Psychology of Women Exam I, Chapter 1

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Questions and Answers

Which of the following statements best describes the relationship between schemas and stereotypes?

  • Stereotypes are more specific than schemas, but still represent a general knowledge framework.
  • Schemas provide a framework for organizing information, and stereotypes can be used within that framework. (correct)
  • Schemas are necessary for the formation of stereotypes but not vice versa.
  • Schemas are a type of stereotype used for specific groups and individuals.

According to the passage, what is a key reason why people use stereotypes, even when they are inaccurate?

  • Stereotypes provide a simple and efficient way to process and understand information, even if it's not entirely accurate. (correct)
  • People enjoy using stereotypes to make themselves feel superior to others.
  • Stereotypes are often based on personal experiences, making them seem more believable.
  • People are unaware of the potential for bias when using stereotypes.

What is the key difference between explicit and implicit learning as mentioned in the passage?

  • Explicit learning is driven by motivation, while implicit learning is driven by habit.
  • Explicit learning is conscious and effortful, while implicit learning occurs automatically and without awareness. (correct)
  • Explicit learning is more accurate than implicit learning, but implicit learning is faster.
  • Explicit learning focuses on factual knowledge, while implicit learning focuses on emotional responses.

The Implicit Association Test (IAT) involves associating categories with attributes. Based on the passage, what can the results of the IAT reveal about the connection between implicit biases and performance?

<p>A strong correlation between implicit stereotypes and performance suggests that unconscious biases can impact achievement in various fields. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of these statements best captures the author's perspective on the use of stereotypes?

<p>Stereotypes can lead to harmful consequences, but they can also be used for comprehension purposes, leading to both positive and negative impacts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a major contribution of neo-Freudian theorists?

<p>Promoting the understanding of the unconscious as the primary source of personality (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Helen Deutsch's work, which of the following is associated with the 'masculinity complex' in women?

<p>A tendency towards aggression and active behaviors (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a central concept in Anna Freud's work?

<p>The exploration of the unconscious through dream analysis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Nancy Chodorow, how does the experience of mothering differ for sons and daughters?

<p>Sons are more likely to develop a sense of entitlement, while daughters learn to be nurturing (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key connection between Darwin's theory of evolution and the development of Sociobiology?

<p>Both emphasize the role of genetic inheritance in shaping individual characteristics (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the principles of natural selection, which of the following individuals is most likely to pass on their genes to the next generation?

<p>An individual with beneficial traits that enhance their chances of survival and reproduction (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does Evolutionary Psychology use Darwin's theory of evolution to understand human behavior?

<p>It argues that natural selection has shaped human psychological mechanisms to solve problems related to survival and reproduction (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of natural selection?

<p>It ensures that all individuals within a population have equal chances of survival (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Evolutionary theory, how does 'fitness' relate to the survival and reproduction of animals?

<p>Fitness is a measure of an animal's ability to survive and pass on its genes to the next generation (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between Sociobiology and Evolutionary Psychology?

<p>Sociobiology focuses on animal behavior, while Evolutionary Psychology focuses on human behavior (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary concern regarding 'publication bias' in relation to research on sex differences?

<p>Researchers may choose to publish findings that support a particular gender bias, even if the evidence is weak. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the term 'male as normative' reflect bias in research?

<p>It assumes that the male experience is the standard, and any deviation from that standard is considered 'different' or 'abnormal'. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following scenarios exemplifies 'experimenter effects'?

<p>A researcher's expectations about the outcome of an experiment influence the way they interact with participants, potentially leading to biased results. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why does 'overgeneralization' pose a significant danger in research on sex differences?

<p>It can promote harmful stereotypes by assuming that findings from one group apply to all members of that gender. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is considered a 'female deficit interpretation' in the context of research findings?

<p>Interpreting research results in a way that highlights the potential weaknesses or limitations of female participants in a study. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can 'observer effects' impact research on sex differences?

<p>Observers may unconsciously interpret behaviors in a way that aligns with their pre-existing stereotypes about gender. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following could be seen as a potential 'bias in research design'?

<p>A researcher focusing only on male participants in a study to investigate a specific phenomenon. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'phallocentric' suggest in the context of research on sex differences?

<p>It signifies a focus on the male perspective as the default, with female experiences often viewed as secondary or less important. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a significant source of potential bias in research on sex differences?

<p>The lack of adequate representation of the female population in research studies. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What's the most significant implication of the “trash can effect” in research?

<p>It can lead to a distorted understanding of gender differences if researchers fail to publish findings that don't fit preconceived notions. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a form of sexism, according to the content provided?

<p>Traditional sexism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes the difference between a hypothesis and a theory?

<p>A theory is a broad framework, while a hypothesis is a specific testable prediction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of qualitative research?

<p>Focus on women's accounts of their own experience (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the difference between sex and gender?

<p>Sex refers to biological differences, while gender refers to societal expectations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which form of sexism is characterized by seemingly positive or protective beliefs about women?

<p>Benevolent sexism (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a key characteristic of modern sexism?

<p>Holding subtle prejudiced beliefs about women (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following BEST describes the purpose of studying the psychology of women?

<p>To understand the unique experiences and perspectives of women (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kohlberg's theory, what is the typical highest stage of moral reasoning reached by most adults?

<p>Conventional Stage 4: Law and Order Orientation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development, what differentiates the Conventional level from the Preconventional level?

<p>The focus shifts from personal consequences to societal expectations and rules. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a cognitive process highlighted in the Cognitive Social Learning Theory?

<p>Social Reinforcement (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Gilligan's theory, what is the core difference between the Care Perspective and the Justice Perspective?

<p>The Justice Perspective prioritizes fairness and individual rights, while the Care Perspective prioritizes relationships and caring for others. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following accurately describes the Heinz Paradigm?

<p>A hypothetical scenario used to evaluate individuals' moral reasoning based on their responses. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a key characteristic of gender constancy?

<p>Understanding that gender is an unchanging characteristic despite changes in appearance or behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Kohlberg's research, what is the typical highest stage of moral reasoning achieved by females?

<p>Conventional Stage 3: Good Boy/Nice Girl Orientation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which developmental period is associated with the development of gender identity?

<p>Infancy (0-2 years) (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements accurately describes the concept of social learning theory?

<p>Learning occurs through observation, imitation, and reinforcement. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main distinction between Kohlberg's theory of moral development and Gilligan's theory?

<p>Kohlberg's theory emphasizes a universal progression of stages, while Gilligan's theory suggests different paths for men and women. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Gender

Social and cultural differences between the sexes, beyond biology.

Sex

Biological categories of male and female based on reproductive functions.

Difference between gender and sex

Sex relates to the body; gender relates to identity and feelings.

Quantitative analysis

Research that emphasizes objectivity and uses numerical data to compare responses.

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Qualitative analysis

Research that emphasizes subjective accounts, focusing on personal experiences.

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Sexism

Discrimination or bias against individuals based on their gender.

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Forms of sexism

Includes modern sexism, hostile sexism, and benevolent sexism with varying attitudes towards women.

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Schema

A general framework for organizing knowledge about a topic.

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Stereotype

A false classification concept often associated with strong feelings.

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Implicit Thought

Learning that occurs unconsciously with no effort.

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Explicit Thought

Learning that requires conscious effort and awareness.

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IAT (Implicit Association Test)

Measures strength of associations between concepts to reveal implicit biases.

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Bias in Theory

The influence of initial assumptions on research outcomes.

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Female Deficit Interpretation

Interpreting findings to suggest female inferiority.

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Experimenter Effects

When an experimenter's characteristics influence participants' behavior.

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Observer Effects

Expectations affect observations and data recording.

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Overgeneralization

Applying results from a specific sample to a broader group.

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Publishing Bias

The tendency to publish only significant findings, ignoring others.

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Phallocentric

Male-centered perspective, focusing on the penis.

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Male as Normative

The concept that males are the standard for all humans.

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Social Learning Theory

Focuses on learning social behavior through observation, imitation, and rewards or punishments.

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Cognitive Social Learning Theory

Focuses on cognitive processes such as attention, self-regulation, and self-efficacy in social learning.

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Kohlberg's Theory of Moral Development

A theory that describes a sequence of stages in moral reasoning: preconventional, conventional, and postconventional.

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Heinz Paradigm

A scenario used by Kohlberg to assess moral reasoning through stages based on a man's choice to steal medicine for his wife.

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Preconventional Level

Moral reasoning based on punishments and rewards.

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Gender Identity

An individual's knowledge of being male or female, developing around 18-24 months.

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Gender Constancy

Understanding that gender is a permanent, unchanging characteristic, developing between ages 5-7.

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Gilligan's Theory of Moral Development

Suggests women and men have different processes for moral development, focusing on care versus justice.

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Care Perspective

Moral reasoning prioritized on relationships and caring for others.

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Justice Perspective

Moral reasoning that emphasizes fairness and individual rights.

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Karen Horney

Neo-Freudian who emphasized cultural and social influences on personality.

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Basic anxiety

A concept by Horney referring to a feeling of helplessness and insecurity.

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Womb envy

The male's envy of a woman's reproductive abilities, as proposed by Horney.

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Helen Deutsch

Focused on motherhood and its impact on the feminine core of personality.

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Masculinity Complex

Aggressive traits in women who struggle to adjust, as noted by Deutsch.

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Anna Freud

Pioneered child psychoanalysis and play therapy, highlighting the ego's role.

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Play therapy

A psychological tool for diagnosing or counseling children.

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Nancy Chodorow

Studied mother-child relations and gender role socialization.

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Sociobiology

Application of evolutionary theory to animal social behavior.

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Darwin's Theory of Evolution

Species evolve through natural selection of advantageous traits.

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Study Notes

EXAM I, CHAPTER 1

  • This chapter sets the stage for future explorations into the psychology of women, considering the question "Why study the psychology of women?" and establishes basic definitions and research practices.

Definitions of Gender and Sex

  • Gender: Either of the two sexes (male and female), especially when considered with reference to social and cultural differences, not biological. It also denotes a range of identities not fitting established notions of male and female.
  • Sex: Either of the two main categories (male and female) humans and most other living things are divided into, based on reproductive functions.
  • Difference: Sex is about the body; gender is about self-perception; sexual orientation is about attraction.

Quantitative vs. Qualitative Analysis

  • Quantitative: Emphasizes objectivity, control, and quantitative measures. Compares participant responses to a standard.
  • Qualitative: Emphasizes subjective procedures, focuses on women's personal accounts and attempts to capture unique perspectives.

Sexism

  • Sexism: Discrimination or bias against people based on their gender. Also called sex bias.

Forms of Sexism

  • Modern Sexism (Neo-sexism): Subtle prejudiced beliefs about women.
  • Hostile Sexism: Negative, hostile attitudes toward women and adversarial beliefs about gender relations.
  • Benevolent Sexism: Beliefs about women portrayed as kind or benevolent; viewed as needing protection by men and put on a pedestal.

Hypothesis vs. Theory

  • A hypothesis is an attempt to explain phenomena, a proposal to understand and/or predict something.
  • A theory is the result of testing a hypothesis and developing an explanation – assumed to be true. Theories replace hypotheses when testing confirms them or they are modified and tested until predictable results occur.

Research Designs

  • Naturalistic Observation: Observing subjects' behavior in natural environments without intervention.
  • Archival Analysis: Collecting data from existing sources (e.g., census records, surveys).
  • Surveys: Thorough examination of data (e.g., census records, survey data).
  • Experiments: Scientific procedures to discover, test hypotheses, or show known facts (with random groups).
  • Quasi-experiments: Research studies comparing two or more groups without random assignment to treatment conditions.

Empirical Process

  • The empirical process is considered self-correcting because, after getting results and interpreting them, researchers may find mistakes and need to return to earlier steps in the theoretical model.

Study Design Biases

  • Bias in Theory: The theoretical model or assumptions of the scientist profoundly affect the outcome of the research.
  • Bias in Research Design: Biases can occur in the design of the research itself.
  • Bias in Data Collection: Biases can affect the way data is collected.
  • Bias in Interpretation: Biases can occur in the interpretation of results.
  • Bias in Publishing: Biases affect the publication of results and findings, such as bias against female scientist.

Other Key Terms

  • Female Deficit Interpretation: Interpreting findings in a manner that suggests female weakness or inferiority.
  • Experimenter Effects: Experimenter characteristics affecting participant behavior, impacting research outcomes.
  • Observer Effects: Expectations influencing observations and recordings of data in research.
  • Overgeneralization: A research error where results are applied to a broader group than the sampled group (e.g., applying findings from a group that includes only men to all people).
  • Phallocentric: Male-centered perspective, specifically penis-centered.
  • Male as Normative: A model where the male is the norm, and the female is a deviation from it.

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