European History Exam Questions PDF

lOMoARcPSD|11463819 European History questions and answers European History (Vrije Universiteit Brussel) Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 1 Exam preparation (answers to questions). (BSc Business Economics) European History. Professor Vjosa Musliu 13 April 2022 By Mirjaloliy M.! May Allah accept it as a good deed… Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 2 (First lecture is not needed for the exam) European History Introduction (Enlightenment ?!) 1. Why study history? (Such question on the exam?) 1) To escape the present, nostalgia, a longing for ‘what is forever lost’. 2) To learn lessons from the past - how to deal with moral dilemma. 3) To identify structural laws - Teleology. 4) For political or ideological purposes. 5) To understand change and how ‘the present’ (society) came to be. ➔ understand continuity and change; revolution and institutionalisation. ➔ understand (and appreciate) the diversity of people and cultures. 5) Put the present day into perspective, to eliminate its ‘for granted’ (obvious, or natural) character 2. What do we mean by modernity? Modernity is a quality of social experience. It became (1) the self-definition of a generation about its own technological innovations, governance, and socio- economics, (2) a particular relationship to time, characterised by intense historical discontinuity or rupture, openness to the novelty of the future, and a heightened sensitivity to what is unique about the present. 3. Why do we speak of multiple modernities? Modernity is considered as an incomplete project. It is due to the fact that modernity has a paradoxical form of temporality [In a sociohistorical sense, all modernities grow old. To remain “off today”, modernity needs to constantly reestablish itself in relation to an ever-expanding past.]. As a result of such Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 3 “updates”, modernity becomes (1) less of a concept to describe a historical period, (2) becomes more of a qualitative criterion to express a desired present/future. 4. Is modernity a chronological or a qualitative category? ”Modernity is a qualitative, not a chronological, category”- Theodor Adorno (1903-1969) 5. What is modernisation? Modernisation is the transformation from a traditional, rural, agrarian society to a secular, urban, industrial society. Modernisation can be macro-structural or micro- individual. Macro-structural changes: Rationalisation, industrialisation and urbanisation (from feudalism to capitalism) Birth of nation-states and institutions of democratisation (representative democracy, modern bureaucracy, public education) Micro-individual changes – birth of “modern man” : Reason-giving rather than tradition and habit Individualism, freedom and formal equality, meritocracy Faith in social, scientific and technological progress and human perfectability and rationality French Revolution Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 4 1. Who were the three estates? What was their mutual relation prior to and after the French Revolution? The three estates were Catholic clergy, Nobility and Commoners. (First Estate; Prayer element for France) Clergy accounted for only around 0.5% of the population, but owned about 10% of the land and were entirely exempted from taxes. (Second Estate, Military - security, protection of borders, etc) Nobility comprised about 1.5% of the population and owned 25% of the land, they were almost entirely exempted from taxes. (Third estate, Work) Commoners stood at 98% (!) of the population and pay more or less 100% of government taxation, and owned approximately 65% of the land, although they did all the work. What was their mutual relation prior to and after the French Revolution? We described their mutual relation prior to the FR above. It is well-known that the FR was a bourgeois revolution. It is therefore logical that the most privileged part of the Third estate gradually take the reins of power. The Nobility and Clergy were condemned in the long term [and had no more political influence under the Third Republic after 1875]. 2. What were the different phases of revolution? Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 5 The Moderate stage (1789-1792), The Radical stage (1793-1794), the Directory (1795-1799), the age of Napoleon (1800-1815). The Moderate stage. In the Moderate stage we have the King’s advisors opposing the initiatives that were taking place. Desperate for a solution, in 1789 the King called a meeting of the Estates-General, an assembly representatives from the Three Estates for the first time since 1614.1 However, the Third Estates would still remain the weaker part, one of the reasons were that Nobility and Clergy would always vote alike (2 to 1 logic). Commoners wanted to be an equal part of the decision making, overturn 2 to 1 logic. So the Third Estate broke off; They declared themselves as the National Assembly in the tennis court of the King. 3rd Estate members constitute themselves as a legitimate authority equal to that of the King. They vow: "not to separate, and to reassemble wherever circumstances require, until the constitution of a new parliament is established”; “we are here by the will of the people and we shall leave only by the force of the bayonnets”. Masses join the elites and together they storm the Bastille in the 14th of July 1789. The revolution had begun! Bastille was a prison where many political prisoners, those who had opposed the King were being held. So it was followed by political unrest. The Peasants join in and revolt because of inequalities (e.g. price of bread for a Peasant worker. As rebellion spread throughout the country, the feudal2 system was abolished. The Assembly’s Declaration pf the Rights of Man and Citizen proclaimed a radical idea for the time - that individual rights and freedoms were fundamental to human nature and government existed only to protect them. It had 1 All male tax-payers over 25yrs were invited to elect their deputy [spokesperson]. 2 relating to the social system of western Europe in the Middle Ages or any society that is organized according to rank. In a feudal society, people at one level of society receive land to live and work on from those higher than them in rank, and in return have to work for them and fight for them if necessary, sometimes also giving them some of the food they produce. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 6 to do with the law that determines, not some higher authority. Many nobles fled abroad. We have Women’s March on Versailles (05.10.1789); market place riots over the price, scarcity of bread. The women were joined by constitutional reformers; frustrated by King’s refusal to accept early reforms. The March to Versailles was assisted by French guard; we have invasion of the palace. And King is forced to return to Paris. His position was surely weakened. He accepted the Declaration of the R.O.M.A.N.. Among the main events in the moderate stage is that in 1791 we have enactment of Constitution of France, the King was declared as ‘King of the French’ (not of France anymore). In this particular year we also have the first gathering of the National Assembly. The main and fundamental impact of this stage is the Restructuring of the State and Church Relations. We have sale of Church lands (recall that the Clergy owned a lot of land) in order to pay off state debt, but they also were used in public auctions. This processes were also followed by the limitation of the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. The Catholic Church went delighted with these changes cause it weakened the overall authority and power of the church. We have a power vacuum in that period. As a result, there was a growing conflict among 2 revolutionaries (that you can read from the presentation and notes from the copybook) In January 1793 Louis XVI, who tried for treason, publicly executed. The Radical stage. Commonly referred in culture and history as Reign of Terror. Girondins were excluded from the Convention and government; expelled or prosecuted by law. We also have in this period the execution of Queen MarieAntoinette and all ‘royalists’. In the Radical stage there was an active Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 7 campaign for de-christianisation - removal of religion of church from the daily, social life of the French. They even introduced a new calendar. Meanwhile, France found itself at war with neighbouring monarchs, seeking to put down the Revolution before it spread. 16,594 official death sentences were issued in France, with no right to defence during the Reign of Terror. France was governed be the motto ‘Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité ou la mort’. One of the radicals who was in charge of the ROT (who even launched it) was Maximilien Robespierre.3 The directory (1795 - 1799) This period has to do with institutional design for stabilisation. [Inside the parliament we have creation of 2 legislative councils; legislative term of 3 years so as to be able to control it more, and change more ofter if needed.4] Because the government was ineffective and corrupt, in 1799 we have yet another coup (государственный переворот) - coup de Brumaire which lead to strengthening of the executive. We have a new system of government composed of 3 consuls (among which Napoleon Bonaparte). The age of Napoleon (1800-1815) He had just come as a victorious general from battles in Italy, he was commemorated as a good fighter, and there was lot of hope into him taking one of these council chairs. One of the main decisions Napoleon took was so called Plebiscitary dictatorship. But the 4-tier system brought little satisfaction and democratic weight. 3 Study his 1794 speech (it’s in the European History album on your iPad). 4 Study other stuﬀ on the slide in the album. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 8 He also took control over the executive and legislative chambers. So they were then building a particular state5. We have a creation of French empire (1805-1815) [study the slide]. With him not being able to meet the provisions of Treaty of Amiens6 we have the start of Napoleonic wars. There was a grouping of European countries against France. In 1812 he invaded Russia. No military of Europe at that time was comparable to that of France. Russians just allured them [same]. Overall, we went from Ancien Régime ‘absolute monarchy’ to … Napoleonic empire/dictatorship. What was the role of the French provincial parlements? Parlements were provincial courts who held the right to appeal to the King’s edicts. They were a source of resistance against absolutist rule. So they could appeal some of the decisions that the Kind might have. What are the main legacies of the French Revolution? Economics … [study the slide!] Politics … [study the slide!] 5. Has to do with inequality. Napoleon was much more interested in stability and security at home and further expanding the territories of France. To that end, one of the legacies is also inequity! Women were granted important civil rights during 5 Study the slide. 6The Treaty of Amiens (French: la paix d'Amiens) temporarily ended hostilities between France and the United Kingdom at the end of the War of the Second Coalition. It marked the end of the French Revolutionary Wars; after a short peace it set the stage for the Napoleonic Wars. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 9 moderate and radical stages (e.g. right to inheritance from father). But it wasn’t so anymore. Olympe de Gouges wrote the declaration ROWAFC. Race/etnicity. Those enlightenment ideas didn’t transcend to everyone equally [the slide]. Was the revolution an anti-royalist movement?7 Royalists… the term most commonly given to a wide range of supporters of the Ancient Regime who sought to reverse most changes of the Revolution and restore the royal House of Bourbon and the Catholic Church to its pre-1789 authority. So, yes, it was anti royalist movement. What were the run-ups to the FR ? => Study from the slides! What were the politics of Ancient Regime? 3. Conservative backlashes What was Edmund Burke’s central critique on the French Revolution? Baker argues that dissent [conflicts] couldn’t be tolerated as it would then expose the fragility of their power base. He, like many other Europeans at the time, was also writing in the fear of what might happen in their societies. He looks at the FR with a conservative eye and he says he’s filled with disgust and horror. Because he sees the revolution as an attempt to fabricate an entirely new system by which he calls it a government. ‘We, in the UK, when we had our Glorious revolution we just steadily changed our plant [we didn’t just go and cut the code with everything that our forefathers had left us], respecting the tradition’. He 7 Verify from professor, receive some additional comments. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 10 traces and protects a certain tradition. He’s criticising the way in which France went about revolution. His idea was also that the ruling elite should actually restrain passions and wills of people: ‘The inclinations of men would frequently be hindered, their will controlled, and their passions brought into subjection… This can only be done by a power out of themselves… in this sense the restraints on men as well as their liberties are to be reckoned among their right. But as the liberties and the restrictions vary with time and circumstances and admit the infinite modifications, they cannot be settled upon any abstract rule.’ Overall, his central arguments were that: 1. French R. was a too radical divorce from its past 2. Rights are not ‘universal’ but originate from a particular context, as the result of a particular history. 3. Society is said to be a historical edifice, not the product of human design. He resisted the Enlightenment optimism as you can’t simply fabricate a new system/society - you have to respect the historical legacy, traditions of the society. 4. Rights need to be balanced with duties. [Man is imperfectly rational and moral (passions, emotions, dependancy).] Natural aristocracy is when you are able to place much-needed constraints on the masses. * The power of King in the UK has been limited way earlier than in France. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 11 How to explain the French Revolution? Was the resolution the result of growing bourgeois8 class consciousness? Should we understand the French resolution as an attempt to dismantle [remove, demolish] the Three estates system? Why (not)? Let’s consider 3 theories on the causes of the FR: 1. A Marxist interpretation: the idea of class-competition (bourgeoisie against nobility), struggles among classes that will lead to revolution. 2. The idea of Victory of Enlightenment ideas: concerning popular sovereignty; reason and rights. 3. Bringing together Social and Ideational theories: how changing income and wealth patterns were essentially linked with strategies/rates of upward mobility; re-shaping dominant beliefs regarding power and governance. A Marxist interpretation. Like any revolution, FR was also a class struggle. It had to do with the industrial proletariat9 pushing the bourgeois to more ‘left-wing positions’. In fact, the economy, the way societies function, how it is governed affects social structure and dominant beliefs and ideology. So this interpretation is about the struggle of the “haves” and “have not’s” - two identifiable and clear groups that are demarcated [разделённые] in their own category, and these two categories then go over into conflict. However, for a lot of historians and academics, the Marxist explanation has been invalidated by historical evidence. Let’s talk about three of them. 8 The bourgeoisie—merchants, manufacturers, professionals—had gained financial power but were excluded from political power. Those who were socially beneath them had very few rights, and most were also increasingly impoverished. 9 The class of people who do unskilled jobs in industry and own little or no property/lowest group in society Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 12 1) False distinction between ‘feudal aristocracy’ and ‘capitalist10 bourgeoisie’. The feudal system in France (i.e. many noble privileges) was already severely weakened. The two classes were not mutually exclusive, so there was actually quite a lot of conversion between ‘feudal aristocracy’ and ‘capitalist bourgeoisie’. In addition, they were not exactly two separate economic classes. Aristocracy was also invested in trade and proto-industry 11, so it was also with one foot on the capitalist bourgeoise. What is also important is that the FR even slowed down the process of industrialisation. 2) So Marxist said the revolution happens because we have class consciousness, and we are affected by the class inequalities and struggles, hence we revolt. However, bourgeois rather lacked class consciousness! Provincialism of the Ancient regime prevented from forming a generalised/uniform class- consciousness, moreover, there was a great variance across local cultures. Class was not understood at that time in Marxist’s sense, and bourgeois were closely related to the “have’s” of France. 3) On average, bourgeois didn’t hold revolutionary aspirations More than often, the bourgeoisie in France actually aspired to become part of nobility (e.g. purchasing noble titles through education and wealth). They were rather interested in rank and order, and were still even in a favourable position. Revolution as the victory of enlightenment ideas12. 10an economic and political system in which property, business, and industry are controlled by private owners rather than by the state, with the purpose of making a profit. 11 Proto-industry refers to the great variety of historic buildings and landscapes that were associated with industry before the Industrial Revolution. 12 Popular sovereignty being one of them (separation of powers, freedom of speech, humanism, reason …) Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 13 Francois Furet wrote a compelling book called ‘Imagining the French Revolution’. And the central argument he is making is that the FR was less about social/class conflict, and more a conflict over the meaning and application of norms and ideas. He explains the radicalism [of 2nd stage] in the FR by the idea of popular sovereignty. It’s like you get the idea as if all the French had this unified popular will and they cast (throw) it as an ultimate goal and via which the new France has to be re-organised. Keith Baker, the author of ‘Inventing the French Revolution’, suggested there were three competing discourses13 in the 18th century that lead to the FR: 1) Justice: has to do with the creation of social contract (constitution) because of how sucking the taxation system was imposed. So they needed justice as a protection against state domination [through taxation] or arbitrary rule [no fair application of the law, which was from ‘divine power’]. 2) Equality. It has to do with reason and account giving by government challenging divine right to rule. 3) Popular will. The people and ‘not God’ as the source of legitimate rule. Although the Enlightenment ideas are popular, there are some important limitations. * As usual, there is little consensus14 among scholars/historians on any direct connection between Enlightenment ideas and revolution. The ideas of Enlightenment were taking place in a particular setting, but they weren’t 13 a long and serious discussion of a subject in speech or writing 14 согласиe, единодушие Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 14 necessarily developed so that they could influence or result in a form of revolution. * The historian Arnold Toynbee states: ‘New wine in old bottle.’. Although revolutionaries identified a new source [the people] of legitimate authority, it’s not that after the FR the lower classes suddenly took over as there was a slight re-adjustment of the 3 levels of the French society. Linking social and ideational theories. In this theoretical framework, there is a focus on the interaction between the political and social history. There was a rise of a mercantile class from the 16th Century onwards which lead to changing economic relations and powers. As well as that, according to this theory, what happened in the FR was actually accompanied with the spread of bourgeois beliefs that were based on meritocracy15. And the spread of meritocracy ideas facilitated understanding of Enlightenment ideas such as ‘popular sovereignty’. What was the congress of Vienna about? We have the COV (Peace treaty) after the end of Napoleonic wars in 1815, in order to stabilise Europe. It is also commonly referred as the Birth of International Relations. The Peace treaty was signed between France and the great victors (Prussia, Russia, Austria and Britain). Apart from them, there were smaller delegations from Sweden, Spain and Portugal. It had two main aims: 1. Restore the international peace: Create a new equilibrium among great European powers to prevent war. 15a social system, society, or organization in which people get success or power because of their abilities, not because of their money or social position. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 15 2. Restore domestic stability: change of divine right to rule.., family ties across Europe (this is the period when we have a lot of inter-imperial/kingdom/country marriages, and this was also meant as a way to further restore domestic stability inside the continent). As a result of the congress, the territory of France significantly shrank. We have then the creation of two buffer states: Kingdom of Netherlands (including Belgium) and Kingdom of Piedmont and Sardinia16. Why France wasn’t punished more severely for Napoleonic wars? 1. Fear that a punished France would seek => The comments read in thee copybook. revenge 2. Break up of France could strengthen one country to such an extent that it would become threatening in turn. Why do we call the architects of the ‘Congress of Vienna’ conservatives and not reactionaries? What we see generally with conservatism and also with Burke is that conservatism is not reactionary, it is not ruling out17 the abrupt18 change that the FR brought so that it can reinstate [восстанавливать] the Ancient regime, it is not what they are suggesting. What they are suggesting is instead: a change to preserve. A small incremental change that doesn’t abruptly take the society upright-down. Embracing of modern element to restore and stabilise traditional power, but never losing half of traditional power. For that we implement modern bureaucracy and 16 Nice, Savoie, Genua 17 to prevent something from happening 18 sudden and unexpected, and often unpleasant Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 16 administrative centralisation. That’s why we have then for ex. the public office - a way of appeasing revolutionaries. These ideas are mainly associated with the English. What was the main political impact of the 1848 revolutions? The impact is that while being a victory for conservative power, they were also crucial steps in a process of democratisation19. The process of democratisation can be categorised into 4 groups: 1. A consolidation20 of the role of parliaments. 2. Equality - abolition of serfdom21 and seigneurial rights in the central Europe. 3. Unprecedented22 levels of political participation. >> Was basis for political parties and ideological families. 4. Gradual extension of the right to vote. >> France: reintroduction of universal male suffrage (it was a triumph of democracy and never reversed); Mid 19th C.: gradual integration of middle-class, workers and peasants in the electoral [избират-й] system. What do you know about the 1848 revolutions? It became the year of revolutions. There was a series of major upheavals23 not only in France but throughout Europe. They were widespread revolutionary waves, and 19 democracy - the belief in freedom and equality between people, or a system of government based on this belief, in which power is either held by elected representatives or directly by the people themselves 20 the process of becoming or being made stronger and more certain 21 serf - a member of a low social class in medieval times who worked on the land and had to obey the person who owned that land 22 never having happened or existed in the past 23 a great change, especially causing or involving much diﬃculty, activity, or trouble Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 17 again, most of them were led by middle-class workers. Any successes of these revolutions? Yes, the end of serfdom in Austria and Hungary, the end of absolute monarchy in Denmark and the introduction of universal male suffrage in France. However, there are two countries that seemingly were not affected by - Great Britain (which was much more interested in steady and incremental changes, and the power of King was renegotiated much earlier) and Russia (because of the absolutist rule, as well as lack of public sphere meaning freedom of press; difficulty of communicating across the country). The 1848 revolutions were primarily successful in France, but they did have rapid polarisation24 and conflict effect among the revolutionaries. They were successful in a way since they brought some changes, the most dramatic one being universal male suffrage. We have two competing groups in the revolutions of that time: the liberals and radicals (study about them on the slide and copybook, as well as the second part of this slide). {When was the universal male suffrage in France?} Peace and War What were the main patterns of suffrage extension in 19th C Europe? Why is the suffrage system under Bismarck characterised as one of ‘electoral authoritarianism’? {When was the German unification? When was the mutual claws in the protocol signed? When did Bismarck leave his office? You need to know the dates important for the political history. It is about understanding not memorising the process and dates.} 24the act of dividing something, especially something that contains diﬀerent people or opinions, into two completely opposing groups Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 18 We paid a lot of attention to universal male suffrage in France, but which also got extended in other countries of Europe. There 2 central hypotheses for suffrage extension. 1) THE REVOLUTIONARY THREAT HYPOTHESIS We know that suffrage extension results from crisis. Elites (those who are in power) assume that the loss of income that suffrage extension would entail is estimated to be less severe than the loss of income resulting from a revolution. However, more financially affluent countries weren’t necessarily earlier adopters of suffrage extension. The higher is the degree of inequality, the greater is the loss of income suffered by suffrage extension, as it provokes the resistance of the elites. 2) THE POLITICAL COMPETITION HYPOTHESIS (we are talking about extending male suffrage rights so far) According to this hypothesis, it about the importance of elite competition against variant in decision-making powers of parliament: Aristocracy - would always prefer to have weak parliaments25 to retain control over decision making via informal networks. Middle class - would prefer a stronger parliament to gain control over decision making. Working class - by contrast want suffrage and a strong parliament. Suffrage extension. 25 the group of (usually) elected politicians or other people who make the laws for their country Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 19 Survival analysis reveals a relation between suffrage extension and the level of parliamentary autonomy or effectiveness. For example, Britain had a strong parliament at that time because of the glorious revolution. And because suffrage would have a strong impact on parliamentary politics, there was a very gradual process of democratisation (various reform acts, certain changes), and only in 1918 we have universal suffrage in Britain. On the contrary, what we see in France under Napoleon III is that French parliament was weak. There we have an early restoration of male suffrage in 1851 (pay attention to it!). Suffrage extension is not deterministic result of industrialisation or a growing income gap, but it reflects elite calculations in a particular context. When the parliament is weak, the aristocracy may introduce universal male suffrage to discourage the middle-class26 from seeking an extension of the powers of parliament. When the parliament is weak, the aristocracy may introduce universal suffrage to discourage the middle class from seeking an extension of powers of the parliament. As the result of UMS, the mid-class becomes a minority in the parliament and finds it less advantageous, attractive to press for an extension of the powers of parliament. Let’s take a look at Germany. Suffrage extension: Germany. By 1870 Germany had a weak parliament. A Prussian conservative Ottoman von Bismarck had assumption that if he were to grant voting rights to the commoners, that would strengthen the conservative vote 26 bourgeoisie were dominated by middle class. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 20 of the countryside. But this assumption was basically bad. It facilitated growth of socialist party. Working class for the voting rights, they were pressuring not only for constitutional27 rights, they were using their voting rights to pressure and push for certain political freedoms and liberties. That said, the extension of suffrage was used to further increase their socio-economic power. He thought that by extending rights to commoners, they would continue voting for him, but it didn’t go! The universal suffrage system under Bismarck characterised as one of ‘electoral authoritarianism’. Pittaluga study demonstrates how elites can use the multiple dimensions of democracy (suffrage, parliamentary autonomy, political liberties) to actually remain in power. What we see is that there was no turning back from continuing to grant universal male suffrage. But again it was not because the workers were uniting and giving pressure. What is less dangerous, granting by losing a little power and elite around me, or not granting and risking with revolution? Who was Otto von Bismarck? He was a Prussian conservative, but also diplomat and politician who generally associated in history as a man who unified Germany. What were the main causes for the break-down of the Congress system? Main cause was that Vienna system was essentially built on a negative conception of international relations. The idea to create the ‘acting in concert’ was coming not necessarily from a genuine will to do so, but from a defensive system of “let’s not do this again”. The system was aimed at preventing dominance from one state 27 constitution - the set of political principles by which a state or organisation is governed, especially in relation to the rights of the people it governs. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 21 over the other, rather than properly understanding the merits of multilateralism28 or acting in concert. And in 1870s we have ‘Great Depression’, thus weakened economies and industries as well as colonial rivalries. It is also worth to note that the idea of the congress was managing (neither of them attacks, but they can any time!), not resolution (what is the source of conflict? Then end up with solving the problem) (Please study a couple of other causes from the slide) Another cause was the unification of Italian and German states, leading to the rise of Germany as a super-power. And… weakening of Ottoman Empire. Describe the factors conducive to the “Concert of Europe” politics. The major decisions were taken by France, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia. But the continents are interconnected, and it has repercussions for the northern (Sweden), and southern countries (Spain, Portugal), hence we have also committee of 8 powers. If you had committee of only 5 powers, it wouldn’t leave a lot of room for acting in concert (the idea of acting together, in harmony). That said, the final declaration was the result of two committees29 : * Committee of 5 great powers: France, Great Britain, Prussia, Austria and Russia * Committee of 8 great powers: above + Sweden, Spain and Portugal. There were dozens of commissions in the Congress of Vienna collecting data and information, working on the abolition of slavery, the unification of German states 28 a situation in which several diﬀerent countries or organizations work together to achieve something or deal with a problem 29 a group of people chosen from a larger group to act on or consider matters of a particular kind Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 22 and etc. The Congress also established a new international order, based on ‘acting in concert’. The International Relations system that was created in Vienna (the idea of ‘acting in concert’) had 4 primary ramifications: 1. Recognised international boundaries and state sovereignty, a system of international rights has been established. (Whereas earlier, at the death of the King all his international treaties had to be renewed) 2. Regulated war as an instrument for peace. Because of the Belle Époque, nobody wanted to wage wars. You could extend your territory without necessarily waging for war. In addition, in the congress there was also Mutual protection clause30 against revolutions as well as military interventions. 3. Creation of equally powerful countries. 4. Compliance issued by dual hegemony31: * Great Britain, (‘Pax Brittanica’) which possessed economic, military and colonial dominance; strong naval fleet (сильный военно-морской флот) * Russia, which possessed enormous land mass in the north and large population size with standing army. And the country balanced British dominance via ‘Holy Alliance’. (Please read the statement of F. Von Gentz from the slide) So what made the Vienna system work? 30a particular part of a written legal document, for example a law passed by Parliament or a contract (= an agreement) (especially of countries) the position of being the strongest and 31 most powerful and therefore able to control others Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 23 1. Fear of domestic revolutions; and also willingness to work together - replacing traditional rivalries between royal houses. 2. End of British - French rivalry; as a result, British hegemony. 3. Some states’ energy went into nation building. There were ideas, projects of “how to make this work”, “how we need to create channels”, so there weren’t too much worries about acquiring neighbouring territories and etc. Focusing energy in building internal nation. 4. Industrialisation. >> development. Continuous focus on innovation. But also, there were new doctrines of imperialism and colonialism (no need to invade Germany when you get a colony somewhere. >> European nations could outsource their territorial and economic expansion away from their native continent. (Please read the statement of E. Hobsbawm on this point from the slide) Explain the differences between two models of IR in the 19th system: the model if European concert and the model of balancing antagonisms. So there were two systems of IR. Let’s first reconsider the Congress of Vienna (1815). The Congress was about ‘acting in concert’, was a major diplomatic undertaking, with 200,000 participants. It radically changed ideas about peace and war. So it gave a peaceful coexistence in the continental Europe. Concert-style politics insured 40 years of peace, although we anyway had little warfares in between smaller countries. However, the main limitation of the CV was that it focussed on conflict management rather than prevention. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 24 And in 1871 with Bismarck coming to power in Germany we have the return of balancing alliances32 and antagonisms33. The CV had a breakdown. We had a frail IR system unlike that multilateral one that we used to have; there were a lot of secret alliances, secret agreements; counter-alliances and distrust. However, we see that once Bismarck leaves the power, there is a lack of leadership in Europe, and the only power left was the Great Britain, but the country remained disinterested in the continent because its role was more engaged into the expansionism of its colonies. How did the system of international relations change throughout the 19th century? So we have the Belle Époque in the 19th century up until the outbreak of WW I in 1914 (actually associated with everything good). In years 1815-1914 the number of war deaths was 7 times less than in the 18th C. We have CV - the Peace treaty in 1815 (that you can read about above) with the two aims. Then we established a new international order, based on ‘acting in concert’ (was also referred above). The CV was put in the UNESCO world heritage as a changed approach to war and peace. But after 40 years of peace the European Concert eventually failed. The balance between Great Powers was broken, main loser being Austria. French-Italian secret treaty against Austria undermined34 the international legal system established by the CV. We have the weakening of the Ottoman Empire, and unification of Italian and German states. Ottoman Empire increasingly lost its control over eastern Europe and the Balkans. We should also mention that the Greek war of 32 a group of countries, political parties, or people who have agreed to work together because of shared interests or aims 33 hate, extreme unfriendliness, or active opposition to someone 34 to make someone less confident, less powerful, or less likely to succeed, or to make something weaker, often gradually Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 25 independence took place from 1821 to 1830, as well as Crimean war (1853-56) which was the largest European war since Napoleonic wars and until WW I, the outcome of which was again a peace treaty in 1856 called Treaty of Paris. We have alliance of Britain, France and Turkey against Russia (you better study about the Crimean war from the presentation) What we have after the breakdown is the necessity of balancing the antagonisms: restoration of European power balance with German empire as the dominant power [replacing Austria]. The main architect of the restoration [Germany’s position in the world] was Otto von Bismarck (1815-1899). His main ambition was strengthening Prussia’s power and not German unification. Von Bismarck introduced universal male suffrage but maintained a weak parliament. He created the first welfare35 state in the modern world, incorporating the working class into welfare programs. The diplomatic genius had the ability to not to wage war, but to exploit political opportunities by provoking [others into] warfare. The powerful domestic rule Bismarck was applying at home was pacification. There is a quote of E. Hobsbawm about him (that you should read). Bismarck created a system of balancing antagonisms, but also created new antagonisms (also, isolating France), through which Germany then navigated into the state of power. He renewed the politics of secret alliances. In 1887 we have a secret Reinsurance Treaty with Russia. Nationalism Let’s first consider three of the definitions of this word from Cambridge dictionary: 1) a nation's wish and attempt to be politically independent 35help given, especially by the state or an organization, to people who need it, especially because they do not have enough money Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 26 2) a great or too great love of your own country 3) the feelings of affection and pride that people have for their country Is nationalism an ancient or modern phenomenon?* 19th C nationalism draws on the 18th C roots [doesn’t emerge out of nowhere]. It traces tribe ideas of popular sovereignty that were rooted ion the works of J. J. Rousseau, but also J. G. Herder’s belief in the individuality of nations. And the reason we had such an expansion of nationalism in Europe has to do with the political changes in the 19th C Europe: * The expansionist policies of Napoleon redirected the tension from tyranny within a state to power imbalances between states (occupier and occupied). Up until the 19th C the European societies had been primarily struggling with tyranny of the throne. Following that the power imbalances between states (not within) became the overriding problem for the European states. * The second element about the development of nationalism has to do with the print capitalism: the standardisation of the language, development of industries that allowed us to print books. * The rise of romantic36 beliefs that attribute nations an almost metaphysical character, embodying [representing] the sole of the people. * Counter-revolutionary thinking that nation is an organic link between generations*. 36relating to a style of art, music, and literature, popular in Europe in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, that deals with the beauty of nature and human emotions Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 27 However, If we were to look at primordialist understanding of the nation, we see that European nationalism is best understood as a modern phenomenon. The reason is that it was triggered by processes of rupture37 and transition38 such as industrialisation, standardisation of language, state centralisation (bureaucracy) and development of public-share spheres. What is the difference between primordial and constructivist accounts of nationalism? 19th C Europe was dominated by a primordialist understanding of the nation. The primordialist understanding points out that nations are just an update of ancient tribes, ethnicities and language groups. It emphasises that there is an unmistakable continuity between modern nations and pre-modern communities. Because we say there is a historical continuity in primordialist account of nationalism, then there is a necessity to show how you trace that. So during the 19th C Europe we have a significant effort by political, intellectual elites to do intellectual investments (research libraries, etc) in tracing historical roots, making connections between language families. What we see in the 20th C Europe though is the constructivist understandings of the nation. Unlike the primordialist idea (that sustains that nations are an adaptation or upgraded forms of ancient tribes), the constructivist understanding [that comes up throughout the 20th C] defines nationalism as a sociological condition, resulting from modernisation, the transition from agrarian to industrial society. The CUN paints the idea that the nation replaced the identitarian void [пустота идентичности] left by the disappearance of prior agrarian society, culture and feudalism. The idea that nationalism invents a past and a historical 37 an occasion when something explodes, breaks, or tears 38 a change from one form or type to another, or the process by which this happens Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 28 continuity with the nation is seeks to establish. In order for the nation to exist, it invents a common past (all Romanian share this hero, or this historical point or this development…). (Please read the 2 quotes on the CUN) What is the added-value of Anderson’s concept of “imagined communities”? Benedict Anderson says the nation is an imagined political community, and imagined as both inherently limited and sovereign. It is imagined (not invented) because the members of even the smallest nation might not know everyone, meet them, or even hear of them, but what binds them together is the idea they share a common space, common understanding. In fact, he adds that communities are distinguished not by their falsity or genuineness, but by the style in which they are imagined. Anderson generally refers to it as a subjective experience through which people relate to others (like them) and embrace their collective identity as something ‘real’. Describe the three phases in the development of separatist nationalism. Generally, 3 phases of its development: 1. Cultural conscious-raising (‘nationalism from above’). The group has a cultural awareness, or gains a conscious awareness. Usually the conscious awareness doesn’t come from the masses, it is usually coming from the [political, intellectual] elites who help to rise the consciousness and cultural awareness. That’s why it is ‘from above’. 2. Cultural self-awareness [coming from the elites] translates into demands for social reforms. E.g. if you are a linguistic minority in a particular country, then you are lacking in opportunities, in civil rights, or you’re not as privileged as the other groups. That translates into formulation of demands for social reforms Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 29 because you seek more rights. ’Yes I am a minority, buy I want access to X and Y. Oh, but the constitution doesn’t allow it, then let’s change the constitution/ legal infrastructure!’. 3. Combination of cultural and social demands that are then translated into a mass movement resisting the power of the state and separatist agenda. If these rights are not there, then we organise ourselves in movements, and we challenge the very existence of the state that is not granting us these rights. If that continues too long and we get pushed back, there is a formation of the separatist agenda - ‘If you cannot address our rights and our powers inside the legal infrastructure or the constitution of this country, we don’t wanna live as second hand citizens. We are entitled to certain rights even though we are not the majority of the community… we seek separation!’. What are the core factors contributing to the development of 19th C nationalism? 1. A lot of ideas, narratives we see today on nationalism comes from the 18th C philosophical works. For example, we get the idea of ‘popular sovereignty’ from J.J. Rousseau (French). Also, the works of J.G. Herder (German): * language is what makes us us * A subjective ‘turn’: culture, thinking, feeling, literature and folk traditions are expressions of the elements that tie people together. * Nations are separated, but are equally valuable entities. 2. Print technology and national consciousness. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 30 After Protestant Reformation in 1500-1550s39 there was a promotion of German printed copies of Bible, resulting in growing literacy rates. [Standardised] German was increasing used as an administrative language which was crucial to the creation of a shared public sphere. Print-language created unified fields of exchange and communication resulting in feelings of sameness. In the 17th C most European languages assumed their modern forms. Print-capitalism created language-of-power of a kind different from the older administrative languages. 3. (More of a political element) Napoleonic expansionism resulting in anti-french intellectual beliefs, particularly in German states (1800-1810). One could argue, in a sense, that Napoleon’s empire created the German nation. Explain. [He established the Confederation of the Rhine, a league of 16 German states. This brought further unification to Germany.] What are the main types of nationalism in 19th C Europe? Nationalism as state centralism / as unification / as separatism. Nationalism as state centralism. France is associated with state centralism. As we know (from the FR), French nation-building was founded on a call for unity. The people’s will had to be whole and unified. In that sense, the doctrine of popular sovereignty became a totalling doctrine in the process of nation building: ‘If you are against us, you are an enemy of the nation-state.’ 39 the reformation was structural to the church. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 31 In France we had the cult40 of the citizen such as: * The republic of France is one and undivided. * Frenchness above all other qualifications (abolishing ancient titles and replacing them with just citoyen). * Creation of French departments as a break with traditional provinces, and an attempt at undercutting older, regional loyalties. Let’s see how this state-centralism was led. 1) State-led process of linguistic unification and cultural homogenisation. (In 1794) Henri Grégoire the French parliamentarian said … (please look at the slides) 2) State-investments in public education Such unification and homogenisation was considered necessary to safe-guard the French Republic ideal of ‘universal one-ness’. We also see replacement of Latin by standardised language. 3) State-led cult of national remembrance. Secular - not having any connection with religion (other stuff please read from the slide s) Nationalism as unification In order to think of that as unification, let’s take an example of Germany. There was intellectual struggles, pushes to develop Germany from a nation of 40 a system of religious belief, esp. one not recognized as an established religion, or the people who worship according to such a system of belief Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 32 Culture (that shares a particular cultural code or trade…), to a nation of State (that share a given state). In 1848 there was a National gathering that set prospect of unification of the German lands into a single federation. It had a lot of emphasis on civil rights and written constitution. In 1862 we have then a ‘blood and iron’ speech of Bismarck (who essentially becomes a man who’s associated with the unification of Germany)… after 3 wars of unification we have the announcement of German Empire in 1871. Pan-nationalist movements These movements also took place in a name of unification, uniting around a particular element of identity (language, culture…), and these projects had a purpose to unite whole clusters41 or families of languages. (Look at the pan-slavish and pan-german movements) Emancipation - the process of giving people social or political freedom and rights Nationalism as separatism (read from the slide and one of the answers) The age of mass migration. * the Expat is the one who is coming from a higher social economicly developed country (North America, European countries…) there are the ones who pay taxes, engaged in international organisations. The Migrants, on the other hand, are associated with people not necessarily having wealthy jobs and ending up paying taxes. But those are not legally defined terms. We saw that the migration is a complex ‘social’ and ‘spatial’ process. Explain. 41 a group of similar things that are close together, sometimes surrounding something Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 33 Migration is a complex phenomenon and can only be explained by integrating different levels of analysis (macro/meso/micro) and by accounting for their interaction. A migration is not only about a change of place - spatial process, but also it is a change in the social, economic and cultural mobility, context. And those processes happen via (1) inter-personal contacts (some of them are path-dependent, ‘this is what previously happened in the community and we end up doing the same’, or there is a bigger cause why certain communities are reinforced to pursue and continue with migration. In the 1970s, scholars classified the 19th century as ‘mobility transition’ period. Explain this concept and elaborate on later revisions of the theory of ‘mobility transition’. 19th C Europe is characterised by unprecedented numbers as well as distances of migration. Wilbur Zelinksi (1971) suggests that the 19th century marks the mobility transition. According to him, the industrialisation and the creation of a modern market caused a break-up of traditional societies (modernisation thesis). Let’s consider 2 main assumptions underlying his thesis: 1. Pre-modern modern societies were stable, self-sufficient and with limited mobility. [People were only prepared to move when left no choice, such as a disaster, was, repressive regimes.] 2. Industrialisation (with urbanisation and construction of railways) accelerated mobility rates and expanded the geographical scope of migration. (Please read his statement on pre-modern trad. society on the slide) Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 34 In keeping with the modernisation thesis, migration was conceived as primarily push driven, new, one-directional, originating from miserable living conditions and leading to rural exodus42. This all indicates a one-time transfer of population to (new) urban centres; a transition from agrarian to modern society. But certainly there are important revisions to Wilbur Zelinksi’s 1971 thesis: 1. Early modern period was less static than assumed. There was seasonal migration, as well as international labour market for soldiers and sailors. Even before migration became a mass - process in the European continent, there was already constant pull of cities inside the countries, thanks to commerce, knowledge, service work, crafts, …). 2. Migration is not uni-directional. There was considerable turnover (transition; both incoming and outgoing migration) and return migration. 3. High rate of return migration softens ‘break-up’ of traditional, agrarian societies. Migration didn’t automatically led to ‘rootlessness’, ‘marginality’ in recipient [receiver] and sending communities. To sum, while industrialisation is not the primary cause of mass migration in the 19th C, improvements in transportation, as the result of industrialisation, played an important role in accelerating and intensifying migration. What is the relationship between mass migration and industrialisation? As said before, Industrialisation (with urbanisation and construction of railways) accelerated mobility rates and expanded the geographical scope of migration. The problematic aspect here though is that W. Zelinksi creates the idea that europeans were stable, pre-modern, not mobile, tight to their community.., and when 42 the movement of a lot of people from a place. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 35 modernisation happened they all became urban and lost their family bonds. Although the processes of modernisation did happen and they changed the face of European societies, it is [logically] implausible to say that europeans were all pre- modern, and then overnight they became all modern, moved to the cities and became urbanised. To sum, while industrialisation is not the primary cause of mass migration in the 19th C, improvements in transportation, as the result of industrialisation, played an important role in accelerating and intensifying migration. Historical research has revised the modernisation paradigm that defined 19th C as a one-directional, one-time and push-driven phenomena. Explain these revisions.* In keeping with the modernisation paradigm, migration was conceived as primarily (2) one-directional, (3) one-time and (1) push-driven phenomena. However, there has been made some revisions to these statements. 1) Migration was in fact ‘Push and Pull’ driven process. This model focuses on the disparity43 in conditions between the place of origin and the place of destination. ‘Push’ factors (poverty, political instability, religious intolerance…) induced people to leave their location. Whereas ‘Pull’ factors (democratic climate, religious tolerance, booming economy and job opportunities…) prompted people to move to a new location. 2) Mass migration in Europe wasn’t one-directional (in the sense that people who moved remained permanently on that land). In fact, these movements were often non-one-directional, so people moved, then they returned or eventually changed the place for yet another destination. 3) … 43 a lack of equality or similarity, especially in a way that is not fair Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 36 Can we explain 19th C migration by looking solely at macro-economic push and pull factors? Why (not)? No, because we also have meso and micro explanations to mass migration. The meso44 factors we associate with: * Chain migration (if a family member moves to a particular county, the rest of the chain of the family follows that person, the same situation when a community moves to a certain city) which also helps to explain why migration percent oftentimes increases after a first wave of moderate migration; social and professional networks [have certain groups of people]; information flows; transport facilities (e.g. thanks to development of shipping routes) * Legal restrictions (level of difficulty or ease moving to a particular land), government policies (sometimes it makes a huge difference in policies that apply for migrants from certain countries), employment schemes * Remittances (situation when migrants send money home): facilitating migration of poorer family or community members. Migration is like an entire web of social and spatial interactions. In the micro level we consider household and individual characteristics: * age, gender, skills, family composition (e.g. when you are younger, you might more likely consider a new place to reside), etc. * Social, economic and cultural capital (e.g. if you are a lower in Zimbabwe, it is significantly more difficult for you to exercise your job in Ghana, or Austria 44 в сложных словах с греческими корнями имеет значение: средний, центральный Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 37 which have their own legal systems. However, if you are a doctor, provided that you learn the language, it is a more easily transferable work). * ‘Mobility’ culture, etc. Micro factors help to explain: ⋅ why it is typically ‘poorest of the poor’ who migrate because there is a rather strong relationship between migration and poverty. However, poverty in itself may not be the main driver of migration! ⋅ the importance of social and individual characteristics as well as social determinants. During the 19th C, emigration rates were not always highest for the poorest countries. Explain this counter-intuitive finding.* We can again consider macro, meso and micro explanations… Culture, religion and secularisation. What are the meanings of secularism and secularisation? * Study the first slide. (Secularisation) Secular - not having any connection with religion. Relativism - the belief that truth and right and wrong can only be judged in relation to other things and that nothing can be true or right in all situations. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 38 Within secularisation there are 2 main theses: 1) Disappearance thesis. It states that modernity (standardisation of languages, changes in technology, urbanisation, mass migration, print capitalism…) brings the ‘death’ of religion. But of course it doesn’t happen overnight, but the significance of religion for society and individuals will decline until religion disappears. The name of this thesis highlights that. (Not valid) 2) Differentiation thesis (also called ‘privatisation’ thesis). The proponent scholars of this thesis suggest that there isn’t a general decline of religiosity, but the social significance of religion is declining. Religion is not only the belief or not-belief in God, it is a set of cultural norms, traditions and all aspects by which people live their lives. This thesis also differentiates between the public and private spheres. We have the decline of religion in the public sphere - the economy, legal and political systems become autonomous from religion. Religion becomes a private matter, meaning it still can remain significant for individual people. Actually, the very basic idea of French revolution was to make separation between the clergy and the ruling power. And we see this separation happening. * Study slides 7, 12, 13[Weber interpretations], 15, 16, 21, (22, 25, 26, 27) on secularisation. The conclusion on the term though is below. Devaluation - the action of causing someone or something to be considered less valuable or important Salvation - избавление, спасения души Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 39 convergence - the fact that two or more things, ideas, etc. become similar or come together. Having said that, the Disappearance thesis of secularisation thesis based on all the evidence we covered is DISQUALIFIED. It is not that we have a death, disappearance of religion. What we do have is (1)the decline of social significance of religion, (2) that differentiation is made possible through the distinction between the public and private spheres. Individually, it continues to be a co- constitutive part of the 19th C europeans. Most importantly, secularisation, no matter how difficult is it to define, is a deliberate political project. But it is NOT a natural and inevitable process. It didn’t happen because of the rules of nature. It was carried out by the political elites and facilitated by the processes such as industrialisation and urbanisation. Assert - to behave in a way that expresses your confidence, importance, or power and earns you respect from others; to do something to show that you have power. * Study PPT slide 29 on secularism. * Please take it easy ;). Is secularism anti-religious? Secularism is a model of political organisation whereby the state asserts45 its autonomy from the charge and religion. At the same time, secularisation fosters 45 утвержда́ть, заяви́ть, stand up for, отста́ивать, отстоя́ть Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 40 (сеет, воспитывает) pluralism46. That said, pluralism is not anti-religious, but it privatises47 religion. Should secularisation best be understood as a political project or a natural process? Explain. We have scholarly interpretations of Weber (and co)48 treated secularisation as both a sign and consequence of modernity, and treated them all as an inevitable (which also means natural) process. They linked such inevitability to the rationalisation of society. But that ignored in fact variety across Europe, and homogenised the ‘European’ experience… so it shouldn’t be understood as a natural process (read the conclusion for the 1st question). The 19th century saw the arrival of mass culture. Explain. With art being accessible for ordinary citizens because of nationalist, political projects, it was also greatly facilitated by processes of industrialisation. We have the industrial printing techniques that allowed for more and cheaper reproduction of art materials. It means that more people (from various income families) were now able to purchase those elements. With growth of the middle class and growth of the literacy rates, there was also a higher demand for artistic production, which wasn’t the case before. As a result, we have a creation of mass consumption (e.g. not necessarily clergy or aristocracy could buy a painting) (examples - slide 42 !). 46 the existence of people of diﬀerent races, religious beliefs, and cultures within the same society, or the belief that this is a good thing 47 (of an industry, company, or service) to change from being owned by a government to being owned and controlled independently 48 You use and co. after someone's name to mean the group of people associated with that person Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 41 The birth of mass consumer culture comes with the development of trends. ‘If everyone has it, the upper middle class started not wanting it’. We have a ‘Chase and flight’ phenomena which is a segmentation of the culture market. We also have a start of altering the fashion trends (slide 44). Although the women are primarily around the household, it doesn’t mean she cannot wear properly to reflect the wealth of the family she is married in. What was the Romantic’s critique of the Enlightenment? Romantism is about depicting what you see as an artist, and everyone has a different view. This came as a start reaction against the ‘rationality’ of the Enlightenment, science which ‘can explain everything, but understands nothing’. As we may see, reason was seen to install a false sense of precision and clarity. As a result of romantic movement, we have a rise of the introspective49 artist. The art wasn’t only for and by higher elites anymore, it was smth that could be consumed at the wider levels of the society. Explain the concept of ‘chase and flight’50. ‘Chase and flight’ concept implies a segmentation of the culture market. It is a situation where middle class consumers often emulate the adoption decisions of the elite, whereas the latter prefer to use products that help distinguish them from the middle class. Therefore, elites often start dis-adopting the product or practice once it has become too popular among lower classes. This creates an 49 examining and considering your own ideas, thoughts, and feelings, instead of talking to other people about them 50 погоня и бегство Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 42 asymmetrical51 attraction and repulsion between different consumer segments, leading to the start of rapidly altering fashion trends. Throughout the 19th century, the social and political functions of art radically altered. Explain. In the Ancient Regime [prior to the FR], the arts were a form of extension of power, related to politics. With fall of the Ancient Regime, with decrease in the importance of the clergy and ruling aristocracy, with infant steps toward popular democracy, the art and culture changes dramatically as well. Royal extravaganza was gradually replaced with more modesty - the royal family increasingly presents itself as good, solid bourgeois. Church lost land and property after revolution so it had less and less means to finance art than before. To the contrary, state becomes an active agent in constructing images of ‘the nation’. There was industrialisation and commercialisation of arts, birth of mass consumer culture, and plurality of artistic styles that we have already talked about. To sum up, look at the conclusion slide ;). The First World War. (1) Notes. 2. Intro to the WWI (1914 - 1918) ‘The image that started the WWI’. A member of Serbian shoots the couple. Why to assassinate him? The Serbians living in Bosnia and Herzegovina were unhappy with the situation. Report explaining the image: Archduke was wrong :(. 51 having parts on either side or half that do not match or are not the same size or shape Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 43 why Sarajevo and Austria-Hungary were important? The Austrians were dominating the empire. But in numbers, they weren’t the overwhelming majority. how does it turn into conflict? Austria-Hungary had dual monarchy. Dual monarch >> no common citizenship… Hungary did receive full autonomy. The dual monarchy had imbalance between the two groups. The annexation promoted a Bosnian identity. Gavrilo Princip belonged to terrorist group. Serbia was a state on its own. *** What were the 2 main opposing alliances during the WWI? The 2 opposing alliances were the Central Powers and the Allied Powers. Central Europe was dominated by 2 powerful states: Germany and its weaker cousin, the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Meanwhile, Italy ceded52 from earlier Triple Alliance which was with Germany/Austria. The Central Powers were also known as the Quadruple Alliance since they were joined by Bulgaria and the Ottoman Empire after war began. Triple Entente was a pact between Russia, Great Britain (UK & Ireland) and France; though Great Britain was at first reluctant, having isolationist policy. These 2 alliances set the stage for a massive war. Further about them study on the slides 20 & 21. 52 сдава́ть, сдать, уступа́ть, уступи́ть Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 44 Paul Shroeder stated that “The answer to ‘who started the war?” does not contribute an answer to ‘what started the war?’. Explain. The question “who did it” is actually little conducive53 to explaining WWI. We may consider 2 main events that led to the start of WWI. The real explanation lies with the break-down of the European system of international relations, and a return to international anarchy54. 1. Vienna Congress (1815) which in fact lacked attention to the nationalist sentiments. 2. Break down of the international relations: as from the 1890s onwards Germany lost control over the “Bismarck” system of balancing great powers. Through expansionist scrambles55, we have a renewal of international competition (implying Colonial competition - scramble for Africa and South- Eastern Europe). As well as that, there was a return to the European politics centred on (secret) alliances and ententes. In fact, alliance system was an attempt to bolster56 individual states’ security; to assure that it wouldn't be cut off, conquered or subjected to another’s will. Overall, we have a cascading effect - from local to world conflict. Is it correct to blame Germany for the outbreak of WWI? Why (not)? Actually, Germany [in the middle of the cartoon] is often blamed for WWI. The country does carry some historical responsibility: 53 instrumental, useful, beneficial, valuable, helpful 54 absence of government, lawlessness, rebellion, disorder, misrule, chaos 55 борьба́, схва́тка 56 reinforce, strengthen, boost, fortify, maintain, increase, renew Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 45 1. Germany gave Austria-Hungary a mutual defence57 against Serbia 2. Germany’s aspirations for world hegemony58 following Franco-Prussian war, which involved industrialisation and growing colonial presences 3. Germans’ fear of encirclement [окружение] from Russia and France and its attempt at a pre-emptive59 strike [attack]. 4. Germany’s self-deceit60 - it believed that the isolationist Great-Britain wouldn’t enter into the conflict. 5. Germany’s attempts to solve domestic problems (arising from industrialisation, urbanisation and the arising of a powerful socialist movement) by simply exporting them It is worth noting that Germany signed the ‘guilt clause’ at the Peace Treaty of Versailles in 1919. However, there was also growing distrust among other Great Powers in the late 19th Century: * France broke out from its diplomatic isolation (after Franco-Prussian war) by renewing economic and mutual defence arrangements61 with Russia. France renewed revanchism because Germans meddled [вме́ш|иваться, -а́ться в] in colonial affairs of French protectorate in Morocco. 57 a ‘blank cheque’. 58 dominance, leadership, dominion, authority, power, sovereignty 59 préventive, опережающий 60 обма́н, ложь 61 Договорённость, соглашения; расположение Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 46 * At the same time, we have a British / German rivalry: the British were angered by [sexy] German naval construction programme. There is a saying of Sir Francis Bertie the diplomat: ‘The Germans’ aim is to push us into the water and steal our clothes”. Growing economic interdependence even more intensified competition between sovereign national states. Moreover, there was no international guarantor to ensure participation in the world economy to all nations under equal conditions. In conclusion, I would say it is incorrect to blame Germany solely for the outbreak of the war because there were some other, perhaps smaller in significance causes, but it would be fair enough to say that Germany carries much guilt for the breakout of WWI. The cartoon “crime of the ages – who did it?” describes a crucial event in modern history. Explain what the cartoon is about. What is meant by the “short war” illusion? Explain. When nations went into the war, there was an understanding that it wouldn't last long. Towards the end of 1917 we have had a drop in the excitement about the war especially in France and Great Britain because of the lowering of the resources. So, at the beginning of WWI, the belief that war would be of short duration dominated the political and military analysis. In fact, from July the 28th 1914 to November the 11th 1918, we have: * The mobilisation of more than 70 million military personnel, 10 million out of which were non-European. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 47 * One of the deadliest conflicts in world history: over 9 million soldiers and 7 million civilians died. ́ ходное положе́ние] led to trench warfare.62 * Tactical stalemate [тупи́к, безвы European military elites favoured an offensive strategy63. As well as that, Military elites just felt confident about their enhanced artillery strength (new weapon’s technology)64. Actually, strategies no longer exploited real differences between countries because of the ‘copy-cat’ behaviour. Congruent offensive strategies allowed war to become protracted (Согласованные наступательные стратегии позволили войне стать затяжной). For instance, France abandoned its defensive strategy and launched a counter-offensive strategy when attacked by the Germans. There is a 2-folded answer to the question why did military elites opted for an offensive strategy: 1. Glorification of the Napoleonic war of art. Napoleonic wars hadn’t just been important for developments of France and deliberation of the French people, but it became smth to follow - the only way to wage war. 2. Relative peace on the European continent did limit the opportunities for testing out new technologies. What is the “Napoleonic art of war”? 62cf. slide 44 on the Trench Warfare. Also, it is important to study the slide 47 about the technologies. New weapon’s technology was equally distributed across the diﬀerent European armies. 63 An oﬀensive is a military operation that seeks through an aggressive projection of armed forces to occupy territory, gain an objective or achieve some larger strategic, operational, or tactical goal. Another term for an oﬀensive often used by the media is "invasion", or the more general "attack". 64New weapon’s technology favoured defensive strategies (limited capacity to “fire and run”); and Was equally distributed across the diﬀerent European armies. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 48 19th century theorists, historians elevated Napoleonic, offensive war to a standard. This means offensive blows and rapid monopolisation of mass armies. Again, with the type of technologies at hand during Napoleonic wars this was perfectly feasible - the further you go, the more territory you acquire. The standard was the ‘know-how’ about the warfare. How to explain that 19th century military elites failed to correctly anticipate that WWI would be a war of attrition? Slide 44 and one of the answers above. Military innovations during the 19th century implied that the defence would dominate the offence. Explain. Advances in military technology were much more favouring a defensive strategy. There was no offensive equipment that could answer the gunfire of an e.g. positional defence. The infantry [пехота] could not fire and move at the same time65; gunfire was often inaccurate, heavy and not easy to transport.“Withold your fire until you see the whites of your enemies eyes”. And similarly, while railway facilitated rapid mobilisation, it also strengthened defence (rapid resupply protected it against offensive blows and starvation). THE SCRAMBLE FROM BELOW. INDIGENOUS EXPERIENCES OF EUROPEAN IMPERIALISM IN CENTRAL AFRICA What does the Scramble for Africa refers to? 65 in the trenches you cannot do that Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 49 It refers to conflicts and negotiations between European empires for the colonial control of the African continent in the second half of the 19th century. But ‘scramble for Africa’ is a concept mostly related to or associated with the Berlin Conference (1884-1885), which in fact led to the division of Africa between different European powers. It is during this conference when the representatives of Leopold II managed to recognise this king’s sovereignty over the Congo Free State, the personal colony, which nowadays more or less falls in the borders of modern Democratic Republic of Congo. What are the key terms/concepts through which we can define colonialism? The key terms and concepts of colonialism are racism and violence, ‘civilisation’ and exploitation, knowledge and power. * Racism: colonialism rests on the belief in European’s ‘racial’ and ‘civilisational’66 superiority. Racism was used as a justification of colonialism. * Violence: was used in wars. Colonialism requires constant, both physical and symbolic violence - to be enforced. It was necessary to maintain colonial order and contained daily insults and frustrations, as well as structural injustice. * ‘Civilisation’ and exploitation: there was an idea that Europeans would bring the lights of civilisation to non-European parts of the world. Europeans perceived themselves as inherently superior and actually considered colonialism as a positive phenomena. Colonial actors believed that the exploitation of African resources and workforce was inseparable from Africans’ ‘civilisational’ improvement. 66 civilisation - human society with its well developed social organizations, or the culture and way of life of a society or country at a particular period in time Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 50 * Knowledge and power: there was very little knowledge in Europe in the late 19th century about Africa, their beliefs, resources and etc. The colonisation of Arica required the massive production of knowledge to ease and secure its political and economic submission. So it took as an expansion of knowledge to rule the colonised world. Was the Congo Free State ‘worse’ than other colonies? Colonialism is an exercise of racist violence, and racist violence can never be justified, whatever form it could take. That’s why colonialism can never be classified as better or worse from one particular experience to another. What makes the Congo Free State both unique and typical as far as 19th century colonialism is concerned? The CFS (1885-1908) is both unique and typical of the 19th C colonialism. A unique fact about it is that the CFS was the only ‘personal colony’, as all others were attached to nations. On the other hand, it was very typical in a way that it was formed as a colony. There are 3 important elements in understanding how the colonies were formed: the notion of exploration, *freedom67, and progress. All these key words were supposedly brought together in European colonial endeavours [стремления] and also were central in Leopold II’s expansion strategies. What does banalization of violence refer to in the case of the Congo Free State? 67 what does freedom refer to? Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 51 It means that violence, even extreme violence became normalised in many parts of the *Free68 States. The colonised population was so dehumanised69 that the exercise of violence was probably considered normal by e.g. soldiers. It testifies of how violence could be banalised. INDUSTRIALISATION. Describe the 3 big waves of industrialisation There are 3 big waves of industrialisation: (1) 1780s-1820s: Industrial take- off: Britain and Belgium, (2) 1840s-1870s: Follower economies: France and Germany, (3) 1870s onwards: Laggard economies: Russia and Italy. Let’s break down these stages into more detail ;}. Wave 1: British leadership. So why were the British so ahead to having much more glorious experience of industrial revolution? 1. Resources close to the sea. Britain not only had coal and iron resources70, it had the possibility, or the luxury to have most of the coal and iron resources near the seaside, close to one another. You needed coal in order to burn the iron so as to make a machinery. At the same time, it enabled them a faster distribution of these resources to the rest of the world. 68 why ‘free’? 69 to remove from a person the special human qualities of independent thought, feeling for other people, etc. 70 they are basic necessities of industry. They are like bread and butter ;). Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 52 2. Unlike the European continent, Britain was a constitutional monarchy71. And compared to the the continent, it was way more political stable. 3. Economic liberalisation. Actually, the ideas of structuring and understanding the markets and the economy in the European continent had traditionally come from the British. In Britain, there were few state monopolies, posiEve climate for entrepreneurs, and they promoted early pracEcal applicaEons of technology. To give an example, the construcEon of canals and roads in the UK were done in such a way so as to connect economic centres - ciEes with factories, etc. By contrast, in conEnental Europe building of roads followed military strategy. 4. Presence of commercial class (private capital investment), which implies flourishing commerce and trade. 5. Labour surplus. From the 18th century onwards, a rapid growth of agricultural producEvity actually encouraged early transfer of labour to industry. In Great Britain we have 2 main industries: 1. Coal, iron and steel [сталь]. Steam engines facilitated mining (ventilation of mine shafts => pumping fresh air into mines => longer working days). => 71 In an absolute monarchy, there is no constitutional government, and the king and queen hold all of the power to govern their people. In a constitutional monarchy, the legislature holds the most political power. The United Kingdom, Thailand, and Japan are a few examples of constitutional monarchies. A constitutional monarchy, parliamentary monarchy, or democratic monarchy is a form of monarchy in which the monarch exercises their authority in accordance with a constitution and is not alone in deciding. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 53 Increased production of coal facilitated iron industry (higher temperatures, more pure steel, better steam engines).72 2. The other industry where the British excelled was the Cotton Textile. The factories primarily located in Lancaster and Manchester had the first power-driven machinery to produce textiles! Britain was the only European country to industrialise without a railway in place (because of sea ports and canal infrastructure). Now let’s move to Belgium! :D Inside the continent, Belgium became the leader in industrialisation. But again, this process of industrialisation in Belgium didn’t start out of nowhere: 1. Proto-industrial productivity.73 There were 2 sides of proto-industrial production there: in Flanders (Ghent) - linen production, in Wallonia - metallurgy. 2. Because of proximity, Belgium was also a close trading partner of Great Britain. This facilitated knowledge exchange with the British, but also some industrial espionage was happening… 3. In terms of resources, we have iron ores in close proximity to coal [железные руды в непосредственной близости от угля]. When they are close to one another, it is cool. 4. There were many rivers for easy transport. 5. Strategically located, connected to major European markets. 72 previously the burning of the metal was done with wood, and it sucked. 73 Proto-industrialization is the regional development, alongside commercial agriculture, of rural handicraft production for external markets. Downloaded by Eline Jacobs ([email protected]) lOMoARcPSD|11463819 54 We have 2 stages of proto-industrialisation. The first stage has 2 axes: 1. Coal and metallurgy: le Borinage. We have the use of the first steam engine in in in coal mines of Liège in 1720. In addition, we have a development of large- scale coal mines in “Le Borinage”. As well as that, we have a development of Cockerill-Sambre - iron mel6ng plant, by the Dutch administraEon. So these were primarily in the French speaking part. 2. Closer to the sea (Ghent) we are talking primarily about linen and texEle. In 1789 there was an industrial espionage - Lieven Bauwens steals a ”spinning jenny” from Britain all the way to Ghent. In addiEon to that, we have Import of cheap coVon (via America). Most of that went to the producEon of uniforms for French soldiers. The 1st stage of proto-industrialisaEon went to Massive investments in transport. What started as a glorious industrial revolution was actually interrupted by WWI. However, prior to that, there were hungry forties, which are known as ‘potato plight’74. And because of that, textile industry collapsed… the economic recovery took place only from 1850s onwards. The second stage has to do with scaling-up and specialisation (1850s onwards). We are talking now about knowledge production and science. There was the development of chemical industry. Ernest Solvay (1838-1922) the academic and scholar became the head of producing soda ash with chemicals. As 74 состояние, положение (обыкн. плохое, трудное) Downloaded by Eline Jacobs (

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