Exam Prep PDF

Lecture 2: Differences in the Workplace: Personality Psychometric Tests designed to describe, predict, explain and help make decisions, used for selection, coaching, career guidance etc. Defunct personality tests: Phrenology (Head Shape), Graphology (Writing style) Traits are components of emotiona...

Lecture 2: Differences in the Workplace: Personality Psychometric Tests designed to describe, predict, explain and help make decisions, used for selection, coaching, career guidance etc. Defunct personality tests: Phrenology (Head Shape), Graphology (Writing style) Traits are components of emotional, motivational and social behaviour -​ Proposed to describe and explain, as well as predict interindiviudal differences in human behaviour and experience Trait is a constant aspect of someones personality while a state is a temporary state of someones personality. E.g. Anxious person generally vs. Anxious before exam Big Five Model of Personality (OCEAN) Bell Curve not one or the other -​ Open to experience to Closed to Experience BEST FOR TRAINING -​ Conscientious to Spontaneous BEST INDICATOR -​ Extraversion to Introversion BEST FOR MANAGERIAL -​ Agreeable to Assertive BEST FOR MANAGERIAL -​ Anxious (Neurotic) to Stable BEST INDICATOR Stable and Concientious best for all jobs A likely antecedent of effective leadership could be… (A)​ …high extraversion (B) ​ …high conscientiousness (C) ​ …low extraversion (D) ​ All of the above Lecture 3: Personality and Intelligence: Individual Differences at Work IQ in normal distribution/bell curve Spearman “g” Factor of “general intelligence factor” -​ Abstract reasoning, mechanical reasoning, memory tests, etc. Cattells Fluid & Crystilized Intelligence -​ Fluid intelligence (gf) the ability to learn new things and solve novel problems, regardless of prior knowledge education and experience -​ Crystallized Intelligence (gc): knowledge, information and skills that can be used to solve problems related to prior learnings Ability tests -​ Abstract reasoing -​ Numerical reasoning -​ Verbal reasoning -​ Spatial relations -​ Clerical speed and accuracy -​ Etc. Intelligence and structured interview the best prediction for selection of hiree Is EQ a trait or ability, can it be learned (0.75 correlation with agreeableness) -​ Self-awareness  -​ Self-regulation -​ Motivation -​ Empathy -​ Social skills Gardners theory of multiple intelligences Which of the following factors is a predictor of performance? A: Emotional Stability B: Low IQ C: High IQ D: All of the above Intelligence best predictor of job performance Psychometric tests vary in reliability but should not be discarded Lecture 4: Work Related Attitudes Allport is the father of behiour “concepts of attitudes is probably themost distinctive and indispensable concept in social psychology” Attitude made up of ABC -​ Affective (Emotional) : Emotions arising from evaluating the cognitive components -​ Behavioural: Action outcome of the process -​ Cognitive: Values and beliefs held by a person or hting Attitudes form as we develop with new experiences shaping how we view the world -​ Tabula rasa (blank slate) at birth -​ Dispositional characteristics such as Big 5 Personality Characteristics and Intelligence -​ Direct Experience such as jobseeker being pessimistic after unsuccessful interviews -​ Social Learning shaped by actions of people in social environment such as parents and friends Social Learning Theory: Bobo Doll Experiment Kids became aggressive with a large doll after seeing other people do it first, also became more attracted to gun and knife toys Interaction between attitude and behaviour is complex, social norms and behavioural control beliefs influence relationship between attitudes and behaviour Example: Let’s say an employee is thinking about applying for an internal position within the organisation. She may view this post as an exciting opportunity (attitude toward the behaviour). If she believes she has a good chance of being successful (perceived behavioural control) and if the organisation is one that encourages internal promotion (subjective norms) then it is likely that she will intend on applying for the position. Changes to attitude: Socialisation, punitive procedures, reward, communication, forced contact Steeotyping and confimraiton bias Prejudice is a negative attitude towards members of a specific group -​ Explicit: Critical remarks about ones religion -​ Implicit: Showing only the female employees creche facilities Discrimination is a negative action towards a specific group Link between Job Satisfaction and Performance Organisational Commitment- Ones loyalty and commitment to an organisation -​ Affective Commitment: Emotional invesmtnet with their organisation -​ Continuance Comitment: Individuals perception of risk in leaving organisation, personal sacrifice in leaving and alternative employment available -​ Normative Commitment: Individual’s perceived moral obligation to remain Organisational Citizenship Behaviour: Voluntary behaviour from employee which is likely to have positive consequences for organisation but not individual rewards ‘I’m really interested in a vacancy in my organisation and I believe I am the best candidate. However, the firm seems to prefer external candidates over internal candidates so I don’t intend on applying for the job’. According to Ajzen’s (1991) theory of planned behaviour, what factor is preventing me from applying for the job? (A) ​ Perceived cognitive control (B) ​ Attitude towards the behaviour (C)​ Objective norms (D) ​ None of the above Lecture 5: Perception at Work: The Case of Psychological Contracts What we pay attention to is influenced by characteristics of: Perceiver, Object and Context Perciever shaped by bla bla bla Object is the actual truth Context of situation Attribution theory explores how people form explanations for why they and other people behave in the way they do Distinctiveness, Consensus and Consistency -​ Distinctiveness: Does person behave this way in other situations? If Yes/Low: Internal No/High: External -​ Consensus: Do people behave the same way in similar situations? If Yes/High: External No/Low: Internal -​ Consistency: Does person behave this way consistently? If Yes/High: Internal No/Low: External Guest 2004: -​ Numbers employed getting smaller- implications for employment relations -​ More difficult for TUs to organise. Easier for managers to establish personal relationship -​ Increasing fragmentation and flexibility of workforce -​ Pervasiveness and Urgency of Change -​ Growing Interest in Work/Life Balance -​ Influence of American MNCs Types of Psychological Contracts compared -​ Transactional -​ Short Term Time Scale -​ Economic Exchange -​ Rewards narrow in focus specific duties for specific reward -​ Little psychological engagement with organisation  -​ Relational -​ Open-ended time scale -​ Rewards loosely conditioned on performance -​ High levels of social and emotional involvement If psychological contract is determined to be breached it can lead to a breakdown in productivity and satisfaction, vice versa if fulfilled Practical applications of psyhological contract -​ Induction design -​ Framing career conversations -​ Exploring employee perceptions of culture. We typically make a dispositional attribution for another’s behaviour when... (A)...distinctiveness is low (B)...consensus is high (C)....consistency is low CORRECT (D) None of the above A development not proposed by Guest (2004) to account for the changing nature of employment relations is.... A: Rise of the union movement CORRECT B: Changing values at societal level C: American MNC’s D: None of the above Lecture 6: Motivation Extrinsic Motivaiton -​ Outside of yourself, tangible rewards, organisational level defined, 10% bonus for hitting X sales Idiosyncratic Deals: Ideals -​ Boss pays for your phone bill per month, specially for you rather than company wide or more annual leave Intrinsic Motivaiton -​ Within ones self -​ “Psychological” rewards such as opportunity to use one’s ability, challenge and achievement, increased sense of worth etc. Example: Leading an effective team on a challenging project Approaches to Theories of Motivation Content Theories: Focus on nature of needs and what motivates Process Theories: Attempt to identify relationship among the dynamic variables that make up motivation. These theories are concerned more with how behaviour is initiated, directed and sustained, Focus on process of motivation Maslow Hierarchy: Physiological to Safety to Social to Esteem to Self Actualisation  -​ Once lower need fulfilled previous is no longer a motivator, next level requires demands satisfaction and becomes the motivating influence Alderfer’s ERG Theory -​ Reconsturction of Maslow’s into 3 categories -​ Existence (Levels 1 and 2) -​ Related (Level 4 and 5) -​ Straight line continuum -​ Continuous rather than step by step Herzberg’s Two Factor Theory -​ Hygiene Factors -​ Prevent dissatisfaction but don’t promote more satisfaction (e.g. compensation, relationship with supervisor etc.) -​ Motivators/Growth -​ Push the individual to greater performance (recognistion, sense of achievement etc.) Nohria 2008, How to FUlfill the Drives that Motivate Employees -​ Acquire, Reward System -​ Bond, Culture -​ Comprehend, Job Design -​ Defend, Performance-Management and Resource-Allocation Processes Process Theories Vroom’s Expectancy Theory Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valence Effort x Performance x Valency Will effort lead to high performance? X Will performance lead to outcomes? X Are outcomes desirable? Locke Goal-Setting Theory -​ SMART -​ Specific, Measurable, Attainable, Realistic, Time-bound Adams Equity Theory Income and Outcome must be balanced with regards to others, if not then adjustments will be made Work Design Hackman & Oldham: Job Characteristics Model -​ Experienced meangfullness of the work, from Skill Variety, Identity and Significance -​ Experience Responsibility of the outcomes of work, from Autonomy -​ Knowledge of the results of work activities, from feedback -​ Toghether all lead to high internal work motivation, high growth satisfaction, high general job satisfaction, high work effectiveness -​ Calculate by AVG of 3 skill levels x Autonomy x Feedback MOTIVATING POTENTIAL SCORE Fundamental assumption in support of performance based pays impact on performanc ehowever research evidence is limited -​ People won’t respond if they don’t believe that financial incentive is worth it. E.g breaking themselves for €100 at Christmas -​ If reward doesn’t match expectations it can lead to disappointment -​ Can lead to employees gaming the system to meet set targets while disregarding others Sample Questions: No matter how hard I work I’m never going to reach my goal’. This person won’t be motivated because of A: Valence B: Equity C: Instrumentality D: None of the above CORRECT Lecture 7: Socialisation Goal: From Outsider to Insider Process by which the person learns and adopts the behaviours, attitudes expected in their role (Feldman, 1981) -​ Both a process and an outcome, continues until employee leaves Bauer & Erdogan (2011) Chapter New Emplyee Characteristics -​ Career Strategy, Experience, Personality etc. New Employee Behaviours -​ Information seeking, feedback seeking, relationship building Organisational Efforts -​ Socialisation approach Lead to Adjustment Lead to Outcomes Varies from Institutionalised (best made) to Individualised (best fit) Feldman’s Stage Model of Socialisation -​ Anticipatory -​ Period of information, developing expectations about new role such as salary, duties, hours etc. -​ Realism about the organisation: Full and accurate picture of what the goals and climate of the organisation are really like -​ Realism about the job: Full and accurate picture of what duties will entail -​ Congruence of skills and abilities -​ Congruence of needs and values: SHaring the values of the new organisation and having personal needs that can be met by orgnaisation -​ Encounter -​ Experiences reality of new environment, reassesses expectations e.g “promised to work one weekend of 4 but actually working every second weekend”  -​Management of outside life conflicts: Progress in dealing with conflicts between personal life and work life (e.g. scheduling, family, amount of preoccupation with work) -​ Management of intergroup role conflicts: Progress in dealing with conflicts between the role demands of own group and demands of other groups in organisation -​ Role definition: Clarification of ones own role within the immediate work group, deciding on job duties, priorities and time allocation for tasks -​ Initation to the task: Learning new tasks at work -​ Initiation to the group: Establishment of new interpersonal relationships and learning group norms -​ Change and Acquisition -​ Revises expectations, becomes work insider, acquisition of set of role behaviours -​ Resolution of role demands: Agreeing with work group on what task to perform and priorities, mutually acceptable roel decisions to deal with conflicts with outside life and intergroup conflicts -​ Task Mastery: Learning the tasks of the new job, gaining self confidence and attaining self confidence and positive performance levels -​ Adjustment to group norms and values: Coming to feel liked and trust by peers, understanding of groups norms and values and making a satisfactory adjustment to the group culture Outcomes of Socialisation for management -​ Homogenisation of the workforces, pros and cons -​ Employees less likely to leave organsisation (passing of “induction crisis” into “settled connection” -​ Less time and effort on new employees -​ More cohesive work force Sample Questions A person’s belief that they have the ability to achieve their goals is referred to as: A: locus of control B: self-efficacy CORRECT C: cognitive control D: None of the above In line with Feldman’s Stage Model of Socialisation the greatest mismatch between expectations and reality occurs... A...between Encounter & Change & Acquisition stages B... between Anticipatory & Encounter stages CORRECT C...Settled Connection & Differential Transit stages D... None of the above Lecture 8: Organisational Culture Culture is an all encompassing umbrella term taking into consideration Leadership, Socialisation, recruitment, promotions etc. “The way things are done around here” (Deal and Kennedy, 1982) -​ Holidays not worth taking  -​ 9 to 6? More like 6 to 9 -​ Ten past toms etc. Maintaining Organisational Culture -​ Selection of “right” entry level personnel -​ Selective socialisation -​ Reinforcing correct behaviours (reward, acknowledgement, promotion etc.) -​ Punishing incorrect behaviours (discipline, exit etc.) Culture increases management authority when accepted by employees -​ Employees identify themselves with organisation and accept its rules -​ Internalise organisations values when they believe they are right -​ Motivated to achieve organisations objectives Schein’s 3 Levels -​ Underlying Assumptions -​ Espoused Values -​ Artefacts Schein says basic assumptions are the essence of organisational culture with values and behaviours viewed as manifestations of the culture essence Social Psychology is an attempt to understand and explain how the thought, feeling and vehaviour of individuals is influenced by actualm imagined or implied presence of others (Allport) How individuals and groups of individuals behave with relation to eachother within organsiations -​ Company culture can utilise this influence How we are influenced by others and why we comply Want to be liked (Normative Influence) Want to be right (Informational Influence) Obedience -​ Unethical behaviour Enron -​ BLindly following orders Asch (1951) Conformity Experiment -​ Asch study shows how culture is maintained as people will confirm even when rest of gorup is wrong in order to not stand out, when responses are private they are less likely to confirm, showing want to fit in Fundamental Attribution Error: Tendence for an observer when interpreting and explaining behaviour of another person to underestimate the situation and to overestimate the personal disposition Tourish and Vatcha (2005): Enorn article -​ Elimination of dissent -​ Charismatic leadership inherent in many cults -​ Social punishments  -​ Promotion of homogenous and insular mentality -​ Hiring young inexperienced employees who were less likely to challenge authority -​ Induction practices “lovebombing” -​ Categorisation of employees “rank and yank” founded by Jack Welch at GM -​ Unwritten rule of “no bad news” -​ Uniformed dress codes -​ Nurturing the appropriate individual -​ Covering prostitution expenses Q: The fundamental attribution error occurs when... A:...we prefer an internal attribution when explaining someone else’s behaviour CORRECT B:...we prefer an internal attribution when explaining our own successes C:...we prefer an external attribution when explaining someone else’s behaviour D:....we prefer an external attribution when explaining our own successes Q: The term ‘rank & yank’ is synonymous with which of the following business leaders? A: Kenneth Lay B: Steve Jobs C: Jack Welch CORRECT D: Cheryl Sandberg Lecture 9: Group and Social Influence at Work Presence of others is arousing and changes our behaviour Social Identity Theory -​ Seeks to specify and predict the conditions under which individuals think of themselves as individuals or as group members Bystander effect means people are less likely to offer help to a victim in presence of others HR approach originated from great depression with greater attention given to social factors at work and the behaviour of employees within an organisation Hawthorne Experiments The Illumination Experiments -​ Conducted to find effect of lighting intensity on workers performance -​ Inconclusive but found productivity levels were influenced beyond physical conditions of work Relay Assembly Test Room -​ Assembly work was repetitive and boring -​ 6 women sat through number of planned and controlled changes to the work environment (e.g. Work hours, breaks etc.) -​ Experimenter established close relationship with workers by communicating, listening and feedback -​ Extra attention facilitated a higher level of productivity Hawthorne Effect  -​ Workers perform better in new working conditions when workers know they are under observation The Interviewing Programme -​ Structured, formal interview process yielded irrelevant information -​ By changing an open semi-structured style they yield much more useful info -​ Counselling approached allowed workers to speak honest about their employment Bank Wiring Observation Room -​ Group of men working in a bank wiring room observed -​ Norms quickly established and regulated behaviour throughout task -​ Cliques and roles within these cliques were established -​ Group decided acceptable level of output well below level of capacity -​ Group pressures stronger than financial incentives Experiments seen as most important foundation of HR approach to management and development of organisational behaviour, generated new ideas concerning the importance of work groups and leadership etc. however, questioned over scientific merit Stages of Group Development: Tuckman Model Forming, Storming, Norming, Performing, Adjourning Finland, Sweden, Norway, Perth, Antrim Enhancing Team performance -​ Increase identifiability -​ Promote involvement -​ Reward team members for performance -​ Feedback -​ Correct staffing level Social Loafing less effort when part of a group compared to individually, bigger team, lesser individual effort -​ Diffusion of responsibility -​ Deindividuation -​ Dispensability of effort e.g Voter Turnout -​ Sucker Aversion, dont want to do all the work for no credit Groupthink tnednecy of a strongly cohesive group to emphasise unity at the expense of critical evaluation of problems and options “suspension of critical thinking” Janis Symptoms of Groupthink -​ Illusion of invulnerability -​ Collective rationalisation -​ Moral superiority belief -​ Stereotyping of others -​ Pressure on dissenters -​ Self censorship -​ Illusion of unanimity -​ Emergence of mindguards Prevention of Groupthink  -​ Senior members accepting criticism -​ Senior members speak last -​ Duplciate groups -​ Subgroups -​ Assign a devils advocate -​ Seeking outsider viewpoints -​ Encourage expressions of doubt Nominal Group Technique (NGT) Small Group Assembled -​ Leader presents a question or problem -​ Members individually write down ideas -​ Each participant presents one idea to the group -​ Group clarifies and evaluates suggestions -​ Alternatives are rated and best-rated one is chosen Sample Question: Which of the following is an antecedent of ‘whistleblowing’? A: conscientiousness B: organisational culture C: legislation D: All of the above CORRECT In the Tuckman model of Group Development, the ‘storming’ stage occurs... A: First B: Second CORRECT C: Third D: Fourth Lecture 10: Leadership Mangement is doing things right; leadership is doing the right things (Peter Drucker) Emotional labour refers to the process by which workers are expected to manager their feelings in keeping with organisationally defined rules and guidelines -​ Can be difficult to know the correct display of emotion Cultures differ on acceptable level of public expressions of emotion -​ Neutral v Affective (based on Trompenaars & Hampden Turner, 1998) -​ Neutral such as Sweden, expected to be objective and detached. Affective such as Mexico, all forms of emotion are appropriate in almost every circumstance Emotional Intelligence 4 Factors (Mayer & Salovey, 1997) -​ Perceiving Emotions -​ Using Emotions -​ Understanding Emotions -​ Managing Emotions Emotional intelligence does not operate separately but rather in conjunction with other abilities and personality traits Therefore, leaders who possess a higher level of EQ must also possess other desirable leadership characteristics (e.g. personality, communication) Trait Theories of Leadership Do most effective leaders possess specific traits or characteristics? Provides a basis for selecting leaders Charisma (Bradley, 1987) -​ Charisma as a personality characteristic -​ Charisma as a relationship between leader and followers Charismatic leadershipis seen as strong and capable of arousing significant emotional reactions in followers Transformational Leadership -​ Type of charismatic leadership style based on communicationg and sharing the leader’s vision in order to produce a change in follower’s values, expectations, and motivations and inspire them to sacrifice personal interests for the group Impact of Leader’s Personality (O’Reilly et al.) -​ CEOs who were more Open had more adaptive cultures (risk taking, willing to experiment) -​ Conscientious had more detail oriented cultures (analytical, precise) -​ Less Agreeable more results oriented -​ 3 of Big 5 (Conscientiousness, Openness and Agreeableness) significantly related to three dimensions of organisaitonal culture (detail oriented, adaptability and results oriented) Importantly, adaptability and detail oriented were subsequently related to firm outcomes (revenue, market value, reputation etc.) -​ CEO Openness had a relationship with financial performance of the firm (independent of culture) Behavioural Theories of Leadership Advocates for training leaders University of Michigan Leadership Study -​ Employee Oriented Leader: Emphasised interpersonal relationships -​ Production Oriented Leader: Emphasised the technical or task aspects of the job Research on either inconclusive, but have advanced our understanding of leadership Fiedler Contingency Theory Emphasis on context/situation when explaining leadership dynamics, fiedler model attempts to isolate these situational variables Assumes a persons leadership style is fixed. Meaning situation requires a task oriented leader and leader is relationship oriented, either situation must be modified or leader replaced to maximise effectiveness Based on -​ Leader-Member Relations -​ Task Structure -​ Position Power Very Favourable Intermediate Very Unfavourable Leader- Good Good Good Good Poor Poor Poor Poor Membe r Relatio ns Task High High Low Low High High Low Low Structur e Leader Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Strong Weak Power Studies testing overall validity of model find considerable evidence to support substantial parts of it Biggest strength being its prescriptiveness Sample Questions: Q: The trait approach to leadership.... A:...makes the case for leadership training B:...makes the case for leadership selection CORRECT C:...makes the case for emotional labour in organisations D: None of the above Q: In the O’ Reilly et al., (2014) study on leader personality & culture which personality trait was associated with cultures that were more results-oriented A: High Conscientiousness B: Low Extraversion C: Low Agreeableness CORRECT D: None of the above Lecture 11: Organisational Change Humans are bad at predicting the future Types of Change -​ Incremental Change -​ Improvement on the old way of doing things -​ Not major change in direction -​ Minor strategic consequences -​ E.g Introduction of annual health and safety workshop  -​ Transitional Change -​ Involves the implementation of new strategies and requires rearranging or dismantling of old operating methods -​ Significant strategic consequences -​ E.g Introduction of a new IT system in large organisation -​ Transformational Change -​ Most comprehensive change at several levels -​ Reformed mission and core values -​ Altered distribution of power and fresh leadership -​ Revised communication and decision-making patterns -​ Major consequences -​ E.g HSE replacing 10 regional health boards Conceptions of planned change focus on how change can be implemented in organisations, describe activities that must take place to initiate and carry out successful orgnaiosatonal change Organisational development is directed at bringing about planned change to increase an organisations effectives and capability to change itself Kurt Lewin is founding father of theories of planned change Lewin’s Model of Change Management Two groups: One striving to maintain status quo, other pushing change In order to force change one can increase forces pushing for change or decreasing those maintaining current state or both Decreasing those maintaining the status quo produces less resistance and is a more effective change strategy Lewin’s Action Research Model Problem Identification Consultation with Behavioural Science Expert Data Gathering and Preliminary Diagnosis Feedback to Key Client or Group Joint Diagnosis of Problem Joint Action Planning Action Data Gathering after Action Underlines most current approaches to planned change and is often considered synonymous with OD Lewin’s Model of Change Management -​ Unfreezing to become motivated to change -​ Initial problem identification, obtaining data, diagnosis -​ Changing what needs to be changed  -​ Action planning, implementation, followup and stabilisation -​ Refreezing to make the changes permanent -​ Assessment of consequences -​ Learning from the process Unfreezing -​ Reduce forces maintainging status quo -​ Highlighting discrepancies between behaviours desired by organisation members and behaviours currently exhibited -​ “We want to be a learning organisation but there is a lot of knowledge guarding/hiding taking place” Change -​ Shifting the behaviour of the organisation, department or individual to a new level -​ Changing structure s and processes as an attempt to develop new behaviours, values and attitudes -​ “Knowledge sharing will now be a key performance metric” Refreezing -​ Stabilising the organistion at a new state of equilibrium -​ Accomplished through the use of supporting mechanisms that reinforce the new organisational state, such as organsaitonal culture, rewards and structures -​ “Promoting people who are good “sharerss”” Critical analysis -​ General framework for understanding organisational change -​ One of most prominent change management models -​ Very broad and largely descriptive -​ Organisational Change can not be considered a linear process -​ The model has received consdirable attention and criticism Burnes (2004) criticism of Three Step Model -​ Assumed organisations operate in a stable state -​ Was only suitable for small scale change projects -​ Ignored organisational power and politics -​ Top down and management driven Positive Model of Change (Cooperrider and Srivastva, 1987) -​ Lewins models primarily deficit based with focus on problems and deficiencies -​ Positive model focuses on what organisation is doing right -​ Linked to “appreciative inquiry” Initiate the Inquiry Inquire into Best Practices Discover the Themes Envision a Preferred Future Design and Deliver Ways to Create the Future Rhetoric of planned change is describe as a rationally controlled, orderly process but reality is that it is more chaotic, unlikely to ever be over and complex and open ended process Sample Exam Question Which of the following was a feature of the culture at Enron? (A) ​ Laissez-faire management (B) ​ Accelerated recruitment (C) ​ Top-down communication CORRECT (D) ​ All of the above In line with cross-cultural research, a Mexican manager when negotiating with another international manager is…. (A)​ ….less likely to hide their emotions​ CORRECT (B) ​ …more likely to hide their emotions (C) ​ …more likely to use an interpreter ​ (D) ​ …less likely to use an interpreter Institutionalised onboarding… (A) ​ …refers to the socialisation process in bureaucratic organisations (B) ​ …refers to a ‘best practice’ approach to socialisation CORRECT​ (C) ​ …refers to a ‘best fit’ approach to socialisation (D) ​ None of the above In the famous Asch (1951) experiment, conformity increased when…. (A) ​ …participants gave their answer in written form (B) ​ …participants gave their answer as part of the group CORRECT (C) ​ …participants gave their answer second in the line-up​ (D) ​ All of the above Howard Gardner is most associated with which of the following research areas? (A): ​ Socialisation (B): ​ Attribution Theory (C): ​ Multiple Intelligences CORRECT (D):​ Organisational Change