Exam 2 Study Guide PDF

Species of hominins to know: 1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis（查德沙赫人） -Lived 7-6 million years ago in West/Central Africa. -Had relatively small canine teeth and a small brain, even smaller than a modern chimpanzee. -There is very limited fossil evidence available for this species 2. Ardipithec...

Species of hominins to know: 1. Sahelanthropus tchadensis（查德沙赫人） -Lived 7-6 million years ago in West/Central Africa. -Had relatively small canine teeth and a small brain, even smaller than a modern chimpanzee. -There is very limited fossil evidence available for this species 2. Ardipithecus ramidus（阿尔迪母猿） -Lived 4.4 million years ago in East Africa. -Possessed a more bowl-shaped pelvis that allowed for some bipedal walking but also retained features suited for climbing, such as a grasping, un-arched foot. -Brain size was similar to that of a modern chimpanzee​ 3. Australopithecus afarensis（阿法南方古猿） - Lived 3.8-2.1 million years ago in East Africa. - Characterized by large zygomatic arches (thick chewing muscles) and a smaller cranial capacity compared to the genus Homo. - Famous example: "Lucy," an adult female found in Hadar, Ethiopia, with a significant portion of her skeleton recovered​ 4. Paranthropus boisei（鲍氏傍人） -Lived 2.3-1.3 million years ago in East Africa. -Known for "megadontia," meaning it had large molar teeth relative to body size, with the thickest tooth enamel among hominins. -Had robust features, including a sagittal crest and massive zygomatic arches for attaching large chewing muscles​ 5. Homo habilis（能人） -Lived between 2.8 and 1.44 million years ago, still confined to Africa. -This species resembles the Australopithecines and was better at tree climbing than modern humans. -Known as the "Handy Man" due to its presumed ability to make tools, particularly Oldowan tools. 6. Homo erectus（直立人） -Lived from 1.9 to 0.5 million years ago and was the first hominin to migrate out of Africa, adapting to various environments across Asia. -Associated with technological advancements such as Acheulean tools, which were more symmetrical and varied compared to earlier tools. -Homo erectus was also linked with the use of fire, which allowed for survival in cold climates, cooking food, and parasite control​ 7. Homo neanderthalensis（尼安德特人） -Lived between 300,000 and 30,000 years ago, primarily in Europe and Western Asia. -Stockier and more robust than modern humans, Neanderthals are known for interbreeding with anatomically modern humans. -Neanderthals demonstrated care for one another, as seen in Shanidar 1, who lived for many years with severe injuries. -Associated with Mousterian tools, which involved specialized tool-making techniques like the Levallois method 8. Homo sapiens (AMF)（人类） -Emerged around 300,000 years ago with larger cranial capacity and smaller teeth compared to earlier hominins. -AMH are known for increasingly specialized tools, such as blade tools, and their eventual global migration, adapting to a wide range of environments Skull features to know: 1. Sagittal crest A bony ridge along the top of the skull to which chewing muscles attach. This feature is associated with robust hominins like Paranthropus boisei, which needed large muscles for chewing tough or abrasive foods 2. Zygomatic arches Also known as cheekbones, they provide space for the attachment of large chewing muscles. The larger the zygomatic arches, the more powerful the chewing muscles that can be supported​ 3. Brow ridge A prominent ridge of bone above the eye sockets. It is a feature used to distinguish between various hominin species​ 4. Dentition Refers to the size and shape of teeth. In hominins, changes in dentition include smaller canines, reduced shearing, and wider, shorter jaws compared to earlier species​ 5. Cranial capacity The volume of the braincase. 6. Foramen magnum “The opening at the base of the skull where the spinal cord enters and connects to the brain. In humans, the foramen magnum is anterior (under the skull, towards the center/front) to balance the head on the upright body. 7. Shared vs. derived characteristics Shared Characteristics:”Traits or structures that are shared by all or most species in a group because they are inherited from a common ancestor.” Derived Characteristics:”Traits unique to a species that evolved after two or more species who have shared a common ancestor diverged.” The three hominin derived traits we will focus on: 1. Our brains. 2. Our teeth. 3. Locomotion (how we move around). 8. Unique human morphological characteristics (bipedalism, brains, teeth) Bipedalism: Walking on two legs, supported by skeletal adaptations like the foramen magnum, lumbar lordosis, and pelvic structure. Brains: Humans have much larger brains, requiring more energy and longer development periods. Teeth: Smaller canines and a reduced shearing complex, reflecting changes in diet​ 9. Advantages and disadvantages of bipedalism 10. Skeletal changes for bipedality - foramen magnum: Positioned centrally under the skull to balance the head. - lumbar lordosis The “S” shaped curvature of the spine, which allows for the upper body to be stabilized over the hips and lower limbs. - bowl shaped pelvis(iliac blades) Shorter and broader iliac blades. A “bowl-shaped” pelvis in hominins has a stabilizing function. It helps to hold up the internal organs and allows for bigger muscles to attach, both allow for upright walking. - longer lower limbs Provide efficiency in walking and running. - angled femur and widened tibial plateau Inward-angled femur brings support of the lower limbs under the body/center of mass. The tibial plateau (the place where the tibia meets the femur at the knee) is broad enough to disperse force and act as a shock absorber. - foot as a stable platform(big toe in line with rest of the foot in Homo and Australopithecus as opposed to an opposed big toe in Pan and Ardipithcus) Human foot is a platform for upright walking, and the arch absorbs shock. This means, however, that our big toes are smaller and do not grasp. 11. Differences between chimp and human dentition Humans have smaller canines, no diastema (gap for large canines), and a reduced shearing complex compared to chimps​ 12. Hominin Hominini: “The tribe to which humans and our direct ancestors belong, who are referred to as hominins.” Modern humans and now-extinct human hospecies. From about 7 mya (million years ago) on, we find fossil evidence of hominins. Not the same as hominoid (apes and humans). 13. Rarity of hominin fossils Fossilization is a rare process, requiring specific conditions. Many fossil records of hominins are limited due to these challenging conditions​ 14. Traits of Australopithecines 3.8-2.1 million years ago East Africa Thick chewing muscles (large zygomatic arches). Growth cycle closer to modern chimpanzees than modern humans (short growth period, less time for socialization). Smaller cranial capacity than Genus Homo. 15. Lucy's bipedal features 16. Laetoli Footprints These are fossilized footprints discovered in Tanzania, dating back to 3.6 million years ago, providing evidence of bipedalism in early hominins​ 17. Hominin lineages (Paranthropus vs. Homo) Paranthropus is associated with more robust traits like large teeth and strong chewing muscles, while Homo evolved larger brains and more reliance on tools and culture 18. Fur loss in later hominins Later hominins evolved to have less fur, which may have been related to sweat and heat regulation as they adapted to different climates​ 19. Homo habilis (location, characteristics, Oldowan tools) 2.8-1.44 million years ago. Still only in Africa. Looks a lot like the Australopithecines, better at tree climbing than we are. Its place in the Genus Homo has been questioned because of similarity to the Australopithecines. Olduwan tools were initially associated with Homo Habilis, but now we know that tool making goes back at least to 3.3 million years ago. 20. Homo erectus (location, characteristics, Acheulean tools, fire use) 1.9-0.5 million years ago. First known migration of member of the genus Homo outside of Africa and into Asia, adapts to a wider variety of landscapes than previous hominins. Acheulean tools are more symmetrical than Olduwan tools. Bifacial flaking produces a “handaxe.” They have better edges, follow predetermined forms, and are more varied in style. 21. Fire benefits for hominins Intentionally-made fire/hearths at Homo Erectus sites (ashes, burned animal bones). Warmth for survival in cold climates. This means hominins can reasonably live in a wider range of climate. Cooking food allows for a wider variety of foods to be consumed and makes it easier to chew, affecting chewing muscles. Kills the parasites in meat during the process of cooking. 22. Neanderthal findings (Shanidar 1, Shanidar 3, La Chapelle-Aux-Saints 1) Shanidar1: Lived into his 40s or 50s. missing hand, withered arm, fractured skull. He survived many years, around 2 decades, after the injuries were inflicted. Strong evidence for Neanderthals helping to care for one another and living in groups. Looking after vulnerable community members (compassion?). La Chapelle-Aux-Saints 1: The Old Man of La Chapelle,” erroneously framed as a hunched, “primitive caveman.” 23. Neanderthal genome sequencing (Pääbo) Svante Pääbo and collogues successfully sequenced the genome. Between 1-4% of Neanderthal DNA has been incorporated with the DNA of some modern humans. Neanderthal DNA could have been initially beneficial to modern humans, although it may not be as beneficial today. 24. Genetic relationship between Neanderthals and AMH AMH: 300,000 years ago. Bigger cranial capacity. Smaller teeth. (Eventual) makers of the Lord of the Rings film trilogy 25. What happened to Neanderthals Neanderthals interbred with AMH but eventually went extinct, though the exact reasons are still debated 26. Tools associated with species (Oldowan, Acheulean, Mousterian, Levallois, Blade, Microliths, Pottery) Homo habilis: Oldowan tools. Homo erectus: Acheulean tools. Neanderthals: Mousterian tools (Levallois technique). AMH: Blade tools 27. Tool specialization As hominins evolved, tools became increasingly specialized, with different types designed for specific tasks, reflecting cognitive and cultural advances​ Archaeology: 1. Symbolic expression (Lascaux cave, Venus figurines) The archaeological evidence of creative expression, such as paintings and sculptures, that fulfill symbolic or artistic purposes rather than functional ones. 2. Venus of Willendorf A figurine from Austria dating to approximately 25,000 years ago, often associated with fertility due to its exaggerated female features. The name "Venus" is a reflection of how modern interpretations are applied to ancient artifacts​. 3. Artifact Any object made or modified by humans that is not just a physical item but also holds cultural meanings, relationships, and processes within the society it originated from​. 4. Materiality The quality of being physical or material. In archaeology, materiality focuses on how objects are not just physical entities but are also imbued with cultural meanings and relationships​. 5. Site/Habitation Site A location where evidence of past human life or activity can be discerned. Habitation sites specifically refer to places where people lived at some point in the past​. 6. Archaeological methods (find at least 2 methods) 1.Excavation: The process of systematically digging and recovering artifacts from a site, often preceded by test pits. 2.Remote Sensing: A non-invasive method that uses technologies like magnetic surveys to produce schematics of a site, providing a broader picture with less disturbance than excavation. 7. Stratigraphy The study of layers (strata) of deposits in archaeological sites. It helps archaeologists understand the sequence of historical events based on the order of deposits​. 8.Archaeology as a “destructive” science Refers to the fact that excavation permanently alters a site. Once a context is excavated, it cannot be replicated, which necessitates careful documentation throughout the process​. 9. Describing material objects (Stocking’s 7 dimensions) Height Width Depth Time/History Power Wealth Aesthetics 10. 3 ways objects change 1.Material Change: The physical form or use of the object changes over time. 2.Meaning Change: The social significance of the object shifts due to changing contexts. 3."Hands" Change: The object passes into different hands, altering its meaning and use, such as when a functional object becomes a museum piece​. 11. NAGPRA The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) is a U.S. law that requires the repatriation of human remains, grave goods, and important cultural objects to the Native American tribes from whom they originated​. 12. Ethics of excavation, display, and storage Concerns the questions of ownership and interpretation of artifacts, including whether descendants of the creators should have rights over the artifacts, and who has the authority to display and interpret them​. 13. Slack Farm Refers to the tragic looting of a Mississippian habitation site in Kentucky in 1987, where looters desecrated over 1,000 graves. This incident led to increased awareness and legislative changes regarding archaeological site protection. 14. Repatriation The return of human remains or cultural artifacts to the descendants of the people to whom they originally belonged. 15. Food production and inequality The transition to food production, such as farming, led to increased social stratification and inequality due to differences in land ownership and surplus production​. - Neolithic revolution (criteria) A society is considered Neolithic when it transitions from foraging to agriculture, marking the beginning of food production and sedentary lifestyles​. - Ramifications of food production Include social stratification, population growth, changes in diet, sedentism, and technological advancements​. - Sedentism effects Refers to the transition from nomadic lifestyles to settled communities, which led to the development of permanent structures, social complexity, and surplus food production​. - Çatal Hüyük An early Neolithic settlement in present-day Turkey known for its densely packed houses and early signs of social organization and food production​. - Mohenjo Daro An ancient city from the Indus Valley civilization, notable for its advanced urban planning, including drainage systems and organized street grids​. - Plant and animal domestication results The domestication process led to genetic changes in plants and animals, such as increased yield and adaptability to human needs​. - Changes in domesticated plants Domesticated plants typically become larger, easier to harvest, and more uniform, with traits that benefit human use. 16. 4 adaptive strategies (Foraging, Horticulture, Pastoralism, Agriculture) Foraging: Hunting and gathering. Horticulture: Less intensive cultivation using simple tools. Pastoralism: Raising livestock, often involving seasonal movement. Agriculture: More intensive farming using advanced techniques​. 17. Terrace farming (Inca site of Moray) An agricultural technique used by the Incas that involves building step-like terraces on mountain slopes to increase arable land and conserve water​. Power: 1. State and Empire The terms "state" and "empire" refer to different forms of political organization. A state is an independent political entity recognized by other states, with a population that shares a single national identity. It is marked by social stratification, a judiciary for dispute resolution, and the enforcement of conformity through military or police forces. An empire, while not directly mentioned, typically expands a state's control over other territories or peoples through conquest or diplomacy. 2. Social stratification in early states (pyramids in Egypt, Royal Standard of Ur) Social stratification refers to the differentiation of society into classes. The Royal Standard of Ur shows the division between monarchs, nobles, artisans, and laborers, while the pyramids in Egypt symbolize the hierarchical power structure with an upper class of elites having hereditary privileges. Social ranking in these contexts is often based on birth and kinship​. 3. 4 components of state systems Defining membership (Who is "in"): States define their populations through borders, citizenship categories, and administrative subdivisions. Economic support: States enforce legally binding expectations, such as taxes, that citizens must contribute. Judiciary for dispute resolution: States have legal codes and procedures to manage crimes and conflicts, often handled by judges or other officials. Enforcing conformity: Permanent military or police forces are used to maintain order and combat internal or external threats. 4. Power, Wealth, Authority, Prestige Power: The ability to control and influence others. Wealth: Material assets and private property. Authority: The official or legal use of power, often associated with a formal role or office. Prestige: Social admiration based on achievements or qualities​. 5. Political power The process through which people create, compete for, and use power to achieve goals that are presumed to benefit the community. It involves decision-making, compromise, and cooperation, as well as structural power relationships that transcend individual actions. 6. Resistance (overt vs. covert) Resistance is the refusal to comply with authority or power. Overt resistance is public, collective, and highly visible, such as protests. Covert resistance is private, anonymous, and hidden, like subtle acts of defiance that avoid direct confrontation​. 7. Social control mechanisms - Hegemony A form of social control where the dominant ideology is so widely accepted that it seems natural or common sense to those within the system, even if it harms certain groups. It causes people to internalize the values of the dominant group. - Surveillance The monitoring and recording of individuals to gather information and manage opposition or non-conformity. This can occur in physical and digital spaces, with the mere possibility of being watched serving as a tool for social control. - Panopticon (as metaphor for surveillance) Originally an architectural design by Jeremy Bentham for prisons, the panopticon creates a sense of constant surveillance, where inmates self-regulate because they never know if they are being watched. Michel Foucault extended this concept as a metaphor for how modern societies use surveillance to maintain power and control. Language: 1. Language vs. Dialect A dialect is a regional or social variety of a single language. The distinction is somewhat arbitrary, with the saying, “A language is a dialect with an army and a navy,” suggesting that sociopolitical factors often define what constitutes a language versus a dialect 2. Call systems vs. Language Call systems consist of patterned sounds or utterances used by nonhuman primates in response to stimuli. Unlike language, call systems cannot be combined to produce different meanings and lack the complexity of human language​ 3. Communication vs. Language Communication is a broad term that includes any information transmission between animals, like sounds made by birds or dolphins. Language, however, is systematic, symbolic, and governed by grammatical rules​ 4. Phoneme and Minimal Pair A phoneme is a distinct sound in a language. Minimal pairs are pairs of words that differ by only one sound (e.g., “pen” and “pan”), illustrating the distinct sounds in a language​ 5. Morpheme (Free vs. Bound), Affix A morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning in a language. Free morphemes stand alone (like “eat”), while bound morphemes need to attach to others (like affixes -er, -s)​ 6. Phonology The systematic pattern of sounds in a language, or its sound system​ 7. Morphology The structure of words and the process of word formation within a language​ 8. Language and describing non-present events Language allows humans to describe events or things that are not immediately present, enabling discussions of the past, future, or abstract concepts​ 9. Productivity The linguistic ability to create new expressions or meanings that others can understand, illustrating language’s adaptability and capacity for innovation​ 10. Lexicon The complete vocabulary of a language, including all its morphemes​ 11. Syntax The arrangement of words to form sentences and phrases in a language​ 12. Focal vocabulary Specialized sets of terms significant to a specific culture or group, reflecting the importance of certain distinctions within that group 13. Nonverbal communication (Kinesics, Second-order information) Nonverbal communication includes transmitting information through body movements and expressions. Kinesics studies these body movements, while second-order information involves background context that helps interpret words in a particular situation​ 14. Code switching The practice of alternating between different languages or speech styles within a conversation, often reflecting shifts in social context or power dynamics​ 15. AAVE and SAE African American Vernacular English (AAVE) is a linguistically structured dialect with grammatical rules, while Standard American English (SAE) is often considered the institutional standard. AAVE, although linguistically legitimate, has been stigmatized compared to SAE 16. Language ideologies Widely held beliefs about the relative status or sophistication of certain languages or dialects, often associating them with identity, social standing, or morality​ 17. Luu reading (argument) Luu argues that language ideologies can link certain types of speech to identity and social bias, where so-called “bad grammar” affects social outcomes. Despite being seen as “low prestige,” AAVE carries covert prestige and contributes significantly to lexical innovation in English