Exam Notes - Psychology Prep PDF

Exam Notes Unit 2: Critical thinking skills: Tolerating Ambiguity, examining the nature and source of the evidence, examining assumptions and biases, be curious, consider alternate viewpoints and alternative interpretations Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behaviour and mental pro...

Exam Notes Unit 2: Critical thinking skills: Tolerating Ambiguity, examining the nature and source of the evidence, examining assumptions and biases, be curious, consider alternate viewpoints and alternative interpretations Psychology is defined as the scientific study of behaviour and mental processes. 4 scientific goals - To ***Describe*** how people and other animals behave - To ***Explain and Understand*** the causes of these behaviours - To ***Predict*** how people and animals will behave under certain conditions - To ***Influence or Control*** behaviour through knowledge and control of its causes to enhance human welfare     Unit 3: - Curiosity, skeptical, open minded Using the scientific method 1. Identify question of interest 2. Gather information and form hypothesis 3. Test Hypothesis by conducting research 4. Analyze data, draw tentative conclusions and report finding 5. Bild a body of knowledge, ask further questions, conduct more research, develop and test theories 4 An **operational definition** is the method used to define the terms necessary to determine the nature of a phenomenon and its properties such as duration, quantity, quality, etc.    An independent variable is a variable that the researcher can manipulate in an experiment. The dependent variable is the variable that is affected by the manipulation.   There are two big paradigms of research: qualitative and quantitative. Main methods of research fall into 3 categories: descriptive research, correlational research and experiments. Qualitative focuses mostly on descriptive research, and, while quantitative can do descriptive, it tends to shine on correlational and experiments.   Descriptive research: describing things as they are. Case study - an in depth analysis of one thing Naturalistic observation is simply watching and describing something or someone in its or their natural setting. The key here is the observer must not influence whatever it is they're observing.  survey research - surveying people Correlational Research: measures the strength of relationships between variables - measures variables, doesn\'t manipulate them. Negative and positive correlation   Experiments: Experimental group, control group Between groups design and repeated measures design   Ethics: The Canadian Psychological Association has developed ethical guidelines for psychological research, and these guidelines must be followed by anyone doing psychological research in Canada. The main points are: - The research must protect and promote the welfare of participants; - The research must avoid doing harm to participants; - The research must only be done if the benefits strongly outweigh the risks; - The researchers must take all responsible steps to ensure that consent is not given under coercion; - The researchers must ensure the privacy and confidentiality of the participants   Unit 5: - Developmental psychology is the study of the physical, cognitive, social, emotional, and behavioural characteristics of a human being over a lifespan. - Assimilation is when new information is influenced by an old understanding - The concept of accommodation is when an old understanding is influenced by new information - **Egocentrism** is the inability to imagine the world from someone else's perspective - - **Irreversibility** is an inability to mentally imagine that an object that changed form could go back to its original form - C**entration** is when someone focuses on one characteristic of a stimulus and doesn't notice any other characteristics of the stimulus.   - **Inductive Reasoning**: Reasoning that proceeds from a set of specific facts to a general conclusion. Ex. This monkey likes bananas, this other monkey likes bananas, this other monkey likes bananas, and this other monkey likes bananas, therefore monkeys must like bananas. - **Spatial Orientation**: The ability to control your body in relation to the environment. - **Fluid Intelligence**: The ability to mentally react in the moment. - **Crystallized Intelligence: **The store of information and skills gathered during the course of one's life.   Jean Piaget\'s Model of Cognitive Development 1. Sensorimotor Stage - children relying on sensory experiences to guide them. 2. Preoperational stage - children can think symbolically. 3. Concrete operational stage - logic and thinking rationally 4. Formal operational stage - apply rules to circumstances they haven\'t experienced yet   Kohlberg\'s stages of moral reasoning 1. Pre-conventional level pf moral reasoning 2. The conventional level of moral reasoning 3. The post-conventional level Unit 7: Motivation and Emotion Content: Motivation refers to the psychological and physiological processes that influences the direction, persistence, and vigour of goal-directed behaviour.  An **instinct** is an inherited predisposition to behave in a specific and predictable way when exposed to a particular stimulus.  **Homeostasis** is a state of internal physiological equilibrium that the body strives to maintain.   Clark Hull's **drive theory** of motivation suggests that our physiological disruptions to homeostasis produce drives. Drives are internal states of tension that motivate an organism to behave in ways that reduce this tension. **Incentives** represent environmental stimuli that "pull" an organism toward a goal. The **expectancy x value theory** (or expectancy theory) proposes that goal-directed behaviour is jointly determined by two factors:   - The strength of the person's expectation that particular behaviours will lead to a goal.   - The value the individual places on that goal (incentive value).   - **Extrinsic motivation: **performing an activity to obtain an external reward or to avoid punishment.  (grades, praise, money) - **Intrinsic motivation: **performing an activity for its own sake because you find it enjoyable or stimulating.  (interest, curiosity, pride)   Unit 8: Stress and Health tress can be viewed in three different ways:  1. As a *stimulus*. Stress is a result of a stressor. **Stressors** are stimuli that place demands on organisms that tax or exceed their resources.  2. As a *response*. Stress has been viewed as a response that has cognitive, physiological, and behavioural components.  3. As an *organism-environment interaction*. Stress has also been viewed as a person-situation interaction, or, as a transaction between the organism and the environment (see textbook, Figure 15.1).    \* * There are four aspects of the appraisal process that are of particular significance:  - The appraisal of the *demands* of the situation (primary appraisal).  - The appraisal of the *resources* available to cope with it (secondary appraisal).  - The judgements of what the *consequences* of the situation could be.  - The appraisal of the* personal meaning* (i.e., what the outcome might imply about us).  - Primary appraisal - Secondary appraisal   Chronic stress and the GAS ( general adaption syndrome) - The alarm reaction phase - *The Alarm Reaction Phase * - This phase occurs because a stressor has activated the sympathetic nervous system and the release of stress hormones by the endocrine system. Physiological responses to the stressor include increased heart rate and respiration, dilated pupils, and slow digestion. This alarm reaction helps the body to deal with the source of the stress. For example, pupils dilating makes our eyes more sensitive to light which, in turn, enhances our vision.  - The body's natural tendency to maintain homeostasis results in the parasympathetic nervous system activity which reduces arousal. Despite attempts to return to homeostasis, if the stressor continues, the stress response also continues.        - The resistance phase - The exhaustion phase     **Health psychology** is the study of psychological and behavioural factors in the prevention and treatment of illness and in the maintenance of health.  Health-related behaviours fall into two main categories:  - *Health-enhancing behaviours* -- serve to maintain or increase health (e.g., exercise, healthy dietary habits, safe sexual practices, regular medical checkups, and breast and testicular self-examination).  - *Health-compromising behaviours* -- those that promote the development of illness (e.g., smoking, fatty diets, a sedentary lifestyle, and unprotected sexual activity).  \* *   **Protective factors** are conditions, attributes, or resources that contribute to an individual's ability to cope with stress.   \* * **Hardiness** is a stress-resistant personality pattern that involves the factors of commitment, control, and challenge. They are known as the "three Cs" of hardiness.  **Resilience** refers to unexpectedly good recovery, or even growth following stress. **Coping self-efficacy** is the conviction or belief that we can perform the behaviours necessary to cope successfully with our daily challenges **Optimism** can play a significant role in how individuals perceive and respond to stress. **Personality factors** play a significant role in shaping how individuals respond to stress. **Type A personality** is a behavioural pattern involving a sense of time urgency, pressured behaviour, and hostility that appears to be a risk factor in coronary heart disease. **Type B personality** is a relaxed and agreeable personality type, with little sense of time urgency.    - **Problem-focused coping** -- these are strategies that involve direct attempts to confront and master a stressful situation.  - For example, studying for a test or going directly to another person to work out a misunderstanding.  - **Emotion-focused coping** -- these are strategies directed at minimizing or reducing emotional responses to a stressor.  - Some forms of emotion-focused coping involve appraising the situation in a manner that minimizes its emotional impact so that it is less stressful, such as relaxation.  - Importance of Exercise - How people change: the transtheoretical model: precontemplation, contemplation, preparation, action, maintenance, termination   Unit 10: Difference between Psychiatrist, Psychologist, Family doctor, Psychotherapist, social worker, psychiatric nurse.   Types of Psychological treatment - Assessment - Therapy - Nature healing - Intensive and specialized support - Crisis support - Community support   **-Psychodynamic therapies** emphasize the need to discover and resolve unconscious conflicts. -**Psychoanalysis** is a specific psychodynamic therapy developed by Sigmund Freud that became the precursor to modern psychodynamic therapies -Free association instructs the patient to reveal any thoughts that arise, no matter how odd or meaningless they may seem -Resistance is a tendency of clients to avoid directly answering crucial questions posed by the therapist. -Person/Client-Centered Therapy focuses on individuals' abilities to solve their own problems and to reach their full potential with the encouragement of the therapist   **Systematic Desensitization** is a behavioural technique in which gradual exposure to a feared stimulus or situation is blended with relaxation training.   **Flooding **is another technique used in behaviour therapy. This is a faster method of ridding fears when compared to systematic desensitization.   "A" stands for Activating Event or Adversity. This is any event that triggers an emotion. "B" refers to one's Irrational Belief about the event at "A." That belief then leads to "C," the emotional and behavioral Consequences. "D" stands for disputes or arguments against irrational beliefs. "E" stands for New Effect or the new, more effective emotions and behaviors that result from more reasonable thinking about the original event. It is "D" that is key to changing maladaptive thinking and behaviour. It is important to use vigor and energy when disputing irrational beliefs. Disputing is not just a rational or cognitive method but also an emotional method of changing irrational beliefs into rational ones. **Cognitive-Behavioural Therapy **is a form of therapy that combines procedures such as exposure and cognitive restructuring.    ***Mindfulness*** -- is a mental state of awareness, focus, openness, and acceptance of immediate experience.   ***Acceptance and Commitment Therapy (ACT)*** -- is a therapeutic approach that focusses on process of mindfulness as a vehicle for change; teaches clients to "just notice," accept, and embrace their thoughts and feelings to reduce the anxiety they would ordinarily evoke   ***Dialectical Behaviour Therapy (DBT)*** -- is a treatment that was developed specifically for the support of individuals diagnosed with borderline personality disorder.     Unit 11: Attribution: = A big part of our social assessment process is determining the cause of a person's behaviour. Two types: Personal and situational. The way we make decisions about attribution can be broken down into smaller components called **Attributional Factors**. These factors are **consistency(same person, same situation)** , **distinctiveness (Some person, different situations)**, and **consensus (different person, same situation)**. **Fundamental Attribution Error**. It's when you go through the attribution process with someone and get it wrong because you overemphasize the personal factors and underemphasize the situational factors. Another kind of attributional bias is the **Self-Serving Bias**. This is a common one I'm afraid. It's when we take responsibility for good outcomes and refuse responsibility for bad outcomes The result of our initial assessment of someone or some group is an **impression**.  **mental set** is "our readiness to see the world in a particular way."  the problem with mental sets and stereotypes is that they usually end up being **self-fulfilling prophesies** The rules and expectations about how people should think, feel, and behave in a society are called **social norms**. Social roles are norms (rules) that apply to a person in a specific social position When people give in to that pressure it's called **conformity** When you bow to the pressure of a social group to act the way they're acting it's called conformity, when you do what someone in authority asks you to do because you feel pressure coming from their position of authority it's called **obedience** When conformity happens within a group decision making process it's called **groupthink** Acting for the good of others, the group, is called **prosocial behaviour** Why do people help? Social learning, cultural influences, empathy and altruism When do people help? An event, an emergency, assuming responsibility, know when to help, decide to help Whom do people help? Similarity, gender, perceived responsibility