Exam I Review PDF

EXAM I CHAPTER 1 – Introduction – This chapter sets the stage for our future explorations into the psychology of women by considering the question "Why study the psychology of women?" and establishes basic definitions and research practices. 1 Define the terms gender and sex...

EXAM I CHAPTER 1 – Introduction – This chapter sets the stage for our future explorations into the psychology of women by considering the question "Why study the psychology of women?" and establishes basic definitions and research practices. 1 Define the terms gender and sex (the widely-held definitions, not how these terms are used in the textbook), and the difference between the two. · Gender: either of the two sexes (male and female), especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences, (not biological). The term is also used more broadly to denote a range of identities that do not correspond to established ideas of male and female. · Sex: either of the two main categories (male and female) into which humans and most other living things are divided on the basis of their reproductive functions. · Difference: sex is about your body, gender is about who you feel yourself to be, and sexual orientation is about to whom you’re attracted to sexually. 1 Describe differences between quantitative analyses and qualitative analysis in research.  Quantitative: Emphasizes objectivity and control Uses quantitative measures Compares participant responses to others or a standard).  Qualitative: Emphasizes subjective procedures focuses on women’s accounts of their own experience Attempts to capture each participant’s unique perspective). 1 Define sexism: Discrimination or bias against people based on their gender. Sometimes also called sex bias. 1 Describe the three forms of sexism : a Modern sexism: (also called neosexism) — subtle prejudiced beliefs about women. a Hostile sexism: negative, hostile attitudes toward women and adversarial beliefs about gender relations in which women are thought to spend most of their time trying to control men, through sexuality or feminism. a Benevolent sexism: beliefs about women that seem to the perpetrator to be kind or benevolent—in which women are honored and put on the proverbial pedestal. 1 What is the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?   A hypothesis is an attempt to explain phenomena. It is a proposal, a guess used to understand and/or predict something.  A theory is the result of testing a hypothesis and developing an explanation that is assumed to be true about something. o A theory replaces the hypothesis after testing confirms the hypothesis or the hypothesis is modified and tested again until predictable results occur. 1 Describe each of the five basic research designs (naturalistic observation, archival analysis, surveys, experiments, quasi-experiments). 1.) Naturalistic observation: involves covertly or overtly watching subjects’ behaviors in their natural environment, without intervention.  Naturalistic observation is a common research method in behavioral sciences such as sociology and psychology. 2.) Archival analysis: collecting data from sources that already exist. Common examples of archival research sources are census records or survey data that was collected in the past. 3.) Surveys: look carefully and thoroughly at (someone or something), especially so as to appraise them. 4.) Experiments: a scientific procedure undertaken to make a discovery, test a hypothesis, or demonstrate a known fact. 5.) Quasi-experiments: [not a true experiment (doesn’t have random groups)]  A research study that compares two or more groups of participants on their response to a treatment without randomly assigning the participants to the treatment conditions 1 Why are experiments investigating sex differences called quasi- experiments? a Participants can’t be randomly assigned to a male/female group because they are either male/female. b Participant’s gender can’t be manipulated. 1 What are the basic steps of experimental design? How is the empirical process “self-correcting”? a Theoretical Model -> Formulate a Question -> Design the Research -> Collect Data -> Analyze Data Statistically -> Interpret Results -> Publish Results -> Results read by scientist and incorporated into existing body of scientific knowledge. b After getting the results and interpret them, it could be found that a mistake was made, so the researcher have to go back to the theoretical model (from step 6 back to step 1).  c Other one is when the results are read by a scientists and find a contradiction or mistake, then the writer have to go back to the beginning (from step 8 to step 1). 1 (not completed)Discuss where and how biases can be introduced into the various stages of research design. a Bias in Theory: The theoretical model or set of assumptions the scientist begins with has a profound effect on the outcome of the research. a Ex: Frued, A person with a psychoanalytic orientation might design research to document the presence of penis envy or immature superego in women; someone with a different theoretical orientation wouldn’t even think to ask such questions. b. Bias in Research Design: c. Bias in data collection d. Bias in Interpretation of results: e. Bias in Publishing findings: f. Bias against female scientist: 1 What is a female deficit interpretation? a interpreting findings in a way that suggests female weakness or inferiority. 1 Define experimenter effects. a When some characteristics of the experimenter affect the way participants behave, thus affecting the research outcome. 1 Define observer effects. a When expectations affect observations and recording of the data. 1 What is overgeneralization, and why is it dangerous? a Overgeneralization: a research error in which the results are said to apply to a broader group than the one sampled, for example, saying that results from an all-male sample are true for all people. i Researchers discuss and interpret the results as if they were true of all people, regardless of their gender. 1 What is a major publishing bias (think the “round file” or “trash-can effect”), and how does this negatively affect perceptions of sex differences? a Publish only significant statistics. (Trash can effect). Gender-biased language (“he”).  b A negative effects for example the study in medical trials was more done in males participants than women, and they asumme that if it was good or work for men it will work for women too. 1 Define the term phallocentric. a Male centered or, specifically, penis centered. 1 Explain what is meant by male as normative (give examples). a Male as Normative: a model in which the male is seen as the norm for all humans and the female is seen as a deviation from the norm. i ex. Adam and Eve story, in which Adam is created first and Eve is later made from his ribs. ii ex. In our language; the word man is used to refer not only to a male person, but to people in general. When the gender of a person is unknown, the pronoun he is used to refer to “him”. 1 What is meant by the authors when they speak of “feminine evil” (give examples from history). a Feminine Evil: the belief that women are the source of evil or immorality in the world. i Judeo-Christian Tradition- Eve disobeyed God’s orders and ate from the fruit of the tree of knowledge. Adam & Eve were forced to leave the Garden of Eden, and Eve, became the source of original sin, responsible for the fall of humanity. ii Ancient Myth- Zeus ordered Vulcan to create maiden Pandore to bring misery to earth in revenge for the theft of fire by Prometheus. Pandora was given a box that contained all the evils and was told to not open it. Pandora opened the box and all the evils spread over the world. iii Chinese Mythology- yin and yang correspond to feminine and masculine, and yin, the feminine, is seen as the dark, or evil, side of nature. iv Witches- Guided by the Catholic Church, the Inquisition tortured or put to death unknown numbers of witches. the majority of those accused and tried were women. Thus, it is women who is seen as being in collaboration with the devil. 1 Define the term feminism. a A person who favors political, economic, and social equality of women and men, and therefore favors the legal and social changes necessary to achieve that equality. 1 What is cisgender and genderism? a Cisgender: a person whose gender identity matches the gender they were assigned at birth. b Genderism: prejudice against people who are outside the gender binary; also refers to gender bias that recognizes a person’s birth-assigned gender but not their gender identity. Also termed anti-trans prejudice. CHAPTER 2 – Theoretical Perspectives on Gender – This chapter examines major psychological theories that have been formulated to explain the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of girls and women, and differences between women and men. 1 Discuss Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory and the resulting stages of psychosexual development. Address in the discussion:  (1) terms associated with the theory (id, ego, superego, libido, erogenous zones) i. Id: instinct; what we are born with. Pleasure principle. Immediate gratification. ii. Ego: part of the ID influenced by the external world. Half conscious/half not. Reality principle. Satisfying the id's desires in ways that will realistically bring pleasure rather than pain. iii. Superego: social component. The part of personality that, according to Freud, represents internalized ideals and provides standards for judgment (the conscience) and for future aspirations iv. Libido: sex drive or life force. v. Erogenous Zones: each zone is endowed with blood supply and nerve endings that make it very sensitive to stimulation (e.g. lips/mouth, anal region, gential’s). Areas of the body that become erotically sensitive in successive stages of development  (2) the Phallic stage of psychosexual development; i. Ages 3-6; pleasure zone is the genitals; sexual feelings arise toward the parent of the other gender. ii. Also the stage where personality differences emerge for boys and girls.  (3) predictions the theory makes in the Phallic stage regarding sex differences (specifically discuss the Oedipal Complex and Electra Complex); and i. Oedipal Complex: Oedipus killed his father and married his mother. 1. Castration Anxiety: repression of sexual desire for the mother. 2. According to Freud, children's manifestation of erotically tinged desires for their opposite-sex parent, accompanied by feelings of hostility toward their same-sex parent. ii Electra Complex: desire to be impregnated by father develops into maternal urges. 1. Conflict during phallic stage in which girls supposedly love their fathers romantically and want to eliminate their mothers as rivals 2. Penis Envy: realizing penis is superior to clitoris.  (4) criticisms of the theory. i. Can’t be evaluated scientifically; can’t evaluate unconscious minds.  ii. Ideas derived from work with patients who sought therapy. iii. Overemphasis on biological determinants of human behavior. 1. gender differences are rooted in anatomical differences. ii Phallocentric views (penis centered) 1. vagina/clitoris are inferior to the penis. 1 Identify the major contributions of neo-Freudians:  Karen Horney- emphasized cultural, social influences, and human growth. neo-Freudian, psychodynamic; criticized Freud, stated that personality is molded by current fears and impulses, rather than being determined solely by childhood experiences and instincts, neurotic trends; concept of "basic anxiety" o Womb Envy: males envy of a women’s uterus & reproductive abilities.)  Helen Deutsch- Focused on motherhood, “feminine core” of personality (including narcissism, masochism, passivity, instinct, and intuition.) o Masculinity Complex: some womens failure to adjust, seen in aggression, active masculine tendencies.  Anna Freud- Founded a school for orphaned children during WWII, studying their behavior. Founded child psychoanalysis and play therapy; emphasized importance of the ego and its constant struggle o Play Therapy: tool used with children for psychological diagnoses or counseling.  Nancy Chodorow- Focused on mother & child relations. The Reproduction of Mothering (1978). o Believed mothering produces vastly different experiences for sons and daughters: sons learn to devalue and dominate women; daughters want to mother. o Penis envy symbolizes the power men have in our society. o For there to be social change, we need more male childcare. 1 Describe the roots of Sociobiology and Evolutionary psychology in terms of Darwin’s Theory of Evolution (and natural selection).  Darwin’s Theory of Evolution: all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that increase the individual's ability to compete, survive, and reproduce.  Sociobiology: application of evolutionary theory to explaining the social behavior of animals.  Natural selection: process by which the fittest survive, reproduce, and pass their genes onto the next generation. o According to evolutionary theory, animals are innately driven to maximize fitness. (to pass their genes onto the next generation). 1 What is Parental Investment Theory, and why does it predict that childcare will be performed by women?  Parental Investment Theory: behaviors or other investments in the offspring by the parent that increase the offspring’s chance of survival. o Women have greater parental investment. Maternity is always certain, paternity is not. Quality, not quantity. i. Women fitness increased by raising the child. ii. Men fitness increased by impregnating multiple women till he finds a biological match of his own. 1 What are Sexual Selection Theory and Sexual Strategies Theory, and what different mating strategies do they predict for males and females (and why)?  Sexual Selection Theory: “males fight, females choose”- process by which members of one gender (usually males) compete w/ each other for mating privileges with members of the other gender (usually females), and members of the other gender (females) choose to mate only w/ certain preferred members of the first gender (males). i. The argument that sex differences in behaviour are determined by evolutionary history rather than society.  Sexual Strategies Theory: women and men have different short and long term mating strategies. i. male goal is to inseminate many women; invest in short-term mating with younger women at peak fertility. ii. Females have greater parental investment; seek long-term relationships to ensure a man’s commitment to provide for family, preferring men w/ resources. 1 Identify the major criticisms of sociobiology and evolutionary theories.  Theories and assumptions are not falsifiable.  Biology is a convenient rationalization for perpetuating the status quo.  Sociobiologists view data from an androcentric perspective, only discussing data that support androcentric theories.  Sociobiology rests on an outmoded version of evolutionary theory that modern biologists consider naive.  Studies contradicting evolutionary psychology are beginning to emerge. 1 Explain sociobiologist Sarah Blaffer Hrdy’s contribution to understanding women.  Argued mothers are far from being selfless. Maternal instincts are not innate.  Assembled evidence regarding evolutionary forces on mothering behaviors in humans & other species. i. Mother Nature: Maternal Instincts and How They Shape the Human Species (1999).   Believed women have evolved to care for their children and ensure their survival, but in reality these evolved tendencies are miles away from romanticized Victorian notions of self-sacrificing. i. ex. all female primates combine nurturing w/ ambition, mother love w/ sexual love, and ambivalence w/ devotion. 1 Describe Sociocultural Theory, and Alice Eagly’s research that suggests that dating strategies are not innate.  Sociocultural Theory: the approach that emphasizes how cognitive development proceeds as a result of social interactions between members of a culture  Eagly demonstrated high correlations b/w a nations inequality score & psychological measures of mate preferences in each society.  Eagly believed if mate differences are determined by evolution across the years, they should not vary across cultures. Also, they should not correlate with gender inequality. 1 What are the key components of Social Learning Theory (include a description of operant conditioning)?  Social Learning Theory: the theory that we learn social behavior by observing and imitating and by being rewarded or punished i. Reinforcement: something that occurs after a behavior and makes the behavior more likely to occur in the future. ii. Imitation: when people do what they see others doing; we imitate same-gender adults more than other-gender adults. iii. Observational learning: when a person observes someone doing something, and then does it at a later time.  Operant Conditioning: a type of learning in which behavior is strengthened if followed by a reinforcer or diminished if followed by a punisher 1 What is the primary difference between Social Learning Theory and Cognitive Social Learning Theory (think attention, self-regulation and self- efficacy)?  Cognitive Social Learning Theory: emphasis on cognitive processes. A theory that emphasizes the roles of thinking and social learning. i. Attention: focus on relevant behaviors. ii. Self-regulation: monitor own behavior and regulate it according to gender norms. iii. Self-efficacy: belief in ability to accomplish a particular task plays a role in maintaining gender-typed behaviors.  Social learning theory: focuses on learning social behavior by observing, imitating, and being rewarded or punished. i. While cognitive social learning theory focuses on cognitive processes such as attention, self-regulation, and self-efficacy. 1 Explain Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development (include a description of the Heinz paradigm used to develop and test the theory, and results that typically emerge from this paradigm for males and females).  Kohlberg’s Theory of Moral Development: Developing children progress through a predictable sequence of stages of moral reasoning (preconventional, conventional, postconventional).  Heinz Paradigm: Kohlberg concluded that people go through a series of three levels (each divided into 2 stages) in their moral reasoning as they mature: i. Preconventional: punishments; rewards. ii. Conventional: approval/disapproval; authority orientation. iii. Postconventional: internalized ethical principles.  Most adults don’t reach level III. Males reach stage 4, but females only reach Stage 3. 1 Describe Kohlberg’s theories of gender identity and gender constancy.  Gender Identity: individual’s knowledge that she/he is a female/male; develops 18-24 months.  Gender Constancy: child’s understanding that gender is a permanent, unchanging characteristic of self, depending on fixed, unchangeable biological factors. Develops 5-7 years of age. Crucial for adoption of gender roles. 1 Describe Gilligan’s Theory of Moral Development, the paradigm she used to test her hypotheses, and her resulting conclusions (include explanation of the care perspective and the justice perspective, and differences between males and females in the two perspectives).  Theory of Moral Development: The theory suggesting that there is a different process of moral development in women than in men. i. Results show young women’s morality reasoning progresses from self-centered to relational concerns. ii. While males focuses on rewards, punishments, and societal roles.  Care Perspective: an approach to moral reasoning that emphasizes relationships between people and caring for others and the self.  Justice Perspective: an approach to moral reasoning that emphasizes fairness and the rights of the individual. i. Males use justice perspective more, women use care perspective more. 1 Describe the key components of Gender Schema Theory.  A schema is a general knowledge framework that a person has about a particular topic  Gender Schema: the theory that children learn from their cultures a concept of what it means to be male and female and that they adjust their behavior accordingly. A set of gender linked associations. It becomes closely linked with self-concept.  i. The gender schema represents a basic predisposition to process information on the basis of gender. ii. It represents our tendency to see many things as gender-related and to want to dichotomize things on the basis of gender. EXAMPLES: Girls wear dresses and boys don’t; boys are strong and tough, girls are pretty 1 What were consciousness raising groups (C-R Groups), and why were they so important in the 1970’s?  Consciousness Raising Groups: meetings of small groups of women designed to raise awareness of discrimination against women and to encourage involvement in movement activities.  Major technique of analysis, structure of organization, method of practice, and theory of social change of the women’s movement.  Important because if focused on seeing personal experiences in larger political context. A great deal occurs on social media. 1 What is intersectionality?  Intersectionality: considers the meaning and consequences of multiple categories of identity, difference, and disadvantage simultaneously. i. Intersectionality is a concept that emerged and evolved largely within Black feminism and critical race theory. ii. it is a CRITICAL THEORY not a scientific theory. 1 Define social constructionism.  Theoretical viewpoint that humans do not discover reality directly; rather, they construct meanings for events in the environment based on prior experiences and beliefs. 1 Sex is a “stimulus variable as well as a person variable.” What does this mean?  Gender is a characteristic of the individual; a person’s gender has a profound impact on how others react to that person. 1 What is meant by the phrase, “the personal is political” when discussing women’s issues?  Personal, individual experiences are manifestations of larger political issues. i. Political refers to expressions of power. ii. The greater status in men gives them the entitlement to engage in such acts. Men exert power and control over women. 1 Describe the six different types of feminism (liberal, cultural, Marxist also sometimes called socialist, radical, women of color, postmodern). 1  Liberal: holds that women should have opportunities and rights equal to those of men.  o Basically, liberal feminists believe in working within the system for reform.  Cultural (aka care focused): argues that women have special, unique qualities that differentiate them from men. The crucial task is to elevate and value those special qualities, which have been devalued in our patriarchal society. EX: Nurturing, and connectedness.  Marxist (socialist): belief that oppression of women is just one instance of oppression based on class, rooted in capitalism (social feminist).  Radical: belief that oppression of women is based on the notion that feminine characteristics are inferior to masculine characteristics or androgyny (sexism).  Women of Color: belief that class oppression, sexism and racism are inextricably bound.  Postmodern: questions rationality and objectivity as methods for getting at truth; social constructionist epistemology of sex differences- focus more on academic movement to reform thought and less on social action. 1 Describe the three waves of feminism, what was accomplished in each wave, the time span of each wave, and what is left unfinished (think ERA on the latter).  1st Wave: Late 19th Century/early 20th Century movement focused on voting rights/property rights/reproductive health  2nd Wave: Mid-20th Century movement focused on civil rights/social justice/socio-cultural change/legal equality/reproductive rights  3rd Wave: Early 21st Century movement focused on power and empowerment in a world ordered by money and markets 1 What is queer theory?  Queer theory proposed that one’s gender, gender identity, and sexual orientation are not stable, fixed, biologically based characteristics, but rather fluid and dynamic aspects of individuals shaped by culture o Rejection of boundaries and preconceived norms about gender and sexuality. CHAPTER 3 – Gender Stereotypes and Gender Differences – This chapter explores (1) the origin and nature of gender stereotypes, and how these stereotypes affect the thoughts, feelings, and behaviors of women, (2) gender differences in personality and behaviors, and (3) the accuracy of gender stereotypes.  What is a schema? a general knowledge framework that a person has about a particular topic. organizes and guides perception, and typically helps us process and remember information.   What is a stereotype? Stereotypes have been defined as a false classificatory concept to which as a rule a strong emotional feeling tone of likes or dislikes, approval or disapproval is attached.  How are the two related, and why do we use them?  HOW: Schema theory can explain the formation of stereotypes by arguing that we naturally categorize people into groups and we make generalizations about the characteristics of those groups so that it makes it less cognitively demanding (easier) think about the individuals we meet on a daily basis.  WHY: when we meet a new person, we tend to fill in a lot of assumed information about that person so that we can understand them until we have more actual information. When people stereotype for comprehension purposes, the stereotypes can be positive or negative. They are just trying to understand more about the person than they actually know. Of course, they may make errors in the process.  What are the differences between implicit thought and explicit thought?  Explicit learning refers to learning that involves consciousness and effort.  Implicit learning, on the other hand, is largely independent of conscious awareness of either the learning process or the learning products. (learn automatic associations between social categories and other attributes). 1 Describe how implicit biases are measured (IAT), and what this research informs us regarding egalitarian beliefs and sex differences in performance. IAT: which measures an individual’s relative strength of association between different pairs of concepts. They found that the correlation, across nations, between implicit stereotyping of science as male and the gender gap in science performance was an amazing r = 0.60!  That means that, to the extent that people in a country stereotype boys and men as better at science, boys in that country perform better than girls do on standardized science tests.  The researchers believe that implicit stereotypes and the gender gap in science performance contribute to a vicious cycle.  Implicit stereotypes held by adults and youth in a country discourage girls from studying science. And then, when girls do not do well in science (because they have studied it less), that strengthens the implicit stereotypes. 1 Define the terms communal and agentic, as used in this course. o Communal traits or communion: traits stereotypical associated with women such as sympathy and warmth, which reflects a concern about other people. o Agentic or agency traits: traits stereotypical associated with men, such as achievement orientation and ambiguousness, which reflects a concern about accomplishing tasks. 1 Describe traditionally female characteristics and behaviors and traditionally male characteristics and behaviors. o women characteristics and behaviors are thought to emotional, caring, soft, care about appearance, talkative, small build / petite, submissive, dependent, motherly, feminine, manipulative, attractive, sexual objects, materialistic, jealous. o Men characteristics and behaviors are though tall, physical strong, respected, intelligent, have high status, leaders, sexist, like sports, providers, aggressive, unfaithful, ambitious, arrogant, messy, fixer-uppers. 1 What are the major differences that emerge between the two (think in terms of communal/agentic and powerless/powerful)? 1 What is the self-fulfilling prophecy and how might this phenomenon interact with stereotypes of what is male/female, to influence thoughts, feelings and behaviors? Self Fulfilling prophecy: the notion that our prior expectations affects our behaviors. How: Our own expectations can/do create our own reality. The prophecy predicts those behaviors will in turn affect the targets behavior in such a way that our original expectation comes true. Even when it is flawed. 1 Describe stereotype threat, how it is tested, and what the research informs us with regard to women.  Stereotype threat can be defined as a situation in which there is a negative stereotype about a person’s group, and the person is concerned about being judged or treated negatively on the basis of that stereotype → Stereotypes about women and math hurt women’s performance. In another experiment by the same researchers, women performed worse on the math test even when there was no mention of gender differences. The stereotype about women and mathematics is so much a part of the culture, it did not even have to be primed by the experimenters. 1 What is meant by the term social construction of gender? The social construction of gender is a notion in feminism and sociology about the operation of gender and gender differences in societies. According to this view, society and culture create gender roles, and these roles are prescribed as ideal or appropriate behavior for a person of that specific sex. 1 Discuss how the media affect the psychological development of both males and females (see the Discussion Forum video MissRepresentation). 1 Identify sex differences in (know effect sizes):  the three types of aggression (physical, verbal, relational): *Physical aggression: Males are more physically aggressive than females, d =.55 *Relational aggression— behavior intended to hurt others by damaging relationships. females higher than males; d=.55  self-esteem (both global and individual dimensions),: males higher than females; d=.16  activity levels: males higher than females; d=.50  anxiety : females higher than males; d=-.38  helping behaviors: males higher than females; d=.34  empathy: feeling what another is feeling.emales higher than males  narcissism: personality trait characterized for excessive focus on oneself and lack of empathy for others. males higher than females; d=.29 1 Describe deindividuation research on aggression (i.e., Lightdale & Prentice, 1994) and what (and how) this informs us about the nature vs. nurture argument on the roots of aggression.  The researchers used the technique of deindividuation to produce a situation that removed the influences of gender roles.  Deindividuation refers to a state in which the person has lost their individual identity; that is, the person has become anonymous. Under such conditions people feel no obligation to conform to social norms such as gender roles; deindividuation essentially places the individual in a situation free of gender roles.  In the deindividuated condition—that is, in the absence of gender roles—there were no significant gender differences. In short, the significant gender differences in aggression disappeared when the influences of gender roles were removed.  Nature VS. Nurture:  The nature team attributes gender differences in physical aggressiveness to the greater size and muscle mass of male bodies and/or differences in the levels of the hormone testosterone  On the nurture side, a number of environmental forces might produce the observed gender difference. First, aggressiveness is a key part of the male role in our society, whereas aggressiveness is a violation of the female role. 1 Explain the unidimensional view of male-female sex-role identity, and the more contemporaneous two-dimensional notion of androgyny. What are possible benefits/detriments of androgyny? Androgyny- combination of masculine and feminine psychological characteristics in an individual. Benefits of androgyny would be able to complete more things because you have more of a variety of characteristics both masculine and feminine. 1 Describe Bem’s (1975) “good listener” study and what this study suggests regarding the link between androgyny and behavior. -Androgynous people should do better in a wider variety of situations because they are capable of being feminine or masculine when the situation calls for it 1 Understand the two hypotheses on why society is harder on men (than on women) who violate gender role expectations: Social Status Hypothesis and Sexual Orientation Hypothesis. Social Status Hypothesis- because the male gender role is more highly valued than the female role is, a male is seen as lowering his social status by engaging in female-stereotypic behaviors, whereas a female performing male-stereotypic behaviors is perceived as raising hers. Sexual orientation hypothesis- cross-gender behavior in boys but not girls is considered a sign of actual or potential same-sex sexual orientation 1 Understand what a meta-analysis is, how to interpret Cohen’s d generally, and more specifically how to interpret a Cohen’s d in this class. Meta-Analysis- is a statistical method that allows the researcher to statistically combine the results from all previous studies of the question of interest to determine what, taken together, the studies say. Interpret Cohen’s d: