EUM2 Notes PDF

Indholdsfortegnelse Statistics............................................................................................................................................... 2 1. Basic Statistical Concepts..............................................................................................

Indholdsfortegnelse Statistics............................................................................................................................................... 2 1. Basic Statistical Concepts...................................................................................................................... 2 2. Data and Data Types.............................................................................................................................. 2 3. Statistical Tests and Methods................................................................................................................. 3 4. Statistical Outputs and Measures........................................................................................................... 3 5. Descriptive and Visual Statistics............................................................................................................. 4 6. Hypothesis Testing................................................................................................................................. 4 Connections Between Concepts................................................................................................................ 4 Ontology & Epistemology & Methodology................................................................................................ 4 Ontology................................................................................................................................................... 4 Ontological spectrum:............................................................................................................................ 5 1.Idealism (One End):................................................................................................................................ 5 2.Realism/Materialism (The Other End):...................................................................................................... 5 Epistemology............................................................................................................................................ 6 Epistemology definition:......................................................................................................................... 6 Questions that epistemology asks:......................................................................................................... 6 Methodology............................................................................................................................................. 6 Philosophy of science............................................................................................................................. 6 Three social sciences paradigms................................................................................................................ 6 Neo-Positivism...................................................................................................................................... 6 Ontological Assumptions:...................................................................................................................... 7 Epistemological Assumptions:............................................................................................................... 7 Methodological Assumptions:................................................................................................................ 7 Logic of Inquiry (neo).............................................................................................................................. 7 Interpretivism........................................................................................................................................ 7 Ontological Assumptions:...................................................................................................................... 7 Epistemological Assumptions:............................................................................................................... 7 Methodological Assumptions:................................................................................................................ 7 Logic of Inquiry (inter)............................................................................................................................. 8 Critical realism.......................................................................................................................................... 8 Ontological Assumptions:...................................................................................................................... 8 Epistemological Assumptions:............................................................................................................... 8 Methodological Assumptions:................................................................................................................ 8 Logic of Inquiry (kritisk realisme)............................................................................................................. 8 Theory and the Role of Theory:................................................................................................................ 8 Craig – 7 communication traditions....................................................................................................... 10 Summary:............................................................................................................................................ 10 Communication Theory as a Dialogical Field:........................................................................................ 10 Metadiscursive Practice:...................................................................................................................... 10  Goals for Communication Theory:........................................................................................................ 10 7 Traditions in Communication Theory:................................................................................................. 11 Blaikie & Priest..................................................................................................................................... 13 What is social research?....................................................................................................................... 13 What is a research paradigm?............................................................................................................... 13 What do research paradigms have to do with social research?............................................................... 14 Why these three paradigms?................................................................................................................. 14 What are logics of inquiry?.................................................................................................................... 14 What is the relationship between research paradigms and logic of inquiry?............................................ 15 Statistics 1. Basic Statistical Concepts Mean / median / mode: Measures of central tendency. Variance: The spread of data around the mean. Standard deviation: The square root of the variance; indicates typical deviations from the mean. Range (highest value - lowest value): The diDerence between the highest and lowest values in a dataset. Sum of squares: Used to calculate variance and standard deviation; the sum of squared deviations from the mean. Z-scores: Standardized values with a mean of 0 and a standard deviation of 1. 2. Data and Data Types Variable: A measurable characteristic in a study (e.g., height, weight). Population: The entire group of interest in a study. Sample: A subset of the population used to represent the whole. Dataset: A collection of cases and their associated variables. Case: An individual data point in a dataset (e.g., your height in a dataset of student heights).  Nominal / ordinal data: Types of categorical data; nominal has no order, while ordinal has a ranked order. Discrete / continuous data: Types of numerical data; discrete consists of whole numbers, while continuous can take any value within a range. 3. Statistical Tests and Methods T-test: Tests the diDerence between means; not suitable for ordinal data or small samples with outliers. Chi-square test: Tests relationships between categorical variables. Regression: Models relationships between variables (e.g., predicting one variable from another). Bonferroni correction: Adjusts p-values to account for multiple comparisons. Parametric test: Tests that assume data follow a specific distribution (e.g., normal distribution). Correlation: Measures the strength and direction of a relationship between two variables. Least square error: A method to minimize the error in regression analysis. 4. Statistical Outputs and Measures R² (coeDicient of determination): Represents the proportion of variance explained by a model. Cohen’s d: A measure of eDect size for comparing means. P-value: The probability of observing the data if the null hypothesis is true. Critical value: The threshold for determining statistical significance. Alpha (significance level): The probability of rejecting the null hypothesis when it is true (e.g., 1% or 5%). 5. Descriptive and Visual Statistics Descriptive statistics: Summarize data (e.g., mean, standard deviation, range). Box plot: Visualizes data distribution, including median, quartiles, and potential outliers. Normal distribution / Gaussian curve: A bell-shaped curve describing how data points are distributed. 6. Hypothesis Testing Null hypothesis: A default assumption that there is no eDect or relationship. Degrees of freedom: The number of values that can vary in calculations without breaking constraints. Connections Between Concepts 1.T-test requires parametric data, a normal distribution, and considers variance and standard deviation. 2.Regression uses least square error to fit the best model and calculates R² to evaluate its accuracy. 3.P-value and alpha help determine whether to reject the null hypothesis. 4.Chi-square test works with nominal/ordinal data and does not assume a normal distribution. 5.Cohen’s d is used alongside t-tests to measure the eDect size. Ontology & Epistemology & Methodology Ontology Ontology is the philosophical field of study that studies what exists. It’s concerned with STUFF Definition of ontology: ontology studies what exist and how the world is structured Questions that ontology asks: 1. What is reality made of 2. What can scientist investigate 3. What associations exist amongst objects? Ontological spectrum: Ontology helps us figure out what we are looking at and epistemology gives us a frame of references The Two Ends of the Spectrum 1.Idealism (One End): Reality and existence depend on consciousness or the mind. Everything that exists is ultimately a mental construct or relies on perception. Focus: Consciousness, ideas, and subjectivity. 2.Realism/Materialism (The Other End): Reality exists independently of our perception or consciousness. Matter and physical objects are the fundamental building blocks of the world. Focus: Objectivity, material conditions, and physical existence. Epistemology Epistemology is the philosophical field that studies what and how we can know about what it exists. It is concerned with the production and the limits of the human Knowledge Epistemology definition: Epistemology is the study of how we can obtain knowledge and which limitations there is for our understandings - You can see it as lenses that we see the world through Questions that epistemology asks: 1. What is knowledge 2. How is knowledge diDerent from information 3. How can scientist use methods to understand reality Methodology Methodology: The theoretical approach and rationale behind the research (the “why”). Methods: The specific techniques and tools used for data collection and analysis (the “how”). Philosophy of science The study of science. It is a discipline that examines what science is and how science works. It establishes criteria for what makes something “scientific.” Three social sciences paradigms Neo-Positivism - Stand for hard facts - Quantifiable data  - Objective truth - They like to measure and predict Ontological Assumptions: 1. Social reality exists independently of individuals and can be observed objectively. 2. Patterns and regularities in social phenomena can be identified. Epistemological Assumptions: 1. Knowledge is best gained through systematic observation and measurement. 2. Science should strive for objectivity and value-neutrality. 3. Explanations rely on causal laws and relationships that can be empirically verified. Methodological Assumptions: 1. Research should emulate the natural sciences. (de elsker natur videnskab) 2. Hypotheses can be tested through observation and experimentation. (neo positivisme startede med hypoteser) Induktion duer ikke Poppers og ideen om sorte svaner ikke findes duer ikke. En dag kan der komme en med en sort svane Logic of Inquiry (neo) Deductive reasoning: The process begins with theoretical propositions or hypotheses and proceeds to testing these empirically. Interpretivism Ontological Assumptions: 1. Social reality is socially constructed and cannot be understood independently of individuals' subjective experiences. [IDALIST ONTOLOGY] 2. There are multiple such realities - shaped by cultural, historical, and social contexts. Epistemological Assumptions: 1. Knowledge is subjective and co-constructed by researchers and participants. 2. Understanding the meaning of social phenomena requires engagement with the perspectives of those involved. Methodological Assumptions: 1. Research should focus on understanding, not explaining or predicting. 2. Context, language, and symbolic interaction are central to meaning-making. Logic of Inquiry (inter) Abductive reasoning: Starts with data and builds toward theoretically informed interpretations, seeking to understand meaning and patterns in specific contexts. Critical realism Ontological Assumptions: 1. A real world exists independently of human perceptions and actions. 2. Social phenomena are shaped by underlying structures and mechanisms, which are not observable. Epistemological Assumptions: 1. Knowledge is fallible and socially constructed but we approximate reality through critical reflection. 2. Understanding requires distinguishing between empirical events, actual occurrences, and the underlying generative mechanisms. Methodological Assumptions: 1. Research should go beyond describing observable phenomena to explaining the causal mechanisms that produce them. 2. Both structure (objective conditions) and agency (individual actions) are important for understanding social phenomena – reality is shaped by both through actions. Logic of Inquiry (kritisk realisme) Retroduc)on: A unique mode of reasoning... involves working backward from observed phenomena to... infer the possible underlying causes or mechanisms. Theory and the Role of Theory: Science and theories have endless aspects. The goal is to discard aspects and focus on one. An entity is something that represents a defined size. It must be defined before it can be investigated. Science investigates entities.  The role of theory is essential to focus on which parts are relevant within the knowledge one aims to achieve. Real object, what is it? Something that exists in the world. Cognitive object, what is it? Cognitive objects are the aspects of reality that are studied or understood through scientific inquiry. These are not directly observable physical entities but are constructed concepts or ideas that represent phenomena within a research framework. Methodological reductions: Methodological reduction refers to simplifying a complex phenomenon to make it more manageable for study. It involves focusing on certain variables while setting aside others that might be less relevant to the particular study or hypothesis being tested. This can involve excluding factors that are seen as too complex or irrelevant to the scope of research. Ontological reduction: This involves removing aspects that one expects to be there, usually to make a phenomenon simpler or to align it with a specific theoretical framework. For example, this could involve omitting certain variables from a study because they do not fit with the researcher’s ontological assumptions (e.g., reducing complex social phenomena to individual behaviors). Theories are combinations of ontological and epistemological assumptions Layers of theories: Most theories are built on level 2 (deeply embedded image/understanding). Operationalization: One takes a theory and adapts it to what it is meant to be used for. Craig – 7 communication traditions Summary: Craig highlights that communication theory is not a cohesive discipline but consists of many traditions with diDerent approaches to understanding communication. These traditions should be viewed as part of a dialogical process, where they can mutually enrich the understanding of what communication is and how it works in practice. Craig identifies seven main traditions and argues that communication theory should be promoted as a practical discipline that contributes to society’s understanding of communication. Communication Theory as a Dialogical Field: Craig suggests that communication theory should be understood as a “dialogical-dialectical field,” where diDerent traditions interact and contribute to an overall discourse. The theories should be seen as part of a larger conversation, where they both complement and challenge each other. Metadiscursive Practice: Craig introduces the concept of “metadiscursive practice,” where theory functions as a way to reflect on and discuss communicative actions in the real world. He views theory not as separate from practice but as something that can and should influence practical discourse on communication in society. Goals for Communication Theory: Instead of attempting to create one unified theory, communication theory should foster understanding and debate among the diDerent traditions.  Craig emphasizes the importance of recognizing that the diDerent traditions oDer various perspectives, but all are relevant in a broader, practical context. 7 Traditions in Communication Theory: DiDerent approaches to understanding communication. 1.Rhetorical Tradition: Communication as an art: Rhetoric is about the art of speaking and persuading. This tradition views communication as a tool to influence the audience and shape society through speech. Relevance for IT: In the IT context, this relates to how technologies are used to convey messages and influence users. 2.Semiotic Tradition: Communication through signs and symbols: Semiotics sees communication as the exchange of signs and how people interpret these signs. Relevance for IT: In IT, this involves understanding user interfaces, iconography, and design, which users need to interpret. 3.Phenomenological Tradition: Communication as an experience of otherness: Phenomenology focuses on the individual’s subjective experience and how they understand others through communication. Relevance for IT: In IT, this relates to user experiences (UX) and how technology creates connections between people. 4.Cybernetic Tradition: Communication as information processing: This tradition views communication as a process where information flows through systems, often with feedback loops. Relevance for IT: Closely linked with information and network theory, including how systems, computers, and humans communicate eDectively. 5.Sociopsychological Tradition: Communication as the influence of behavior: Focuses on how individuals’ thoughts, feelings, and behaviors are influenced through communication. Relevance for IT: In IT, this refers to how technologies can alter behavior and interaction through social platforms and personalized systems. 6.Sociocultural Tradition: Communication as the construction of social reality: Communication creates and sustains social structures and cultural identities. Relevance for IT: Technologies’ role in creating communities and cultural norms, such as the influence of social media on society. 7.Critical Tradition: Communication as a challenge to power structures: The critical tradition analyzes how communication maintains or challenges power and inequality. Relevance for IT: Critical analysis of the role of technology in surveillance, control, and the creation of social inequalities. Blaikie & Priest What is social research? Social science deals with solving problems that involve “intellectual puzzles” and “practical problems.” Social science aims to describe, understand, and explain puzzling or misleading aspects of social life. Sometimes, it also seeks to change social situations. The goal is to know what happens, why it happens, and how it could be diDerent. What is a research paradigm? A research paradigm is based on diDerent ontological and epistemological assumptions. The role of paradigms in social science is significant, as supported by Kuhn. Kuhn observed that disciplines in natural sciences are dominated by a single paradigm, which over time is replaced by a new paradigm (a gradual form of revolution). The characteristics of these perspectives are assumptions about the nature of social reality (ontology) and the foundation of social order. The main point is that diDerent theoretical perspectives provide diDerent answers about social life. Social scientists must also consider epistemological assumptions. These assumptions indicate how knowledge about social reality is obtained. In social science, it is necessary to choose and argue for the assumptions that provide the best explanation. It is essential to decide which path is the easiest to achieve this knowledge. The key feature of a scientific paradigm is its ontological and epistemological assumptions. What do research paradigms have to do with social research? It is challenging to take an objective view of social science because one must view the world from a specific perspective. As a result, all knowledge created by social science is tentative because it is obtained through a particular worldview. Some argue that allowing subjective perspectives in science makes it less useful and credible. It is true that the findings of a study will be influenced by the chosen perspective. However, in some cases, there may be no alternative but to view it from a particular angle. When complex questions need answering, it is often necessary to use multiple scientific paradigms to provide answers. This also means there is not just one answer, but using multiple paradigms increases comprehensive knowledge. Why these three paradigms? Simply put, it is to make learning easier. 1: The classical positivist paradigm has been dropped and updated. 2: The next contains elements of classical interpretivism (advocated by Weber) as well as parts of hermeneutics and structuration theory. 3: The last consists mainly of elements from scientific realism. What are logics of inquiry? To answer a research question, one must decide where to start and which “steps” to follow. This is referred to as “logics of inquiry” and can also be called “research strategies.” There are four strategies: 1.Induction Starts with observations and develops general theories. Suitable for exploratory research. 2.Deduction Begins with a theory and empirically tests hypotheses. Often used in hypothesis-driven research. 3.Retroduction Works backward from observed phenomena to identify possible underlying mechanisms. Common in critical realism. 4.Abduction Generates plausible explanations based on observations and context. Focuses on the creation of meaning. What is the relationship between research paradigms and logic of inquiry? The choice of a specific scientific paradigm is related to the choice of a “logic of inquiry.” Each scientific paradigm provides its explanation of the research question, which is heavily determined by the “logic of inquiry.” Neo-positivism uses deductive logic. Interpretivism uses abductive logic. Critical realism uses retroductive logic. When a research question is in its early stages, both inductive and deductive strategies can be used. However, one logic dominates the processes.