HHG4M1 Exam Review PDF

HHG4M1 Exam Review STRUCTURALIST THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Freud ​ Psychoanalytic Approach ○​ Focuses on resolving conflicts between conscious and unconcious feelings ○​ Explored the dreamstate and hidden mental process ​ Psychosexual Drive Theory ○​ Observed predicta...

HHG4M1 Exam Review STRUCTURALIST THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Freud ​ Psychoanalytic Approach ○​ Focuses on resolving conflicts between conscious and unconcious feelings ○​ Explored the dreamstate and hidden mental process ​ Psychosexual Drive Theory ○​ Observed predictable stages of childhood development focused on bodily area ​ e.g. the mouth during breastfeeding, the anus during toilet-training Erikson ​ Psychosocial Development ○​ Explores how psychological and social factors shape mental wellness and their ability to function Piaget ​ Theory of Cognitive Development ○​ It describes how these mental processes develop from birth until adulthood. ○​ Cognitive Development is gradual and orderly, it changes by which mental process becomes more complex and sophisticated. BEHAVIOURALIST THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Pavlov ​ Classical Conditioning ○​ Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus (bell) becomes associated with an unconditioned stimulus (food) leading to a conditioned response (salivation) Watson ​ Theory of Behaviourism ○​ Focuses on observable behavior demonstrated by conditioning emotional repsonses in humans ​ 9-month-old Albert was exposed to stimuli (white rats, santa claus toy, monkeys and bunnies) and observed ​ A white rat was paired with a loud noise ​ Albert was conditioned to fear the rat (even if he just saw the rat he would cry without the noise) Skinner ​ Operant Conditioning ○​ It is the method of learning that occurs through the use of rewards and punishments for behaviour ○​ Example: ​ Parents try to teach their child to be helpful. If every time their child helps them successfully they give him praise, he will learn that being helpful is good, and want to repeat this behaviour → reward COGNITIVE THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Bandura ​ Social Cognitive Theory ○​ Learning through observation, imitation and modelling ​ Bobo doll experiment highlighted the role of observational learning as the children learned/imitated the behaviour they saw Vygotsky ​ Social Development Theory ○​ Learning occurs within the zone of proximal development (ZPD), guided by adults or peers acting as role models ○​ Kids need to watch others, they need role models to develop and learn HUMANISTIC THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Maslow ​ Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Individuals must satisfy lower-level deficit needs before progressing on to meet higher-level growth needs. However, he later clarified that satisfaction of a need is not an “all-or-none” ○​ Physiological needs ​ Food, water, warmth, rest - the essentials people need to survive ○​ Safety needs ​ Security and safety - Needs to feel safe and secure in your life and environment ○​ Belongingness and love ​ Intimate relationships and friends - The need to feel a sense of belonging and acceptance​ ​ ​ ○​ Esteem needs ​ Prestige and feeling of accomplishment - Esteem needs are motivated by the desire to feel good about yourself. ○​ Self-actualization ​ Achieving ones true potential including creative activities - The desire to accomplish all that you can and unleash all your potential Rogers ​ Theory of Personality ○​ Rogers identified the frame of personality is developed. ○​ Self-actualization involves balancing self-worth, self-image and the ideal self for personal growth SYSTEMATIC THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES Bronfenbrenner ​ Ecological Systems Theory ○​ Examines individuals relationships within 5 environmental systems, linking personal development to social and community influences Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development ​ Sensorimotor stage ○​ Ages 0-2 years ○​ Infant's knowledge is limited to sensory perceptions and simple motor activities ​ Looking ​ Sucking ​ Grabbing ​ ​ Preoperational stage ○​ 2-7 years ○​ Child starts to use symbols and language. This is a period of developing language and basic world concepts ○​ Egocentrism: ​ The child’s thoughts and communications are typically centered around themselves or their perspective. ○​ Animism: ​ When the child treats an inanimate object, as a living thing. ○​ Centration: ​ When the child has a tendency to only focus on one aspect of a situation, problem or object, so they cannot see the big picture ​ Concrete operational stage ○​ 7-12 years ○​ The appropriate use of logic is needed to solve problems that are concrete, not abstract or hypothetical. ​ Formal Operational ○​ 12+ and it is the most complete stage ○​ Thoughts are more abstract, solve problems logically and understand that the rules of games can be changes by mutual agreement and are not set in stone Defence Mechanisms ​ Repression ○​ Unconscious mechanism used by the ego to keep disturbing/threating thoughts from becoming conscious ​ Trauma ​ Denial ○​ Involves blocking external events from awareness ○​ If a situation is too much to handle the person refuses to experience it  ​ Smoking is bad for your health ​ Projection ○​ Individuals referring to their own unacceptable thoughts/feelings/motives towards another person ​ Delusion (if you hate someone and you know its wrong, you belive the only way to solve it is to belive they hate you too) ​ Displacement ○​ Satisfying an impulse (aggression) with a substitute object ​ Punch a hole in the wall because you’re angry at someone ​ Regression ○​ Movement that one does when they are faced with stress ​ Sucking their thumb ​ Sublimation ○​ Satisfying an impulse (aggression) in a socially acceptable way ​ Sports, working out (putting emotions of aggression into something aggressive) ​ Intellectualization ○​ Trying to undestand why a bad thing happened using logic ​ Father dies of a heart attack and you research about his conditon ​ Reaction formation ○​ In a threatening situatuon you act the opposite of what you should’ve done ​ Someone threatens you with a gun and you laugh at them ​ Rationalization ○​ Making excused by disorting the facts ​ Someone who failed a class, would say ‘if I had a better teacher, I would’ve passed” Id, Ego, Superego ​ Id ○​ Irrational, instinctual, unconscious ○​ Contains secret desires, darkest wishes, and primal fears ○​ Principle of pleasure ​ Superego ○​ Internal sensor, mostly unconscious ○​ Derived from societal control (values, morals, beliefs) ○​ Principle of morality ​ Ego ○​ Rational, Logical, mostly conscious ○​ Floats throughout the Psyche ○​ Principle of reality  UNIT 2: Parts of the brain The Frontal Lobe: ​ Located at the front of the brain ​ Associated with reasoning, motor skills, higher level cognition, and expressive language ​ Motor cortex is located at the back of the frontal lobe ​ Motor cortex receives information from various lobes and uses this info to carry out body movements ​ Damage to the frontal lobe can lead to changes in sexual habits, socialization, and attention as well as increased risk-taking The Parietal Lobe: ​ Located in the middle section of the brain ​ Associated with processing tactile sensory information such as pressure, touch, and pain The Temporal Lobe: ​ Located on the bottom section of the brain ​ Also the location of the primary auditory cortex ○​ Interprets sounds and language we hear ​ The hippocampus is also located here ​ This is why this lobe is heavily associated with memories ​ Damage to the temporal lobe can lead to problems with memory, speech perception, and language skills The Occipital Lobe: ​ Located at the back of the brain ​ Associated with interpreting visual stimuli and information ​ The primary visual cortex is here ○​ Receives and interprets information from the retinas of the eyes ​ Damage to this lobe can cause visual problems such as difficulty recognizing objects, an inability to identify colors, and trouble recognizing words The Brain Stem -​ Responsible for involuntary processes -​ Heartbeat, breathing -​ Midbrain -​ Relay station for auditory and visual information -​ Controls eye movement -​ Medulla -​ Controls heart rate, breathing, blood pressure -​ Pons -​ Plays a role in stimulating breathing and controlling sleep cycles The Cerebellum -​ Responsible for conscious thought, coordination, learning, speech, behaviour, and personality  -​ Referred to as the “little brain” -​ On top of the pons, behind the brain stem Physical Development in Infants Gross motor skills ​ Involved in movement and coordination of the arms, legs, and other large body parts ​ Example: Running Fine motor skills ​ Involved in smaller movements that occur in the wrists, hands, fingers, feet and toes. ​ Example: Writing Rooting Reflex ​ Touching the corner of a baby’s mouth makes them turn, open their mouth, and move toward the touch. ​ Helps the baby find the breast or bottle for feeding. ​ Lasts about 4 months. Suck Reflex ​ Triggered when the roof of the baby’s mouth is touched, causing sucking. ​ Develops around the 32nd week of pregnancy. ​ Premature babies may have weaker sucking and might suck on fingers or hands. Moro Reflex (Startle Reflex) ​ Triggered by a loud sound or sudden movement. ​ Response: baby throws back their head, extends arms and legs, cries, then pulls them back in. ​ Lasts about 2 months. Tonic Neck Reflex ​ When the baby’s head turns to one side, the arm on that side stretches out, and the opposite arm bends. ​ Resembles a fencing position. ​ Lasts 5 to 7 months. Grasp Reflex ​ Stroking a baby’s palm causes them to grasp.  ​ Lasts 5 to 6 months. ​ A similar reflex in the toes lasts 9 to 12 months. Stepping Reflex (Walking/Dance Reflex) ​ When held upright with feet touching a surface, the baby appears to take steps. ​ Lasts about 2 months Maturational Theory of Child Development Arnold Gesell ​ Believed that child development occurs according to a predetermined, naturally unfolding plan of growth. ​ Meaning it occurs naturally Patterns of Growth in Infancy and Childhood CEPHALOCAUDAL DEVELOPMENT ​ “Safallo-caudal” ​ Refers to growth and development that occurs from the head down. ○​ Example: an infant will develop neck muscles first to hold their head up. PROXIMODISTAL DEVELOPMENT ​ “Proximo-dystle” ​ Refers to growth and development that occurs from the core out. ○​ Example: an infant will develop their spine first in the uterus, followed by arms and legs, and the fingers and toes Prenatal Development Risk factors and threats to the healthy growth of the fetus ​ Nutrition ​ Pregnant person’s age ​ Stress ​ Teratogen: harmful agents that cause abnormal prenatal development Teen Brain ​ Brain finishes developing at 25 ​ The brain develops back to front and the last part of the brain to fully develop is the prefrontal cortex ○​ Responsible for decisions, has more influence on the brain as you get older, think about your consequences for your actions ​ Limbic system develops faster than the prefrontal cortex during the teenage years, as we make more impulsive and emotional decisions before thinking it through ○​ Responsible for emotions ​ The Striatum processes rewards and motivations and is more active in children as they are more sensitive to rewards/punishments  UNIT 3: Noam Chomsky ​ Theory of Universal Grammar ○​ Believed all humans are born with the instinct to learn a language ○​ There are basic rules/structures shared by these languages called universal grammar Lawrence Kohlberg - Moral Development Requires the interpersonal relationship between individuals, peers, and family members to exist or moral development does not happen. ​ Level 1: Pre-conventional Morality ○​ 0-9 years old ○​ Don’t have a moral code instead our moral code is shaped by adults & the consequences of our actions ​ Stage 1: Obedience & Punishment orientation ​ The child is good at avoiding punishment, if a person is punished they’ve done something wrong (You hit someone you get punished) ​ Stage 2: Individualism & Exchange ​ Children recognize there isn’t 1 right view, different people have different viewpoints (you can get away with things with mom and not with dad) ​ Level 2: Conventional Morality ○​ 10-20 years old ○​ Humans internalize moral standards & authority is internalized and not questioned ​ Stage 3: Good Interpersonal Relationships ​ Child is good in order to be seen as good by others (Children want the teacher to see them as a good student) ​ Stage 4: Maintaining Social Order ​ Child is aware of the rules of society so to avoid judgment or guilt they obey the rules (Stealing is bad and if they do it they don’t want anyone to know) ​ Level 3: Post-conventional Morality ○​ 15+ years old ○​ Individual judgment is based on self-chosen principles & moral reasoning is based on individual rights/freedoms ​ Stage 5: Social Contract/ Individual Rights ​ Child is aware that rules/ laws exist for the greater good but there are times we work against it (stealing food for family) ​ Stage 6: Universal Principles  ​ People develop their own set of moral guidelines which may or may not fit the law James Rest ​ The test measures moral reasoning by asking people to rate and rank issue statements. ​ These statements are designed to trigger different ways of thinking about moral problems. ​ Participants respond to the statements based on how much they make sense to them and align with their values. The test focuses on three types of moral reasoning: ​ Personal Interests: Thinking about what benefits you or close others. ​ Maintaining Norms: Following rules, laws, and social order. ​ Postconventional Thinking: Considering higher principles like justice and human rights. Purpose: ​ To track how moral reasoning develops as people grow from teenagers to adults. Intelligence Emotions (Birth to 18 Months) ​ Emotional intelligence begins developing from birth. ​ Emotions such as empathy, happiness, hopefulness, and sadness are influenced by nurturing. ​ Early childhood experiences set the foundation for emotional intelligence, which continues to develop through adolescence. ​ A well-developed emotional intelligence fosters good moral standards. Speech (Birth to Age 10) ​ Babies are born with the potential to learn any language. ​ Language acquisition is enhanced by exposure to spoken communication. ​ Children pick up grammar and sentence structure much more effectively than adults learning a new language. Math and Logic (Ages 1 to 5) ​ The development of problem-solving skills is closely tied to sensory inputs like sight, hearing, and touch. ​ Mathematical abilities often develop in conjunction with musical skills. ​ Stimulating a child’s senses can enhance skills in spatial relations and problem-solving. Unit 4: Influences of Identity and Personality development  ​ Self Esteem + Self Concept ​ Self Concept: ○​ Refers to a person’s understanding of who they are, created by their understanding of where they fit in the world. ​ Self Esteem: ○​ Refers to a person’s overall emotional evaluation of their self worth, created by comparing themselves to others. Attachment Theory Attachment Theory -​ States that a strong emotional and physical attachment to at least one primary caregiver is crucial for personal development. John Bowlby -​ British psychologist who studied kids separated from families in WWII -​ Said attachment helps babies stay safe from danger. -​ Four stages of attachment: 1.​ Pre-Attachment: Babies don’t know specific people yet. 2.​ Attachment in the Making: (0–6 months) Babies bond with caregivers but are okay with strangers. 3.​ Clear-Cut Attachment: (6 months–2 years) Babies cry when caregivers leave. 4.​ Reciprocal Attachments: (2+ years) Babies understand routines and know caregivers will come back​ Mary Ainsworth -​ American-Canadian psychologist (1913–1999) who worked with Bowlby. -​ Created the Strange Situation Procedure in 1965 to study how babies react to stress when separated from caregivers​ Strange Situation Procedure -​ A test to see how babies react when a caregiver leaves and returns: 1.​ A stranger joins the caregiver and baby. 2.​ Caregiver leaves; baby stays with the stranger. 3.​ Caregiver comes back, leaves again; stranger comforts baby. 4.​ Caregiver comes back and holds the baby. -​ Helped study attachment types but was criticized for focusing too much on mothers and seeming fake Attachment Types + Behaviours 1.​ Secure: Baby feels safe, explores, and seeks comfort when upset. 2.​ Avoidant: Baby avoids closeness and doesn’t rely much on caregivers. 3.​ Ambivalent: Baby wants comfort but resists it due to inconsistent care. 4.​ Disorganized: Baby seems scared or confused, with no clear attachment style​