Aspects Of Communications Exam Notes PDF

**Aspects Of Communications** [Topics ] 1. Media, Culture and Society 2. Journalism 3. Internet and New media 4. Personal Communications 5. Marketing Communications 6. Video Production 7. Gender 8. Film Studies 9. Photography 10. Human Communications 11. Visual Art and Design 1...

**Aspects Of Communications** [Topics ] 1. Media, Culture and Society 2. Journalism 3. Internet and New media 4. Personal Communications 5. Marketing Communications 6. Video Production 7. Gender 8. Film Studies 9. Photography 10. Human Communications 11. Visual Art and Design 12. Communicating with Audio 13. Digital Games 14. Radio 15. Media Law **Media, Culture and Society** - The Media - Media effects opinions - The media does not try to reflect the real world - The media is a business that has special responsibilities - Social media vs Legacy media Social media = fake news is an industry...eg; Instagram, TikTok Legacy Media = fake news is prohibited...eg; Newspapers, Radio - The two-step flow model Shows how people gain opinions and how media messages are disseminated throughout society Step 1 Media to individual (opinion leader) Step 2 Opinion leader to the public - Media as a Global Village A metaphor by McLuhan suggesting how media has brought people together even through a physical distance. People from all over the world connect together through media, sharing experiences and accessing the same information. - Media Content Content we see on the media includes entertainment, advocacy, advertisement, news, opinion and more - What is ethical media? Ethical media promotes solidarity Ethical media promotes the right of information whilst protecting privacy Ethical media serves the common good not sectorial good Ethical media serves humans not the capital Ethical media guarantees media quality Ethical media includes reasoned decisions - New media New media has brought a lot of changes and developments such as: - Digitalisation - Increased interactivity - Mobility in sending and receiving - Network connectivity - Adaptation of publication and audience roles - What parts of society influence the media? Laws and education Religion and culture Economy Political System **The contents of the media always reflect those who finance them** - News on the media ought to be newsworthy Newsworthiness is constructed each day by professional journalists and news organisations. It is socially constructed what something is considered newsworthy - The Media effects opinions, but effects imply change Moreover an effect depends on media credibility, how wide media coverage is, the ability of the audience to be critical readers and the public opinion for or against a topic - Theories on effects The 2-step flow model- suggest that the opinion leader influences the rest of society The hypodermic model- suggest that media messages have a direct effect on the audience The Selective Exposure theory- suggests that we see what we want to see - Diffusion of innovations model Explains how, why and at what rate new innovations spread through cultures and societies. It explains how the adoption of new ideas or products spreads through social groups. - Innovators are well connected to networks outside the mainstream - Early adopters serve as opinion leaders - Early majority are more deliberate in decision making - Late majority tend to be sceptical and resistant to change - Laggards are highly resistant to change - The Diffusion process Knowledge Persuasion Decision implementation Confirmation **Journalism** - What is Journalism? Journalism is the practice of gathering, assessing, creating, and presenting news and information to the public. - It demands transparency - It reports objective truth - Includes fact-checking - Should be trustworthy - What is news? - New facts and events that impact our lives - The reporting of current events - Newsworthy- To be newsworthy means that a story, event, or piece of information is considered important, interesting, or significant enough to be reported on by journalists. - What is a Journalist? - A verifier- eliminates doubt - A sense-maker- provides context - A witness- through experience - An investigator- through skill, experience and patience - The T.R.U.T.H acronym T= Timely R= Relevance U= Unusual T= Tension/Trouble H= Human Interest - Fact-Checking The process of verifying accuracy and truthfulness of information before it goes out to the public - Trustworthy - Trustworthiness in journalism refers to the reliability, credibility, and integrity of the information - Crucial because the public relies on journalists to provide accurate, honest, and balanced reporting. - Without trustworthiness, journalism loses its role as a source of information and a pillar of democratic societies. **Internet and New Media** - Social Change Shifts in society, culture and behaviours - Media Change Media changes as the social world changes and vice versa - Media is Changing through its... **Infrastructure** With rapid advancements in technology and shifts in consumer behaviour, media infrastructure is undergoing significant transformation. Example: - Traditional media infrastructures (e.g., TV towers, radio transmitters, print facilities) are increasingly being replaced or supplemented by digital infrastructure, including streaming services and online platforms. - The rise of AI - 5G networks with faster internet speeds - Content creation through social media platforms **Devices** The evolution of media devices---ranging from traditional televisions and radios to modern smartphones, tablets, and virtual reality headsets, has altered how media is consumed, produced, and distributed.  Example: - Tablets - Smart Phones - Smart TV's - Virtual Reality **Services** Traditional television and radio are being overtaken by streaming platforms like Netflix, Disney+, Hulu, and Amazon Prime. These services allow consumers to watch or listen to content on demand, breaking free from scheduled programming. This flexibility has fundamentally changed how people engage with media. - Society is changing through its... **Business Practices** Society is changing significantly through the evolution of business practices, driven by factors like globalization, technological innovation, social responsibility, and changing consumer preferences. **Social Behaviour** Social behaviour refers to the interactions between individuals, groups, and institutions within society. These interactions shape the norms, values, and cultural frameworks that define how society functions. In today\'s world, social behaviour is changing due to factors such as technological advancements - Media and society are in a reflexive relationship Example: Citizen Journalism **Personal Communications** - 3 main elements to a presentation - The presenter - The Audience - The presentation environment - Communication is more than just talking It is not just what we say, we also communicate through the way we sound, the way we dress and our appearance, body language and more - Retaining information We retain most what we see. What we hear come last on the basis of retaining information - Public speaking requires good communication - Who is in my audience? - What are their expectations? - To what extent are they like me, not like me, share my values, sense of humour, education, background? - What are my objectives? - What is my main message? - Elements of personal communication **Verbal:** Tone, Clarity, Volume, Accent, nuances such as sarcasm (supra-segmentals) **Non-Verbal:** Facial expression, eye-contact, clothes, gestures, movement **Marketing Communications** - The 4 P's (Marketing Mix) The Marketing Mix is the key elements that businesses are able to control to influence customer demand and achieve marketing goals and customer satisfaction and loyalty 1. Product 2. Place 3. Price 4. Promotion - Service Quality dimensions These refer to specific factors that may be used to evaluate the quality of services provided by businesses. - Tangibles physical aspects of a business such as staff appearance, equipment, stores - Reliability meeting and exceeding customer expectations - Responsiveness Helping customers and providing good service - Assurance Inspiring trust and confidence - Empathy Shwoing genuine concern and care for customers - Integrated Marketing Communications Elements (IMC) Includes the tools used to reach target audiences in marketing. Example: The elements of Promotion (the 4th P of the marketing mix) - Personal Selling - Public Relations - Direct Marketing - Sales Promotion - Advertising - Publicity - Online and Interactive Channels +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | **Medium** | **Definition** | **Strength** | **Weakness** | +=================+=================+=================+=================+ | Personal | salesperson | Improves | High-cost | | Selling | interacts with | relationships | | | | | with customers | Time consuming | | | potential | | | | | customers to | | Dependance on | | | persuade them | | salesperson | | | to | | | | | | | | | | purchase a | | | | | product or | | | | | service | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Public | Maintaining a | Low cost | Time consuming | | Relations | positive image | | | | | about the | Enhances brand | Dependant on | | | company/busines | image | external | | | s. | | channels | | | Managing | Builds good | | | | communication | relationships | Difficult to | | | between media | | control the | | | and its | | message | | | stakeholders | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Direct | Offers directed | Send direct | Could be seen | | Marketing | at specific | messages | as intrusive | | | individuals, | | and raise | | | elicitinga | Target specific | privacy | | | direct response | audiences | concerns | | | such as a | | | | | purchase | Drive immediate | Relies on | | | | action | accurate | | | | | consumer data | | | | Cost-effective | | | | | to foster | | | | | long-term | | | | | customer | | | | | relationships | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Sales | short-term | Effective in | May lead to | | Promotions | marketing | short-term | profit margin | | | | sales | erosion | | | activities | | | | | designed to | Drive new | Customers | | | encourage | customers | expect | | | consumers to | | discounts | | | make a purchase | Buils brand | everytime | | | or to engage in | loyalty | | | | other actions | | Risk of | | | (e.g. visit a | | diluting the | | | website, | | brand's value | | | subscribe to a | | | | | website, take | | | | | part in a | | | | | | | | | | competition, | | | | | etc.). These | | | | | can include | | | | | discounts, | | | | | | | | | | coupons, | | | | | contests, | | | | | giveaways, | | | | | loyalty | | | | | programmes, | | | | | | | | | | or special | | | | | offers. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Advertising | paid form of | Good control | Non-personal | | | communication | over message | | | | used | content | Expensive | | | | | | | | by businesses, | | Can be missed | | | organisations | | or ignored due | | | or individuals | | to cluttered | | | to | | content | | | | | | | | promote | | | | | products, | | | | | services, ideas | | | | | or causes to a | | | | | | | | | | target | | | | | audience. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Publicity | public | Reaches wide | Unpredictable | | | visibility or | audience | | | | awareness of a | | Media coverage | | | | Highly credible | relies on | | | person, | | editorial | | | organisation, | Enhances brand | discretion | | | product, or | reputation | | | | event, | | | | | | | | | | typically | | | | | achieved | | | | | through media | | | | | coverage or | | | | | | | | | | other external | | | | | communications. | | | | | Unlike | | | | | | | | | | advertising, | | | | | publicity is | | | | | earned rather | | | | | than paid | | | | | | | | | | for. Involves | | | | | word-of-mouth | | | | | marketing. | | | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ | Online and | technologies | Cost-effective | Can be fake | | Interactive | that facilitate | | news | | channels | | Happen in | | | | communication | real-time | Reduced | | | through the | | emotional | | | | Personalised | connections | | | internet | | w/individuals | +-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+-----------------+ - The 6M model of marketing communications The 6M Model of marketing communications is a framework used to help marketers plan and execute their communication strategies effectively. 1. **Mission** Includes objectives and what the company wants to achieve 2. **Money** refers to the financial resources allocated to the marketing communication campaign. This budget dictates the scope of the campaign, the media choices, and the resources available for creative production. 3. **Message** The content or message that needs to be delivered to the target audience. Includes what is said and how soemthing is said (message content and structure) 4. **Media** The media refers to the channels or platforms used to deliver the marketing message to the target audience. This could include traditional media (TV, radio, print), digital media (social media, websites, email), or direct communication methods (personal selling, events). 5. **Market** The market refers to the target audience for the communication campaign. 6. **Measurement** Measurement is about assessing the effectiveness of the marketing communication campaign. Marketers need to track the success of the campaign against the defined objectives and make adjustments as needed. **Video Production** - What is Video production? Video production is similar to cinema but cheaper and faster to distribute. It ranges from films, to TV shows, to YouTube videos, commercials, music videos, social media and more. It requires: - Storytelling - Organisation - Visions - Ideas (any storytelling begins with an idea) - Video Production includes manipulating people emotionally through a sequence of moving images - What factors affect the way we look at a video? - Location and environment - Seating - Screen size - Shots and framing - Where does an idea come from? Ideas are all around us. We can get an idea from an individual we witness on the street, observing an act of kindness, a piece of music that moves us etc... - Emotion is the most important thing in any Video-Production - SHOW DON'T TELL - Fiction vs Non-Fiction The distinction between fiction and non-fiction lies in whether the content is based on real events or imagined scenarios. **Fiction:** - Drama series - Comedy Series - Soap Operas - Cartoons - Animations **Non-Fiction:** - News - Quiz shows - Sports events - Travel - Cooking shows - Reality shows - Types of programmes Live or pre-recorded: Reality shows, talk shows, sports programmes, music shows, game shows - Live Audio Visual Broadcast Production Team Control Room Transmission Room Service Provider - Live/Recorded Audio Visual Broadcast Location Portable Device SM platform server - Pre-Recorded Audio Visual Broadcast Producers Server Transmission Room Antenna or Service Provider - The 5 stages of the Production Process 1. **Script Development** Ensures that film making runs with minimal issues. Includes planning, financing, story refinement etc 2. **Pre-Production** Everything that needs to be done before the filming starts. Such as research, casting, more financing, location scouting, set constructing, shooting schedules etc 3. **Production** Includes filming and adding special effects 4. **Post-Production** Editing, Titles and graphics, sound tracks, colour correction etc 5. **Distribution** Distribution strategies with targeted and innovative marketing efforts. Such as screenings, events, PR, Publicity, Film release, Film festivals, Video-on-demand platforms - Persistence of vision the afterimage after an image on retina inability to see gaps between frames - beta movement 'fixed' images that 'move' - phi phenomenon creation of a moving object from alternating states **Gender** - The difference of sex vs gender Sex is the Biological difference -- the internal and external sex organs, reproductive difference that do not change over time, place, or culture. Gender is fundamental to our identity and changes over time and space. Characteristics that a society or culture delineates as masculine or feminine, and how these notions are applied to people based on their sex. Gender roles are socially constructed behaviours, activities, and attributes that a given society considers appropriate for men and women. - Sexual Orientation An individual's physical or emotional connection to a person of the same or opposite sex. LGBTIQ+, which stands for lesbian, gay, bisexual, transgender, intersex, queer (or questioning), has become the common shorthand to inclusively reference this diverse set of sexuality and gender based identities and communities. - Gender issues in the media We use the media to judge others and ourselves, and therefore, the media plays a key role is shaping social practices (individual behaviours). The media is quick in stereotyping, marginalizing etc - Gender inequality in Society refers to the social, economic, and political disparities between individuals based on their gender. In many societies, this inequality disproportionately affects women, although it can also apply to people of other genders, such as transgender and non-binary individuals. Gender inequality is a significant issue for several reasons, with deep-rooted historical, cultural, and structural factors contributing to its persistence. Houselholds with women as the main provider are more likely to suffer from poverty - Stereotyping Stereotyping is when we produce a convenient mental picture of what something is like, based on faulty generalizations rather than facts. - Women in the Media - Women are under-represented in the media workforce, particularly at senior, decision making levels. - Barriers to women's participation in the workforce include direct and indirect discrimination, inadequate access to mentors and support networks, and inflexible workplace structures that do not meet the needs of women who have childcare responsibilities.  - Advertising is one genre that systematically depicts women as objects, uses men to speak for women, stereotypes women in the worst roles and places them in the binary of 'young, sexy, skinny and stupid' - Women make up only 25% of the persons seen, heard, or read about in newspaper, radio, and television news (only 1% more than they did in 2015). In contrast, 3 out of 4 of the people who appeared in the news were male. - The Global Media Monitoring Project (GMMP) The largest and longest running reasearch on gender in the media, and the largest advocacy on changing women's representation in the media. **Their aims:** - Map the potrayl of women in the world's news media - Develop research instrument - Build solidarity among gender and communication groups worldwide - Create Media awareness - Develop media monitoring skills on an international level **Film Studies** - The Power of film - Film is a powerful emotional experience - Filmmskers bring stories to life - But how is film an experience - Through quick cuts which provide a sense of danger - Setting the scene - Through editing, for example manipulating the point of view - Shifts in time manipulate space and time through camera techniques and editing - The Film Artist The director is the film artist- today's films are sold on the basis of who their director is. The director conveys meaning and a personal vision. The film artists chooses from a variety of creative techniques: - Mis-en-scene (such as setting, lighting, costumes, hair and makeup etc) - Cinematography - Editing - Sound - From idea to film exhibition: 12 steps 1. Idea initiated by producer/director/writer 2. Company buys the idea 3. Developing the script 4. Producer raises financing for the film through the company 5. Pre-Production 6. Production 7. Post-production 8. Getting a sales agent 9. Film Festival exhibition 10. Market your film 11. Selling the film to distributors 12. Theathrical exhibition by distributors - The Business of Film - Bollywood- biggest film industry in terms of films produced - Hollywood- biggest film industry in terms of money and global reach (dominated by franchises) - Nollywood- In Nigeria, Europe, Asia, Australia **Photography** - What is photography? - Camera Obscura It is a box-shaped device or room that lets light in through a small opening on one of its sides. The light reflected from the chosen subject outside of the box passes through the pinhole and is inverted and projected onto a surface on a smaller scale inside the encased area opposite the hole. The subject could then be traced. - The very first image was developed in 1827 - Daguerrotype The daguerreotype was the first commercially successful photographic process. The daguerreotype involved exposing a polished metal plate (typically made of copper or silver-plated copper) to light. Invented by Louis Daguerre. - Calotype Inventor William Henry Fox Talbot came up with the calotype process, which enabled the recording of photos on paper.  - The Kodak Revolution Kodak produced and released the first-ever roll-film hand camera, invented and marketed by George Eastman (1854-1932). It was a simple box camera that came loaded with a 100-exposure roll of film. - Digital Single Lens Reflex DSLRs cameras use a mirror angled at 45 degrees inside the camera body. - Lenses Lenses alter your relationshoip with your subject and the way you take photos - The Light meter The in-built meter found inside cameras measures light reflecting off a subject and then calculates an appropriate shutter speed and apeture size for the correct exposure. **Internal light meters** (or built-in light meters) are essential tools in modern cameras, designed to measure the amount of light that enters the lens and helps photographers achieve proper exposure. Exposure refers to how light or dark an image appears, and achieving the correct exposure is critical for capturing high-quality photographs. - Photography ancestors - Stephen Shore - William Eggleston - Viivian Maier - Henri Cartier-Bresson **Human Communications** - Definition - Shannon and Weaver (1949) define human communication as "all the procedures by which one mind influences another". - It is also defined as giving and receiving information/ideas through media - Intrapersonal Communication - Listening to your own body, for example hunger, being tired means we are in a state of sleep deprivation. - This is important as it makes us aware of the dangers around us. Also becoming aware of emotions such as apathy, anger, sadness. Ignoring these is a risk to one's life. - Interpersonal Communication - My interactions with others in the conetxt of a small group. Here one learns to express their emotions and trust themselves and others, learn language skills, express empathy etc... - These can be verbal or non-verbal - Communication models - Explain what happens when we communicate - Source receiver message feedback (the most basic model) - The basic model was then elaborated  - Communication through social media Today, more and more communication happen through social media. Within this setup communication flows are targeted toward individuals who, often, respond through the use of technology. An example of contemporary communication is video games. - User-generated content (UGC) refers to any type of content---such as text, images, videos, reviews, or other media---created by users or consumers rather than by professional content creators or brands. UGC is typically shared on digital platforms like social media, blogs, websites, or review sites.  - Organizational Communication - An organization is a group of persons bonded together - The entity as a signle voice can communicate internally and externally - Internal organization is keeping the whiole organization functioning (staff, management etc) - External ties the organization to other organizations such as suppliers, competitors, buyers etc - Intercultural communication Makes us aware of our cultural differences and overcome conflicts due to such differences **Visual Art and Design** - In art, Context creates meaning - What is a work of art? - Art is a creative expression - The imagination of an artists that evokes emotion - It is an aesthetic value - Artistic Activity Understood as experiencxe in context. A man's earliest artistic activity is Cave Paintings. - Cave Paintings Resulted from their creator's understanding of animal forms. They had a magical purprose for the tribal socities that created them. These tribes performed magic rituals using these images as sacred icons. - Icons A person/thing that is a representative symbol for something - Iconography The illustration of a subject through drawing figures. Hnadwriting is also considered as iconography - Culture Culture is linked to lifestyle and identity. It is learned knowledge, beliefs and values. Moreover... - Visual Culture Is the tangible expressions of a culture. Has to do with evryday life, such as buildings, adverts, landscapes etc **Screen-based:** Websites, TV, blogs, series **Print-based:** Billboards, magazines, books, packaging **Ambient:** Architecture, interior design, lanscape **Artistic- Expression:** Theatre, sculpture, photography - Graphic Design - Is the art of visual communication - Communicate a specific message to a specific audience, within specific limitations (example: cultural, financial) - Design is about finidng a balance - Form vs Function - Expression vs Clarity - Verbal vs Visual - Text vs Image - The Design Process The double-diamond approach is a visual map to illustrate the 4 distinct stages of the design process across all design disciplines. Discover Define Develop Deliver **Discover:** Includes divergent thinking and looking at the world from different perspectives **Define:** Includes convergent thinking and trying to make sense of possibilities and ideas. The goal is developing a clear and creative brief **Develop:** The divergent design. Concepts and created, prototyped and tested. Lots of trial and error helps designers improve and refine ideas. **Deliver:** The convergent Design. The project is finalised, produced and launched - What is an Illustration? An illustration is a visual representation created to complement, explain, or enhance a concept, story, or idea. It is typically a drawing, painting, or digital image that serves a specific purpose, such as to clarify text, add aesthetic value, or convey a narrative. Illustrations can appear in books, magazines, advertisements, websites, packaging, and many other forms of media. **Communicating with Audio** - Hertz (Hz) Is the unit of frequency, which measures the number of cycles per second; one Hertz is equal to 1 cycle per second - Frequency - Frequency refers to amount of times a sound wave oscillates per second, measured in Hz - The higher the frequency, the higher the pitch of the sound - Standard Hertz (Hz) numbers - 20Hz - 20,000Hz theoretical range of human hearing - 80Hz -- 4000Hz Human voice range (higher for females) - 44,100Hz CD quality  - Decibles (dB) - Decibles measure the amplitude of the sound wave. - The larger the amplitude, the louder the volume - Also known as intensity - (high intensity= high volume) - (low intensity= low volume) - Standard Decible (dB) numbers - 0dB treshold of human hearing; we cannot hear anything less - 96 dB 16 bit recording - 144dB 24 bit recording - Dynamic Range The difference between the lowest and the highest sounds in recording - Tracking When we are recording audio either from a vocal source (microphone) or from instrument input - Gain, Volume and Level - Gain = the input signal/loudness that our signal is being recorded at. This is controlled from either the interface or the preamplifiers that our microphone/instrument is plugged into. - Level = the loudness in the mixer in relation to unity gain - Volume = the output signal - Equalisation (EQ) The process of adjusting the balance between different frequency components of an audio signal. EQ allows you to manipulate the frequency spectrum of an audio signal (like music, speech, or sound effects). You can boost (make louder) or cut (make lower) specific frequencies. - Compression Compression is done to control the dynamic range of our audio. It reduces the distance between the lodest and the softest sounds in our track. The compressor needs to start working at treshold level. The ratio is how much compression we want to apply to our signal..example: 1:1 = no compression 2:1 = 1dB output for every 2dB above treshold 4:1 = 1dB output for every 2dB above treshold Hard Knee = compressor comes in hard once the treshold level is reached Soft Knee = Compressor comes in more gradually Attack Time = how quickly input signal starts being compressed once it goes above the treshold level (milliseconds) Release Time = how quickly input signal stops being compressed once the signal goes below the treshold level (milliseconds) - Important terms DAW Digital Audio Workstation MIDI Musical Instrument Digital Interface AD/DA Analog to Digital/Digital to Analog ADSR Attack Decay Sustain Release **Digital Games** - What is a game? - "games have family resemblances"- describes different components that are in different games (Ludwig Wittgenstein) - "A game is voluntary activity, sperate in time and space, uncertain, unproductive, governed by rules, contains make-believe (Roger Caillos) - Is a winning confition necessary in games? No; animal crossing has an open structure with no clear goals, vs Tetris, which has a traditional winning condition - Digital games as a narrative media "to claim there is no difference between games and narratives is to ignore essential qualities of both categories" (Aarseth 1997) - Components of a Game In a game, we are interested in: - Its material components and objects - The game system, rules and procedures - The player experience