Erasmus Psychology of Time: Current Trends PDF

ERASMUS PSYCHOLOGY OF TIME: CURRENT TRENDS Professor Stavroula Samartzi Corresponding to: «Structure and Process of the Cognitive System: The case of Problem Solving» (code: 6273). [The concept of Time] Various scientific approaches attempt to investigate the particularly complex concept of time....

ERASMUS PSYCHOLOGY OF TIME: CURRENT TRENDS Professor Stavroula Samartzi Corresponding to: «Structure and Process of the Cognitive System: The case of Problem Solving» (code: 6273). [The concept of Time] Various scientific approaches attempt to investigate the particularly complex concept of time. In common thought, time is usually associated with physics, which considers time as an objective magnitude that can be accurately measured with specific organs (i.e. clocks). Time is a basic, compelling and universal parameter of human life and activity. [The concept of Psychological Time] Time is a notion commonly used, broadly recognized but difficult to be understood and defined. In Psychology, Time is approached in relation to human cognitive behavior and refers to either temporal reasoning or the perception of the temporal duration of experienced events. Psychological time concerns perception, understanding and construction of event's succession and duration relations. Psychological time consists of three major aspects: succession, duration and temporal perspective. [Cognitive Development of Time] First research: Piaget, 1946 «Le développement de la notion du temps chez l'enfant» (The Child's Conception of Time, 1927/1969). [Kinematic Time: Time in a "perception" framework.] Time in relation to distance and velocity concepts. Time is an "indirect" knowledge resulting of the Space knowledge (direct knowledge), via Velocity knowledge (direct knowledge). [Non-Kinematic Time: Time in a "problem solving" (representation) framework] Time as a "Duration" concept, in relation to (initial and final) Succession concepts. Temporal Reasoning (IF.... THEN) i.e. (a): IF A starts before B and A stops after B, THEN A last for a longer duration i.e. (b): IF A starts after B and A stops before B, THEN A last for a shorter duration Children's conception of time develops from Kinematic to Non-Kinematic Time and from Decidable (one logical answer) to Undecidable(multiple logical answers) problems i.e.: IF A starts afterB and A stops afterB, THEN A last for a (longer/ shorter/equal ? ) duration [Perception and estimation of duration] 1\. An event can be successfully perceived by humans, if its duration is longer than a few milliseconds. 2\. In order to perceive two events as being "different", they must be separated by a temporal interval long enough (Block, 1990). If the interval is too short, the two events are perceived as a single "instantaneous" event. The lowest threshold that we can perceive depends on the sensory system involved. Visual stimuli must be longer than 110-130 ms and auditory 10-50 ms with a frequency of 500Hz (Fraisse, 1957). When the interval that separates the different stimuli exceeds 1.5 s (or 1500ms), listeners have difficulty in grouping the sounds, which seem disconnected from one another (Krumhansl, 1997). Estimation of Duration When estimating the duration of a previous task, people overestimate short durations and underestimate long ones (Vierordt's law, 1868). This hypothesis was recently tested by Roy (2008), by using time periods of 1 to 15 minutes and showing that intervals shorter than 2 minutes were mostly overestimated, while longer intervals lasting more than 3 minutes were underestimated. Similar results occur in time production tasks (Sternberg, Knoll & Zukofsky, 1982). Furthermore, Vieordt's law seems to be supported by research performed by Campbell (1990) in time estimation of long events. However, the cut-off point between what is considered as \"short\" and \"long\" --and, therefore, between overestimation and underestimation --is estimated to be 2-10 minutes, it is not always consistent and depends on the task and the frame of reference (Roy, 2008; Yarmey, 2000). [Psychological time theories] They stand between two extremes: the biological and the cognitive (Block, 1990). 1. **[Biological models]** propose that psychological time is the product of brain mechanisms, which involve one or more internal clocks that allow the individual to measure and judge time duration. 1. **[Cognitive models]** propose that psychological time is a product of information processing that involves memory and attention (Roeckelein, 2000). Other psychological models attempt to merge these extremes. One of the most prevalent models was developed by the philosopher Jean-Marie Guyau, who considered time as an acquired organization of mental representations which enable individuals to store and remember past events (Michon, 1992). As such, subjective time is the result of incoming information processing by the individual (Zakay, 1990) and of a long adaptation and evolutionary process to the environment and the social context (Michon, 1992; [KINEMATIC TIME] 1. Samartzi, S. & Pavlou, A. (2005). Pupils'problem solving of concepts in Science and Technology. Cognitive processes and teaching approaches. ΕARLI, 11th Biennial Conference, Nicosia, Cyprus. 1. Samartzi, S. & Pavlou, A. (2009). Children\'s ideas about time, distance and speed concepts: The role of information presentation. Journal of Science Education, 2, (10), 87-90. 1. Both Science and Cognitive Psychology study the understanding of the concept of time via problems solving, by using problems of temporal relations. 1. This research concerns 11-year-old knowledge about the physical concepts of time, distance and speed, as well as the cognitive processes that underlie temporal problem solving procedures. It is examined how the type of representations, which are produced when temporal information is presented in different means (naturally, visually or verbally), can influence the solution of a problem. It is assumed that these types of representations reflect the different cognitive processes involved in understanding the concepts. [Results: ] a. Show that the acquisition of time concept occurs late during cognitive development and it follows speed and distance acquisition b. Indicate a facilitating role of the video presentation of the information to the understanding of concept of time. [Educational implications]: 1. It is showed how the representations used by students affect their competence within an educational context. The findings suggest a developmental model in which 11-year-old students' ideas develop along a continuum during which they pass through an understanding of the distance concept to reach an understanding of the concept of time. It seems that students form a mental representation of time based on distance. This fact can have some important educational implications in teaching and learning of these physical concepts. In particular, it seems to be necessary and useful to embody into the Science Curricula of primary school education elements of the "Modern or neoclassical" Physics (Theory of Relativity), such as Time and Space. It seems to be easier for children at this age to recognize a "true or false" situation than to answer in an open question about the same situation. The educational implications here concern teachers' intervention and questioning skills. Teachers should teach students how to argue using reason and evidence and they should gradually improve students' learning through scientific thinking, by using suitable questions. 1. It is found that the type of the information's presentation had an influence on students' achievement. In the "true or false" questions the facilitating role of "visual-video" presentation emerged. Additionally, when the information is verbally presented the students' performance is very low. Findings like these may be very useful in the design of multimedia or other means that can be used in a teaching approach. [NON-KINEMATIC TIME] Time and Emotion - Time-Emotion-Music - Time-Emotion-Reading/Viewing Psychological Time - Experiential time (experience of the duration of events) - Logical time (a dimension that can be reasoned about) Experiential time, reflecting subjective estimations, may be accurate or inaccurate (contracted or expanded) in relation to real/objective time (i.e., as measured by a clock), called, in this case, subjective time. Subjective time is affected by emotionality: emotions generated in conditions of anticipation, pain, ordeal, or fear may evoke the feeling that time lags behind. The term subjectivisation is used to refer to the distortion of time estimation caused by, among other possible factors, the emotional content of information (either pleasant or unpleasant). Psychological time is formed through temporal representations which are influenced by various factors. Among them, emotion is a principal one, since it often leads to the alteration of the real (objective) duration, creating a subjective time. It is a time contracted or expanded in relation to objective time, depending on the -positive or negative-valence of the emotional content of the information (Droit-Volet& Meck, 2007; Flaherty, 2001; Roeckelein, 2000; Wittmann& van Wassenhove, 2009). In cognitive psychology the study of time emotionally focuses on real-life events' duration estimations. The explanation models involve attentional and mnemonic processes whereas representational and emotional processes are also activated when information concerns media-based events (screen-based events and events described in texts). Relevant research on films has shown that spectators estimate that duration of suspense or terror scenes endure longer than they really do. A crucial factor that can significantly affect estimation of stimulus duration is the mood of the individual. It is a common belief that time flies during pleasant events, but drags when unpleasant events are experienced (Chambon, Gil, Niedenthal, & Droit-Volet, 2005; Droit-Volet& Meck, 2007). These experiences are confirmed by numerous studies. Stimuli or events that evoke positive feelings are underestimated, while stimuli or events that evoke negative feelings are overestimated (Droit-Volet& Meck, 2007; Flaherty, 2001; Wittmann& van Wassenhove, 2009). Other studies suggest that moods influence the processing capacity, leading to selectivity in attention, learning and recall of information (Gupta & Khosla, 2006). Hancock, Szalma& Oron-Gilad(2005) suggest that emotion affects time estimation, by influencing the organism\'s clock mechanism; emotion provides information on the valence level of a stimulus, increasing the efficiency of the recognition mechanisms so that we can respond to possible threats faster. Campbell and Bryant (2007) studied novice skydivers and showed that increased excitement is associated with the perception of time passing quickly. Increased fear, anxiety, waiting or having high expectations are associated with the perception of time passing slowly (Campbell & Bryant, 2007; Friedman, 1990; de Wied, Tan & Frijda, 1992). Overestimation of time duration is also reported during brief, dangerous or possibly life threatening events, like car accidents, robberies or attacks (EaglemanTse, Buonomano, Janssen, Nobre& Holcombe, 2005). Recent studies consider subjective time as composed of several subcomponents and the slowing of time that is reported, as a function of our recollection and not perception (Stetson, Fiesta & Eagleman, 2007). Moreover, we experience a longer duration while expecting an unpleasant event to occur and a shorter duration for a pleasant event, that is, we overestimate or underestimate the actual temporal interval, respectively (Geoffard& Luchini, 2007). Subjectivisation of time is also evident on the events that we experience when we watch a film (Samartzi, 2003; de Wied, Tan & Frijda, 1992). Finally, temporal processing of auditory stimuli can also be affected by emotion: Negative sounds are judged as having longer duration than positive ones (Noulhiane, Mella, Samson & Ragot, 2007). On the other hand, recent findings in text understanding suggest that the emotional valence of a text does not affect the reader\'s estimation of the duration of the described events (Samartzi & Kazi, 2013). The latter may be due to the fact that text, as it is different than image and sound, probably involving different mental processes in time estimation. The present work originates from the above findings. The comparative study of the effect of video and text, as mediators between the emotional valence of the information and the induced emotional state, is attempted. The material is constructed as follows: (1) Two semantically "pleasant" and two "unpleasant" excerpts of narrative structure from a TV series are selected. (2) The information contained in the videos was narrated by creating equivalent texts containing, apart from the dialogues of the videos, the description of the events, as well. A pilot research was carried out in order to measure the type (positive/negative/neutral) and the intensity of the emotions induced by the material. This research involved 200 adults, females and males, randomly placed in eight groups (two pleasant/unpleasant videos/texts) and tested individually. After their exposition to the information participants were presented with a 15-items self-reported Emotionality Inventory, consisting of three subscales: Positive, Negative and Flat Emotions subscale. Emotions appeared in random order. Participants were asked to state on a seven --point Likert-type scale (with -1-corresponding to 'not at all' and -7-to 'absolutely') the degree to which each emotion was evoked. The analysis of results revealed the "most pleasant" and the "most unpleasant" video and text. This material was then used in the main research. In the main research, 160 adults, randomly placed in four groups depending on the type of the information they were encountered first (video or text, pleasant or unpleasant), were tested individually. The two other types of information were presented to each participant randomly. The experimenter recorded the actual duration of the participant's activity (reading the text or watching the video) and asked him to estimate its duration. Participants, also, completed the 15-items self-reported Emotionality Inventory. The procedure was replicated in the same way for the three other types of information. The main results showed that the two medias' (video and text) effects on the temporal representations establishment are comparable and that both of them contribute only partially to time subjectivisation. (?????) [Time -Identity-Implication (duration vs age)] Samartzi, S. (2011). Children\'s cognitive development of lived-experienced time and physical time. StudiaPsychologica, 53 (3), 307-311. Cognitive processing of temporal information is based on multiple domains of knowledge including psychological and physical ones. The notion of age is an aspect of psychological time that can be conceived as a \"lived-experienced" time, whereas the notion of *duration* is an aspect of physical time. This research examines whether the acquisition of the notions of age and duration during cognitive development is simultaneous, as is suggested by the Piagetian thesis, or successive, as recent research has shown. Four problems concerning past and future age and duration notions were presented to 146 Greek pupils aged from 6 to 9. Pupils were asked to answer the questions and to justify their answers. It is shown that, a) in problems asking about past events, both age and duration are very difficult for children, b) problems asking about the future are easier and contrary to the Piagetian thesis, the acquisition of age in fact precedes duration. Moreover, cognitive borders during development are considered. [Time --Representation of Quantification] Samartzi, S. & Kazi, S. (2010). Children\'s mental representations of temporal relations: Number and figure as time\'s magnitude measures. Journal of Science Education, 2(11), 99-102. Samartzi, S. & Kazi, S. (2011). Number and Figure as representational means of problem solving in temporal relations. Psychology, The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society, 18(4), 397-420. The existence of quantifiable components in the mental representations of time magnitude has raised the question regarding the relation between number and figure. Student\'s tendency to conceive time as a "quantifiable" magnitude leads to the raising of time-quantification strategies, by measuring time on different scales. The use of numbers refers to the numerical scale and the use of figure (straight lines, rectilinear parts, etc) refers to a spatial scale. This research concerns 8 to 10-year-old children\'s knowledge about time, as well as the mental representations that underlie temporal problem solving procedures and choice of strategies. Our aim was to examine the cognitive difficulties that occur during temporal problem solving and to study the role of number and figure as quantification means, regarding children\'s cognitive and metacognitive performance. **Results** 8 to 10-year-old children do not control very well the time duration and succession relations in reasoning and problem solving the use of numbers facilitates figural representations of time children\'s meta-cognitive capacities up to 10 years of age are very poor. GRAPHS AND STUFF Educational implications related to the above temporal representations, cognitive and metacognitive performances are discussed. Time and Cognitive Conflict Madoglou, A., & Samartzi, S. (2004). The role of conflict and information in the resolution of problems of unfamiliar physics concepts. Psychology, The Journal of the Hellenic Psychological Society 11(1), 106-123. It concerns the role of conflict in the process of production of generalized knowledge. The experimental method is used, which is applied to the case of problem solving, in the area of unfamiliar physic concepts (an ability task). We are interested in the cognitive representation of time as a physics concept and its elaboration via cognitive conflict. The experimental paradigm used is the concept of "light-year". For the participants (243 students aged 14-15 from High School in the Athens area) it was an unknown notion (used in order to measure long distances), which includes two known notion: the notion of "light" and the notion of "year" (used normally for the measurement of time). Conflict emerges from the manipulation of two independent variables: availability of information (none, some, continuous) and awareness or not (disposing of the correct answer of the problem). The measurements relate, on the one hand, to the elaboration of conflict at the level of self-image, image of the other and image of the task and, on the other hand, to the role of conflict in the understanding of an unfamiliar physics concept and the possibility of its application on problem solving. The results show that the greatest conflict is created in the case of individuals who have continuous access to the necessary information and are awarded with the correct answers. These individuals perceive themselves more positively at the expense of "the other" and of the experimental task. The role of conflict in the production of generalized knowledge appears in a similar post-experimental task, in which the same individuals understand the new knowledge better and they are capable to apply it to new problems.