "Consent" section of the Informed Consent Form by drawing a line across the page (like the one above this paragraph). This delineation is important because the consent form grammar shifts from second person to first person, as shown in this example. CONSENT I have read and I understand the provided information and have had the opportunity to ask questions. I understand that my participation is voluntary and that I am free to withdraw at any time, without giving a reason and without cost. I understand that I will be given a copy of this consent form. I voluntarily agree to take part in this study. Participant's signature: ______________________________ Date: __________ Investigator's signature: _____________________________ Date: __________ Generalization The importance of ethics in the discipline of psychology cannot be overstated. Additionally, it acts as a guide for conducting experimental research. No longer do individuals suffer harm or make sacrifices to conduct research. What is the purpose of research if it causes more harm to individuals or participants than good? As a future researcher, you must rigorously adhere to the research ethics and other sections of the code of ethics for psychologists and psychometricians. We maintain our discipline with the utmost regard for human decency and the value of life. 40 Activity/Assessment I. Write the best letter or answer in the space provided. ___1. A psychometrician is undertaking a research program in an elementary school on the effect of a new counseling program on enhancing children's self-esteem. The psychometrician has received permission from the school's principal, the teachers, and from the parents of each student. However, when she explained the program to the children, some of them objected to being part of the study. The psychometrician should: a. not use these children in her study. b. call the parents of these children and ask them to try to convince the children to participate. c. use the children in her study because she has all necessary legal consents. d. re-design the study to eliminate the objection the children have to participating. ___2. Researchers must take special safeguards to protect human participants when: a. behavior is observed in the public domain. b. informed consent is not required. c. anonymous questionnaires are used. d. more than minimal risk is present. ___3. Which of the following is not a goal of debriefing? a. remove any harmful effects or misconceptions about the research b. explain the need for any deception c. learn how participants interpreted the study’s procedures d. get participants to participate in a study they might not normally do 41 ___4. Which of the following statements concerning the use of animals in research is true? a. Animals may never be subjected to pain or discomfort in research. b. Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort whenever an alternative procedure is not available. c. Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort whenever the researcher’s goals justify such procedures. d. Animals may be subjected to pain or discomfort only when no alternative procedure is available and when the goals of the research are judged to justify such procedures. ___5. Informed consent is seen as the primary means of ensuring the _________ and __________ of those with whom psychologists work. a. rights, privacy b. welfare, privacy c. safety, welfare d. rights, welfare II. Write your own informed consent. 42 References Code of Ethics for Philippine Psychologist and Psychometrician (2022). Psychological Association of the Philippines BPSU- PREC’s Guide in Writing Informed Consent World Health Organization (2016). Ensuring ethical standards and procedures for research with human beings. https://www.who.int/activities/ensuring-ethical-standards-and-procedures-for- research-with- humanbeings#:~:text=Research%20ethics%20govern%20the%20standards,and%20welfare%20of% 20research%20participants. 43 Learner’s Feedback Form Name of Student : __________________________________________________________ Program : __________________________________________________________ Year Level : ____________________ Section : _____________________________ Faculty : __________________________________________________________ Schedule : __________________________________________________________ TopicNumber : ___________________ Title : _________________________________ How do you feel about the topic or concept presented?  I completely get it.  I’m struggling.  I’ve almost got it.  I’m lost. In what particular portion of this course packet, you feel that you are struggling or lost? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Did you raise your concern to you instructor?  Yes  No If Yes, what did he/she do to help you? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ If No, state your reason? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ To further improve this course packet, what part do you think should be enhanced? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ How do you want it to be enhanced? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 44 Topic 03: Review of Related Literature "Writing a literature review is like putting together a jigsaw puzzle, except you don't have the picture on the box to guide you." Margot Phaneuf Objectives: To review and assess the methodologies and approaches used in previous studies. To identify gaps, inconsistencies, and areas lacking in the current body of knowledge. To synthesize the findings of previous studies to present a coherent narrative of what is known and what is still unknown. Introduction: Related literature is often considered quite challenging in research. In Germanic contexts, it is occasionally overlooked, yet this component, alongside IMRAD), holds equal importance to other research elements. Related literature is present in every aspect of research, from the introduction through to the methodology and discussion sections. This topic aims to underscore the critical role of conducting a thorough review of related literature and provide insights into effective approaches to accomplish this task. Preassessment: Enumerate five reasons why there is a need for a review of related literature in research. 1. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 45 2. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 3. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 4. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 5. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Related Review of Literature in Research A relevant literature review (RRL) is a clear and critical summary of published research relevant to a specific topic in an article. It discusses what is already known from existing literature about the topic being studied (Ulz, 2022). Importance of RRL 1. Identify research gap 2. Avoid duplication or redundancy of research efforts 3. Provides a comprehensive background and context for the research topic 4. Highlight researcher’s familiarity with their topic 5. Helps in the conceptualization of the research paper 6. Set as a guide in methodological direction of the research paper. 46 7. Facilitates integration of findings 8. Help builds in theoretical framework 9. Enhance credibility of the paper 10. Contributes to knowledge advancement Types of Literature Reviews (Wordvice, 2023) 1. Journal Studies and Articles. A journal article is a scholarly publication that presents original research, reviews existing literature, or discusses theoretical issues within a specific field. These articles are typically peer- reviewed, meaning they undergo evaluation by experts in the field before publication to ensure academic rigor and quality. Usually journal articles can be found through various academic databases and platforms such as: Google Scholar, EBSCOhost, PubMed. JSTOR, ScienceDirect, ProQuest, etc. 2. Dissertation or Thesis. A dissertation or thesis is a comprehensive piece of academic writing that typically forms a significant part of a larger body of scholarly work. These are usually unpublished and are commonly housed in university libraries. Dissertations and theses delve deeply into a specific research topic, presenting original findings and contributing new knowledge to their respective fields. They are rigorous in their scope and methodology, serving as important contributions to academic discourse and often influencing future research and scholarship in the field. 3. Course Assignment. A course is an example of a selective, stand-alone work that concentrates on a specific segment of literature within a topic, forming a comprehensive study in its own right. It delves deeply into a narrow area, synthesizing existing research to provide a thorough exploration and analysis. This focused approach allows courses to offer detailed insights and perspectives, contributing to the broader understanding of the subject matter despite its limited scope within the larger body of literature. 47 4. Literature Analysis (Review). Literature reviews serve a dual purpose as they are both comprehensive examinations of existing research and can stand alone as separate works. In the context of an article, a literature review thoroughly analyzes the body of literature pertaining to a specific topic. It synthesizes and critiques previous studies, identifying trends, gaps, and contradictions within the research landscape. By providing a consolidated overview of scholarly work, literature reviews not only inform readers about the current state of knowledge but also contribute to the advancement of understanding in the field. More so, make sure to site the literature or the article properly using APA style 7th edition. Different Types of Research Gap (Enago Academy, 2023) A research gap is an area where there isn't enough information to draw clear conclusions to answer a specific question. Finding these gaps is important for guiding further study and scholarly research. It means identifying where existing studies are outdated, conflicting, or incomplete, which shows opportunities for new research. By addressing these gaps, researchers expand knowledge in their field and make their work more relevant by filling in missing pieces of understanding or practice. This exploration often leads to advancing theories, creating new methods, or proposing solutions to unanswered questions in their field. 1. Knowledge Gaps These gaps refer to areas of insufficient knowledge or understanding within a subject that require further investigation to be adequately addressed. For instance, one such gap could involve the limited understanding of the process of posttraumatic growth among individuals who have experienced trauma. 2. Conceptual Gaps Gaps often manifest as deficiencies in the conceptual framework or theoretical understanding of a subject area. For instance, there might be a necessity for further research to elucidate the 48 connection between positive psychology and traumatic events, or to refine theoretical frameworks within the field of positive psychology. 3. Methodological Gaps Methodological gaps often arise from limitations in the methods used to study a specific subject. For instance, there might be a necessity for further research aimed at developing new methodologies or employing mixed methods in the study of posttraumatic growth. Currently, the majority of studies in this area are either purely qualitative or quantitative, highlighting a need for more comprehensive approaches that integrate both qualitative and quantitative data. 4. Data Gaps These gaps often stem from deficiencies in available data on a specific subject. For example, there might be a need for additional research to gather data on underrepresented populations or to develop new measurement tools for assessing particular constructs. In the study of posttraumatic growth, existing research predominantly focuses on individuals with terminal illnesses or military backgrounds, suggesting a crucial need to also investigate individuals who have experienced traumatic loss. 5. Practical Gaps Practical gaps can often be attributed to shortcomings in applying research findings to practical situations. For instance, there may be a necessity for further research aimed at understanding the effective implementation of posttraumatic growth intervention programs or support initiatives in real-world settings. Additionally, identifying barriers that hinder the adoption and successful implementation of these practices is crucial. How to Write a Literature Review Below is the step-by-step process I follow when writing a literature review, which is applicable to both Germanic format and IMRAD structure. 49 1. Choose a topic or research interest When conducting research or writing a literature review, it is crucial to begin by identifying your topic of interest. This can stem from various sources such as books, personal experiences, psychology classes, or simply curiosity. It is important to narrow down your topic to ensure it is manageable and feasible for research purposes. This focused approach helps in delving deeper into the subject matter and effectively synthesizing existing literature to contribute meaningfully to the scholarly discourse. 2. Search for relevant literature Once you have clearly defined your narrowed topic, the next step is to search for related literature. Begin by identifying keywords such as stress, anxiety, grit, flow, etc. Then, proceed to search different databases such as Google Scholar, Academia, ResearchGate, JSTOR, EBSCO, Project Muse, among others. It is important to ensure that the journal articles are from reputable sources and not predatory; you can verify this by consulting the Beall's List. When reviewing potential sources, start by reading the abstract to determine if the article is pertinent to your research question. If you find a useful book or article, examine its references to uncover additional relevant sources that could further inform your study. This systematic approach helps in building a solid foundation of literature for your research. 3. Identify connections within the literature and integrate your own topic with them When conducting a literature review, it is essential to discuss unaddressed issues in previous studies. Including studies that are missing key elements you aim to address is important for providing context and relevance to your work (Wordvice, 2023). Additionally, reviewing works whose theories and conclusions directly support your findings is valuable. Take note of the methodologies used and the recommendations provided in these papers. This thorough analysis will help you understand the current state of research, identify gaps, and highlight areas for further exploration. 50 4. Describe and summarize each article by presenting the key information relevant to your study. After following the first three steps, it's time to write your literature review. If you are using the Germanic format, there is a specific section for this, typically Chapter 2. You will need to write the introduction, methodology, and important findings of each study or journal article, and then integrate these results into the discussions or Chapter 4. For the IMRAD format, the literature is usually integrated into the introduction, methodology, and discussion sections. The literature should complement the paper by enhancing its scientific soundness. Generalization Related literature is crucial in research writing and experimental research as it provides a foundation for your study, offering context and background to your work. Make sure you are persistent in searching for relevant literature, ensuring that each source directly relates to your paper. Thoroughly reviewing related literature helps to identify gaps in current knowledge, supports the formulation of research questions, and guides the development of your methodology. Additionally, integrating findings from related literature enhances the credibility and validity of your study by demonstrating a comprehensive understanding of the existing research landscape. This diligent approach ensures that your research is well-informed and contributes meaningfully to your field of study. Activity/Assessment Please visit the provided link (https://www.researchgate.net/profile/Jayvie- Villazor?fbclid=PAZXh0bgNhZW0CMTEAAaaGCej8Raq1dQgL4WrB_26bdmoBigHFApZ1TEJf KNNaMYd27VRkjjRekw8_aem_AN113qTiqkkOn34JcDpo_A ) Choose one of the six articles available, and then synthesize it by following the table below. 1. Breaking the PSYCHcle: Impact of Psychoeducation on the Attitudes Towards Mental Illness of Two Barangays in Bataan, Philippines 51 2. Growth After Adversity: The Lived Experiences on Posttraumatic Growth Among Selected Covid-19 Survivors in Bataan 3. Posttraumatic Growth Among Grieving Parents after a Traumatic Loss in Bataan, Philippines 4. Moment that Goes Beyond Silence: Parents' Lived Experiences of Grief Due to Traumatic Loss in Bataan, Philippines 5. More than Grief and Resilience: The Posttraumatic Growth of Grieving Parents by Suicide in Bataan, Philippines 6. Implementation of the BUMABANGON Posttraumatic Growth Intervention Program among the Grieving Parents by Traumatic Loss in Bataan IMRAD Synthesis Introduction Background of the Study Statement of the Problem Research Gap Method Methodology Participant or Selection Data Gathering Procedure Ethical Consideration 52 Data Analysis Findings Discussion Implication Recommendation 53 References: Labios, R & Cruz, Dela & Villazor, Jayvie. (2024). Growth After Adversity: The Lived Experiences on Posttraumatic Growth Among Selected Covid-19 Survivors in Bataan. Journal of Education, Management and Development Studies. 4. 10.52631/jemds.v4i1.190. Turla, Von Hansen Jan & Fernando, Al-Jean & Macatangay, Priscilla & Bayhon, Ma & Corona, Alyssa & Soldevilla, Kyle & Villazor, Jayvie. (2024). Breaking the PSYCHcle: Impact of Psychoeducation on the Attitudes Towards Mental Illness of Two Barangays in Bataan, Philippines. 2. 518-525. 10.69569/jip.2024.0201. Villazor, Jayvie. (2023). POSTTRAUMATIC GROWTH AMONG GRIEVING PARENTS AFTER A TRAUMATIC LOSS IN BATAAN, PHILIPPINES PSYCHOLOGY AND EDUCATION: A MULTIDISCIPLINARY JOURNAL Posttraumatic Growth Among Grieving Parents after a Traumatic Loss in Bataan, Philippines. Psychology and Education Journal. 13. 487-495. 10.5281/zenodo.8345160. Guzman, J & Villazor, Jayvie. (2022). Implementation of the BUMABANGON Posttraumatic Growth Intervention Program among the Grieving Parents by Traumatic Loss in Bataan. 2. 26- 39. 10.52631/jemds.v2i4.110. Villazor, Jayvie & Guzman, Rosalito. (2022). Moment that Goes Beyond Silence: Parents' Lived Experiences of Grief Due to Traumatic Loss in Bataan, Philippines. Journal of Education, Management and Development Studies. 2. 13-24. 10.52631/jemds.v2i1.59. Villazor, Jayvie & Guzman, Rosalito. (2022). More than Grief and Resilience: The Posttraumatic Growth of Grieving Parents by Suicide in Bataan, Philippines. Journal of Education, Management and Development Studies. 2. 1-12. 10.52631/jemds.v2i1.58. Wordvice, 2023. How to Make a Literature Review in Research (RRL Example). https://blog.wordvice.com/how-to-write-a-literature-review/ Enago Academy, 2019. How to Identify a Meaningful Research Question. https://www.enago.com/academy/things-need-know-writing-good-research-question/ UC San Diego-Department of Psychology. Writing a Literature Review. https://psychology.ucsd.edu/undergraduate-program/undergraduate-resources/academic- writing-resources/writing-research-papers/writing-lit-review.html 54 Learner’s Feedback Form Name of Student : __________________________________________________________ Program : __________________________________________________________ Year Level : ____________________ Section : _____________________________ Faculty : __________________________________________________________ Schedule : __________________________________________________________ TopicNumber : ___________________ Title : _________________________________ How do you feel about the topic or concept presented?  I completely get it.  I’m struggling.  I’ve almost got it.  I’m lost. In what particular portion of this course packet, you feel that you are struggling or lost? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ Did you raise your concern to you instructor?  Yes  No If Yes, what did he/she do to help you? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ If No, state your reason? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ To further improve this course packet, what part do you think should be enhanced? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ How do you want it to be enhanced? _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________________ 55 Topic 04: Alternatives to Experimentation You are educated. Your certification is in your degree. You may think of it as the ticket to the good life. Let me ask you to think of an alternative. Think of it as your ticket to change the world. Tom Brokaw Objectives To be knowledgeable with a variety of research methodologies. The ability to determine when experimentation should be used as a research design. Introduction The purpose of a research design is to make sure that the data you gather will help you answer the research question as clearly as possible. In social science research, it is usually necessary to say what kind of evidence is needed to test a theory, evaluate a program, or correctly describe a phenomenon in order to get evidence that is relevant to the research problem. But researchers often start their research way too early, before they've really thought about what information they need to answer the study's research questions. If you don't take care of these design problems first, the conclusions you reach might not be strong or convincing. As a result, they might not solve the overall research problem. Since experimental research design is not always appropriate in every study, it is important to be familiar with other research designs. The author presents 12 alternative excerpts from the works of Myers and Hansen (2012). 56 Pre-assessment Kindly answer the questions in the space provided. 1. What do you think is the difference between quasi-experiment and true experiment? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 2. What do you think is the difference between correlation and multiple correlation? Give an example. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 3. What is the most appropriate research design if you want to study the effects of pandemic in mental health? Justify your answer. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 4. Is correlational research design applicable in qualitative research? Justify your answer. _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ 57 5. What do you think is the most powerful research design? Why? _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________________________ Alternatives to Experimentation A. Correlation and Correlation-based Research Designs 1. Correlation - Determines degree of relationship between two variables. - Example: The relationship between depression and disturbances in normal sleep patterns. 2. Multiple Correlation - Determines degree of relationship between three or more variables. - Example: Correlation between meditation, level of concentration and examination score. 3. Linear Regression Analysis - Uses regression equation to predict scores on one variable from scores on a second correlated variable. - Example: Predicting levels of happiness based on health. 4. Multiple Regression Analysis - Uses regression equation to predict scores on one variable from scores on sets of other variables. 58 - Example: Predicting children’s number of hours spent online through their relationship with their mother and their father. 5. Factor Analysis - Determines subsets of correlated variables within a larger set of variables. - Example: Examining correct and incorrect responses from a 100-item multiple choice introductory psychology test. 6. Path Analysis - Use beta weights from multiple regression analysis to generate possible direction of cause and effect from correlated variables. - Example: Positive effects of age, autonomy, and income on job satisfaction. 7. Cross-lagged Panel - Measures the same pair of variables at two different points in time; looks at patterns of correlations across time for possible direction of cause and effect. - Example: The directional causation between a nation’s import levels and the nation’s poverty level, measuring the total amount of money spent on education and the median household income in the Philippines in the years 2019 and 2023. B. Quasi-experimental Research Designs 8. Quasi-experiment - Investigates differences in preexisting groups of subjects; group differences on some variable may be explored or different treatments given to preexisting groups may be compared. - Example: The impact of a new psychological therapy on patients with depression. Examining the spelling ability of people with blue eyes and people with brown eyes a study of the effect of a motivation intervention on class attendance and enjoyment in students. 59 9. Ex Post Facto - Explores characteristics, behaviors, or effects of naturally occurring events in preexisting groups of subjects. - Example: The impact that parental levels of education and parental support have on college adjustment for first-year students. 10. Nonequivalent groups - Compares the effects of different treatment conditions on preexisting group of subjects. - Example: Evaluating a new method of teaching fractions to third graders by comparing a treatment group consisting of one class of third-grade students to a control group consisting of another class of third-grade students. 11. Longitudinal - Investigates changes across time by comparing groups of subjects already at different stages at a single point in time. - Example: Comparing the cognitive development of the same group of children in an urban and a suburban school Examining the physical and mental health of Filipino men from 2000 to 2023. 12. Pretest/posttest - Explores the effects of an event (or treatment) by comparing behavior before and after the event (or treatment). - Example: Examining the effectiveness of an antidrug education program on college students’ attitudes toward illegal drugs. The researcher could measure the attitudes of students at a particular college univers

Experimental Psychology Manual 2024 PDF

Document Details

Tags

Related

Summary

Full Transcript

Upgrade to continue