Developmental Psychology Chapter 2 Summary PDF

○ Quantitative Change - Change in number DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY or amount, such as in height, weight, size 2nd Semester, AY 2024-2025 of vocabulary, or frequency of CHAPTER 02:...

○ Quantitative Change - Change in number DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY or amount, such as in height, weight, size 2nd Semester, AY 2024-2025 of vocabulary, or frequency of CHAPTER 02: communication (Continuous) THEORY AND RESEARCH ○ Qualitative Change - Discontinuous change in kind, structure, or organization, Description not just number. Marked by the emergence In this chapter, we present an overview of major of new phenomena that could not be easily theories of human development and of the research predicted on the basis of past functioning methods used to study it as well as current issues in (Discontinuous) research. Although traditional theorists and researchers THEORETICAL PERSPECTIVES brilliantly contributed to our wealth of knowledge, Psychoanalytic - View of human development as researchers from diverse groups and those investigating shaped by unconscious forces that motivate issues related to diversity are often not represented. Where human behavior. Development is discontinuous possible, we include their contributions here as well. under this perspective. ○ Psychosexual Development - In Freudian Objective theory, an unvarying sequence of stages Describe the purpose of a theory in research and of childhood personality development in two theoretical issues on which developmental which gratification shifts from the mouth to scientists differ the anus and then to the genitals. Summarize the main theories of human Biological Drives development Sex & Aggression Describe the methods developmental researchers Parts of the Personality use to collect data and the advantages and Id, Ego, & Superego disadvantages of each Fixation Describe current research issues including under/overgratiffication diversity, the open science movement, and ethical Psychosexual Stages (see table) issues ○ Psychosocial Development - (1) Pattern of change in emotions, personality, and Duration social relationships. (2) In Erikson’s eight- Start: stage theory, the socially and culturally End: influenced process of development of the ego, or self. Learning Contents: Modified and extended Freud’s theory Reference: Papalia, D., & Martorell, G. (2023) Experience Emphasized the influence Human Development. McGraw Hill. (p. 20-45) of society Erikson was taking a life-span The good thing about science is that it's true whether or not perspective you believe in it. Each stage requires the balancing -Neil deGrasse Tyson of a positive trait and a corresponding negative one. The BASIC THEORETICAL ISSUES positive quality should dominate, Theory but some degree of the negative ○ Coherent set of logically related concepts quality is needed as well for that seeks to organize, explain, and predict optimal development data Highlighted “social clock” Hypotheses Held a more positive view of ○ Possible explanations for phenomena, development than Freud used to predict the outcome of research Psychosocial Stages (see table) The way theorists explain development depends in Learning - View of human development that holds part on their assumptions about two basic issues: that changes in behavior result from experience or ○ Are people active or reactive in their own from adaptation to the environment. Behaviorists development? saw development as continuous, with incremental ○ Is development continuous or occurring quantifiable changes over time. in stages? ○ Learning theorists are not interested in the ISSUE 1: IS DEVELOPMENT ACTIVE OR mind’s processes because it cannot be REACTIVE? directly observed, ergo, we cannot have ○ Mechanistic Model - Model that views objective inferences about it. human development as a series of ○ Tabula Rasa, blank slate predictable responses to stimuli (Reactive) ○ Behaviorism - Learning theory that ○ Organismic Model - Model that views emphasizes the predictable role of the human development as internally initiated environment in causing observable by an active organism and as occurring in behavior. Development is reactive and a sequence of qualitatively different stages continuous. There are 2 kinds of (Active) associative learning: ISSUE 2: IS DEVELOPMENT CONTINUOUS OR DISCONTINUOUS? 1  Classical Conditioning - Learning Observational Learning (Modeling) based on associating a stimulus - Learning by watching others’ that does not ordinarily elicit a behavior response with another stimulus Also called social cognitive theory. that does elicit the response Putting greater emphasis on Ivan Pavlov cognitive processes J.B. Watson’s “Little Self Efficacy - Sense of one’s Albert” capability to master challenges (refer to illustration) and achieve goals Confidence in one’s Before Conditioning During Conditioning After Conditioning abilities (repeated pairing) Cognitive - View that thought processes are central to development Stimulus: Bell (US) Stimulus: Bell & Meat Stimulus: Bell (CS) ○ Piagetian Approach Response: No Powder Response: Salivation Cognitive-stage Theory - children’s response Response: Salivation (CR) cognitive development advances Stimulus: Meat in a series of four stages involving Powder (US) qualitatively distinct types of Response: Salivation mental operations Organismic and qualitative Operant Conditioning - Learning development based on association of behavior Cognitive development begins with with its consequences; learning an inborn ability to adapt to the based on reinforcement or environment punishment Cognitive growth occurs through B.F. Skinner three interrelated processes: Reinforcement - Organization - creation of consequences that categories strengthens behavior; ○ Schemes - increasing the likelihood of organized pattern being repeated of thought and ○ Can be + or - behavior in a ○ Most effective if context given immediately Adaptation - handling of after desired new information in relation behavior to past knowledge ○ Without continued ○ Assimilation reinforcement, ○ Accomodation behavior can be Equilibration - tendency to extinguished seek a stable balance Punishment - among cognitive elements; consequences that achieved through a weakens behavior; balance between decreasing the likelihood assimilation and of repetition accommodation. ○ Can be + or - Piaget described cognitive Despite the rigidity and strictness development as occurring in four of Behaviorism, it falls short as a universal, qualitatively different theory of development stages (refer to table) Children coming up with Piaget underestimated the abilities unique ideas of infants and children Language development is Development precedes learning too rapid to claim that associations are the only Developmental Stages (Freud, Erikson, Piaget) one responsible for such learning (related: Language Acquisition Psychosexual Psychosocial Cognitive Device) ○ Social Learning Theory - behaviors are Oral (birth to 12–18 Basic trust versus Sensorimotor (birth to months). Baby’s mistrust (birth to 12– 2 years). Infant learned by observing and imitating models chief source of 18 months). Baby gradually becomes Albert Bandura pleasure involves develop a sense of able to organize Source of development is mouth-oriented whether the world is activities in relation to activities (sucking a good and safe the environment bidirectional and feeding). place. Virtue: hope. through sensory and Reciprocal Determinism - The motor activity. person acts on the world as the world acts on the person Anal (12–18 months Autonomy versus Preoperational (2 to 7 to 3 years). Child shame and doubt years). Child 2 derives sensual (12–18 months to 3 develops a Rejected the notion of universal gratification from years). Child representational aspects of development withholding and develops a balance system and uses Gave importance to the role of expelling feces. Zone of independence and symbols to represent culture on learning and of gratification is anal self- sufficiency over people, places, and region, and toilet shame and doubt. events. Language development training is important Virtue: will. and imaginative play Ahead of its time activity. are important According to Vygotsky, adults or manifestations of this more advanced peers must help stage. Thinking is still not logical. direct and organize a child’s learning Phallic (3 to 6 years). Initiative versus guilt. Zone of Proximal Development Child becomes (3 to 6 years). Child (ZPD) - area between what a child attached to parent of develops initiative can do alone and what the child the other sex and when trying new later identifies with activities and is not can do with help same-sex parent. over- whelmed by Scaffolding - temporary support to Superego develops. guilt. Virtue: purpose. help a child master a task Zone of gratification Cognitive testing and assessment shifts to genital region. under Vygotskian approach could have guardians giving hints to their Latency (6 years to Industry versus Concrete operations children puberty). Time of inferiority (6 years to (7 to 11 years). Child Focus on learning relative calm between puberty). Child must can solve problems potential more turbulent learn skills of the logically if they are stages. culture or face focused on the here ○ Information-processing Approach feelings of and now but cannot Approach to the study of cognitive incompetence. Virtue: think abstractly development by observing and skill. analyzing the mental processes involved in perceiving and Genital (puberty Identity versus Formal operations through adulthood). identity confusion (11 years through handling information Reemergence of (puberty to young adulthood). Person Approach to the study of cognitive sexual impulses of adulthood). can think abstractly, development that analyzes phallic stage, Adolescent must deal with hypothetical processes involved in perceiving channeled into determine own sense situations, and think mature adult of self (“Who am I?”) about possibilities. and handling information sexuality. or experience Focus on processes such as confusion about attention, memory, planning roles. Virtue: fidelity. strategies, decision errors, Intimacy versus decision-making, and goal setting isolation (young Brain as a computer adulthood). Person Inputs (Sensory seeks to make impressions) commitments to others; if Processing (What unsuccessful, may happens here?) suffer from isolation Outputs (Behaviors) and self-absorption. By assessing certain aspects of Virtue: love. infant information processing, Generativity versus researchers are able to estimate stagnation (middle an infant’s later intelligence adulthood). Mature Psychologists often use adult is concerned with establishing and information-processing models to guiding the next test, diagnose, and treat learning generation or else problems feels personal Contextual - development can be understood only impoverishment. Virtue: care. in its social context. Vygotsky’s theory could also fall under Contextual Perspective Integrity versus ○ Bioecological Theory - levels of despair (late environmental influence with varying adulthood). Older adult achieves magnitude/ways of interaction acceptance of own Urie Bronfenbrenner life, allowing Child not a mere outcome of acceptance of death, development or else despairs over inability to relive life. Child is an active shaper of Virtue: wisdom. development Looking at them in the context of multiple ○ Sociocultural Theory - explains how social environments surrounding and cultural processes guide a child’s Contexts of development cognitive development Microsystem Learning is a collaborative effort of a child and another person/party 3  ○ Immediate How much? How many? environments; Based on the Scientific Method bidirectional 1. Identification of the influences problem Mesosystem 2. Formulation of ○ Interaction of hypotheses microsystems 3. Collection of data Exosystem 4. Data analysis ○ Interaction 5. Formation of between a conclusions microsystem and 6. Communication an outside ○ Qualitative Research - Research that system/institution focuses on nonnumerical data, such as Macrosystem subjective experiences, feelings, or beliefs ○ Overarching Hows and whys of behavior cultural patterns Nonnumerical description of Chronosystem subjective perceptions ○ Dimension of time Goal is to understand the “story” Evolutionary/Biological Sampling ○ Behavior is a result of biological and ○ The act of using a subset (sample) of a evolutionary processes certain population to represent it because ○ Influenced by Charles Darwin’s theory of studying the entire population is just dumb evolution (haha just kidding, it is impractical) ○ Draws on findings of anthropology, ○ Random Selection (Sampling) - selection ecology, genetics, ethology, and of a sample in such a way that each evolutionary psychology to explain the person in a population has an equal and adaptive, or survival, value of behavior for independent chance of being chosen an individual or species ○ Random Sample - result of a random ○ Our actions are results of our selection evolution/need for survival Achieving random selection and ○ 3 Postulates of Darwin’s Theory sample are too hard to obtain for Organisms vary large populations There are never enough resources While Random Sampling is for all organisms to survive considered the best method to Individual differences in organisms represent a population, most are heritable researchers rely on convenience ○ Natural Selection - Differential survival and sample for, well, convenience reproduction of different variants of ○ On qualitative studies, samples tend to be members of a species more focused than random, hence most Individuals with more adaptive use purposive sampling traits survive, able to pass more of ○ WEIRD Psychology - Western Educated those traits to future generations Industrialized Rich Democratic countries ○ Inherited traits can be physical, behavioral, Forms of Data Collection (See Table) or psychological ○ Self-reports ○ Ethology - Study of distinctive adaptive ○ Naturalistic Observation behaviors of species of animals that have ○ Laboratory Observation evolved to increase survival of the species ○ Behavioral and Performance Measures cross-species comparison Major Methods of Data Collection ○ Evolutionary Psychology - Application of Darwinian principles of natural selection and survival of the fittest to individual Type Main Advantages Disadvantages behavior Characteristics focus on humans Attraction, dominance striving, Self-report -Ask about -Firsthand -Inaccurate selves information remembering cute perception -Questions can -Visual -Response Sexual behavior be structured techniques no distortion; Not deterministic or flexible need for verbal social There is also an emphasis on the -Reports can skills desirability be verbal or -Examiner environment to which humans visual affects adapt responses Existence of human abstraction, reasoning Naturalistic -Subjects -Good -Lack control RESEARCH METHODS Observation observed in description of -Observer bias normal setting behavior Quantitative and Qualitative Research -No attempt to -No external ○ Quantitative Research manipulate forces that Research that deals with behavior cause objectively measurable data distortion 4 Laboratory -Subjects -Good -Observer bias are caused by the Observation observed in the description -Artificial changes in IV laboratory -Great control situation (less ○ Laboratory, Field, and Natural Experiments -No attempt to generalizable) Developmental Research Designs manipulate ○ Cross-sectional Study Behavior and -Tested on -Provides -Unable to ○ Longitudinal Study Performance abilities, skills, objective measure ○ Sequential Study Measures knowledge, measurable nonbehavioral competencies, information phenomena physical -Avoids -Results can be Developmental Research Designs responses subjectivity affected by external factors Type Procedure Advantage Disadvantage Evaluation Quantitative and Qualitative Research Basic Research Designs Cross- -Data are -Show -Unable to ○ Case Studies sectional collected on comparison establish age Study of a single subject people of between age effects Uses biographical, different ages groups -Cohort effects at the same -No attrition physiological, behavioral, time problem and documentary data Useful when studying rare Longitudinal -Data collected -Show age- -Impractical phenomena on the same related change/ - people over a continuity Ungeneralizabl Cannot provide causal evidence period of time -Prevents e ○ Ethnographic Studies cohort effects Seeks to describe the pattern of relationships, customs, beliefs, Sequential -Data collected -Avoids -Require large technology, arts, and traditions from drawback of amount of time successive CS the above -Complex that make up a society’s way of life or longitudinal designs analysis Utilizes Participant Observation samples Researchers live with the people or participates in the activity being observed Research issues Helps in overcoming cultural ○ Diversity in research biases in research ○ Reproducibility crisis ○ Correlational Studies Research Ethics Research design intended to ○ Beneficence discover whether a statistical ○ Respect relationship between variables ○ Justice exists Direction: Positive or Negative Prepared by: Magnitude: 0 to 1 Establishes association, prediction, but not causation ROWEL C. BUAN, RPm, CHRA ○ Experimental Studies Instructor I, Psychology Rigorously controlled, replicable Department procedure in which the researcher manipulates variables to assess Approved by: the effect of one on the other Groups and Variables Experimental Group - ANTONIO M. MORALES, RN, exposed to the MAN, MAPsy manipulation/treatment Chairperson, Psychology Control Group - group of Department people similar to those in the experimental group, who do not receive the treatment under study Double-Blind method Independent Variable - what is manipulated Dependent variable - measured result, expected changes presumably caused by the IV Operational definition Random assignment ○ Ensures that changes in the DV 5