Educational Psychology Notes PDF

EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY First Lecture Rationale for homework being cancelled in pl schools: kids were spending 8-4/5pm at school + then homework Education Endowment Foundation (EEF) website. [British source. There’s also the American one] List of education interventions (eg homework) - Implementation cost - Evidence strength - Impact (months) [measure of effect size] https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit Check especially the technical appendix (list of actual studies making up body of knowledge, effect sizes: student’s performance before and after intervention) Most common measure of educational effectiveness across countries PISA: Standardized exam done internationally. - 15 year olds - Reading comprehension, mathematics, science knowledge https://www.oecd.org/en/about/programmes/pisa.html EFFECT SIZE - Eg Cohen’s d - Measure of how much values differ from a reference port - DIFFERENT from statistical significance Big issue with Publication Bias, present also in EP: - replication crisis: researchers make career thanx to novelty of their results. Tendency to show exaggerated effects. Applied to interventions - Partial publication: publishing only some effects (e.g. omitting side-effects) - Non-publication: you do a study but don’t publish it bc the results are not the one wanted [especially in the US, where there’s more money in research] Most studies are done in northern America or western Europe - E.g. Phonics studies are done in English. But there are big differences b2 e.g. Eng and Polish. That means there probably are different effects. VALUES at the basis of differences in educational programs (e.g. politics) See reading for next week https://www.theguardian.com/world/2024/sep/26/italy-pupils-grades-for-conduct-law BUT repeating the year is NOT a good educational strategy https://educationendowmentfoundation.org.uk/education-evidence/teaching-learning-toolkit/rep eating-a-year All psychological traits are heritable IQ was discovered in France. Correlates to students’ performance across many different subjects. Outcome of that correlation was called IQ. How is the hierarchy of needs related to education? Which needs are “used” most often for student motivation in a typical school? Which could be used instead? Maslow Esteem = Success in competition used as motivation Belonging/Safety: not being separated from peers Self-actualization: in the ideal world, why you learn. To become who you could be What are the two types of associative learning and how do they relate to education? How is observational learning used in modern education vs in the traditional forms? Non-associative vs associative vs observational learning. A classical conditioning (body’s reaction to the bell, to the exam) & operant conditioning L02 – Theory of Basic Values What is the difference between “values”, “needs”, “personality traits”, and “goals”? Values refer to what is good and worthy - Cultural values (or values of the social collectives) represent the goals that members of the social collective are encouraged to pursue. - Personal values are broad desirable goals that motivate people’s action and serve as guiding principles in their lives. They affect people’s preferences and behavior over time and across situations. Personal values are defined as broad, trans-situational, desirable goals that serve as guiding principles in people’s lives. Personal values are a central content-aspect of the self, distinct from other aspects, such as traits, motives, goals or attitudes Values in ethics, theology: there is a “right” answer: how people should behave. Transcendental values: truth, beauty, goodness. They are not in the circle. Philosophers had a lot to say about it across centuries Values in psychology: results of empirical research. Tilted towards Western, big cities. How are the basic values measured? Self-reported. 1. It is important to her to form her views independently. Self-direction (independence of opinions) 2. It is important to her that her country is secure and stable. Security 3. It is important to her to have a good time. Hedonism 4. It is important to her to avoid upsetting other people. Conformity (interpersonal) [think first: anxiety-avoidance or anxiety-free] 5. It is important to her that the weak and vulnerable in society be protected. Universalism 6. It is important to her that people do what she says they should. Power dominance. (power is more about controlling others, vs self-direction) 7. It is important to her never to think she deserves more than other people. Humility 8. It is important to her to care for nature. 9. It is important to her that no one should ever shame her. Face 10. It is important to her always to look for different things to do. Stimulation 11. It is important to her to take care of people she is close to. Benevolence, caring 12. It is important to her to have the power that money can bring. Power resources 13. It is very important to her to avoid disease and protect her health. Security, personal 14. It is important to her to be tolerant toward all kinds of people and groups. Universalism, tolerance 15. It is important to her never to violate rules or regulations. Conformity, rules 16. It is important to her to make her own decisions about her life. Self-direction 17. It is important to her to have ambitions in life. Power, dominance (showing others you are special) 18. It is important to her to maintain traditional values and ways of thinking. Tradition 19. It is important to her that people she knows have full confidence in her. Benevolence, dependability 20. It is important to her to be wealthy. 21. It is important to her to take part in activities to defend nature. 22. It is important to her never to annoy anyone. 23. It is important to her to develop her own opinions. 24. It is important to her to protect her public image 25. It is very important to her to help the people dear to her. 26. It is important to her to be personally safe and secure. 27. It is important to her to be a dependable and trustworthy friend. 28. It is important to her to take risks that make life exciting. 29. It is important to her to have the power to make people do what she wants. 30. It is important to her to plan her activities independently. 31. It is important to her to follow rules even when no-one is watching. 32. It is important to her to be very successful. 33. It is important to her to follow her family’s customs or the customs of a religion. 34. It is important to her to listen to and understand people who are different from her. 35. It is important to her to have a strong state that can defend its citizens. 36. It is important to her to enjoy life’s pleasures. 37. It is important to her that every person in the world have equal opportunities in life. 38. It is important to her to be humble. 39. It is important to her to figure things out herself. 40. It is important to her to honor the traditional practices of her culture 41. It is important to her to be the one who tells others what to do. 42. It is important to her to obey all the laws. 43. It is important to her to have all sorts of new experiences. 44. It is important to her to own expensive things that show her wealth 45. It is important to her to protect the natural environment from destruction or pollution. 46. It is important to her to take advantage of every opportunity to have fun 47. It is important to her to concern herself with every need of her dear ones. 48. It is important to her that people recognize what she achieves. 49. It is important to her never to be humiliated. Face 50. It is important to her that her country protect itself against all threats. 51. It is important to her never to make other people angry. Interpersonal conformity 52. It is important to her that everyone be treated justly, even people she doesn’t know. 53. It is important to her to avoid anything dangerous 54. It is important to her to be satisfied with what she has and not ask for more. 55. It is important to her that all her friends and family can rely on her completely. Benevolence, dependability 56. It is important to her to be free to choose what she does by herself. 57. It is important to her to accept people even when she disagrees with them. What is the value conflict and value compatibility? Schwartz proposed a theory of universals in the content and structure of personal values. After its presentation in 1992, this theory quickly became prominent in the field. Schwartz suggested that values can be organized according to the motivational goals they express. Analyzing the needs of individuals and the requirements for societal survival, Schwartz identified ten motivationally distinct types of values: power, achievement, hedonism, stimulation, self-direction, universalism, benevolence, tradition, conformity, and security. Some of these values are mutually compatible; they reflect goals that can be attained simultaneously through the same actions or attitudes. Other values conflict with each other; actions that promote the attainment of one value are likely to impede the attainment of the other. Why did a circular structure of values emerge from data? What does it mean that values can be partitioned “in different ways”? What are the main ways of looking at the circular structure of values? The conflicts and compatibilities among the various values determine their structure. Values are structured in a circular continuum, organized according to the motivations they express. Adjacent values express compatible motivations, and opposing values express conflicting motivations. Self-transcendence & Openness to change Growth (Anxiety-free) Conservation & Self-enhancement Self-protection (Anxiety-avoidance) At a social level: political party level At a personal level: Attachment styles, temperament There is an inheritance of political preference (linked with temperament) Humans mostly focus on Self-protection (more weight on the potential loss: remember Kahneman) Refined model Schwartz summarized the circular structure by combining the values into four higher-order values that form two basic conflicts. The first conflict contrasts self-enhancement vs. self-transcendence. The second conflict contrasts openness to change vs. conservation. 19 more narrowly defined values Relative importance of values, cultural universals Schwartz’s circular model has received support in more than 300 samples from over 80 countries. Cross-cultural analysis. Benevolence is the top value across different cultures (considered as sth that is good and worthy. Benevolence =/= Universalism. Benevolence is not universalistic: positive relationships between people that know each other, in-group bond. Universalism is about treating each other equally regardless of which group they belong to. People prefer to see themselves as benevolent, self-directed (making one’s own choices freely), universalism. BUT we have a tendency to focus our attention on the opposite values (so they seek conformity, tradition, power, if threatened) ⇨ In reality the balance is more equal Interpersonal values of Agency and Communion vs basic values. Two basic dimensions of social perception (Wojciszke). Studied for long in social psychology. Central determinants of how we perceive a group of people (e.g. elderly, lawyers, policemen) Blue dots are basic values. Red triangles are dimensions on agency-communion model. They interrelate Big Five personality traits vs basic values How do values affect religiosity and career choice? How could the values affect educational choices? The pattern of correlations between values and religiosity was strikingly consistent across monotheistic religions: religiosity correlated positively with emphasizing conservation values, most strongly tradition, and negatively with emphasizing values of openness to change, self-direction, stimulation and hedonism. People with different occupations are characterized by different value priorities. These value profiles are not arbitrary; rather, the occupations facilitate attainment of the goals that their members consider to be important. What is the source of this value congruency? Do people choose occupations that are compatible with their values? Or do their values change over time so that they match their occupation and workplace? - In longitudinal analyses over decades, they found that the importance people attribute to self-direction versus conformity values increases to the extent that their work is characterized by low supervision and entails complex and varied tasks. These effects have transgenerational implications because the characteristics of the occupational environment of the parents affect the values they wish to instill in their children - Studies that compared students from different academic departments at the beginning and end of their university studies, provide evidence for a value-based self-selection process. The findings reveal that value differences between students enrolled in different departments are already present at the very beginning of the first year of study. This suggests that individuals rely on their values, at least in part, when choosing the occupation or profession for which they wish to prepare. In contrast, there is only minimal evidence for the impact of socialization processes: students’ values hardly changed during the years they spent at the university How do values affect behavior towards close others and distant others, and how could this be related to education? Values and close others. One domain that has attracted attention is the impact of values on prosocial behavior—actions intended to protect or to enhance the welfare of others. Much of everyday life involves interaction with others. During such interaction, people decide how much to invest in the welfare of the others by providing tangible or intangible resources such as time, advice, or money. Helping others sometimes comes at the expense of promoting one’s own interest. Nonetheless, some people choose to contribute, cooperate and help others rather than compete. Which values predict whether a person is likely to help others or not? Many studies have addressed this question. Benevolence values (one of the self-transcendence values) express the motivation to care for close others. Most people report that these values are very important to them17. Nonetheless, people differ in the importance they attribute to benevolence values, and the more important these values are, the more one is likely to help others. Emphasizing benevolence values correlated with various forms of everyday kindness. The magnitude of the correlations is typically medium-small to medium-large. People who emphasize these values were more likely to volunteer to help others, to donate money to a social cause, or to emphasize a volunteering identity over time. Values and distant others. Much of the research examining the relations of values to action towards distant others, examines tolerance [part of Universalism] towards people who differ from societal norms in their socio- demographic characteristics (for example, ethnicity or religion) or in their personal attitudes and preferences. Universalism values (a self-transcendence value), which express concern for the welfare of all others, including those whose lifestyle differs from one’s own, foster tolerance towards others. Tolerance is also closely related to the key goals of openness-to-change values, because contact with people who are not members of the dominant society affords opportunities for novelty and excitement and independence from following the lifestyle of ones’ in-group. In contrast, tolerance conflicts with the emphasis of conservation values on maintaining the status quo in social and cultural arrangements. These values promote obedience to prevailing norms and expectations (conformity values) and avoidance of anything new and unfamiliar (tradition values). Finally, tolerance may be compatible or conflicting with the goals of self-enhancement values Basic values and political orientation Are main conflicts in education mainly about values and what can be done about it? There is a surprising agreement in what people consider good and worthy cross culturally. BUT there are also some differences between and within cultures. People from middle class have specific types of occupations: specialists in their fields. They tend to be motivated by their autonomy in making decisions (motivated by self-direction). That influences the values they teach their children. People from working classes will be more used to following the rules. That becomes a value and is transmitted to children. Any community will have different values, opinions, preferences for educations. According to Ł, this conflict just slows down the assessment of what are the best educational systems, empirically. Children are taught benevolence from preschool. No disagreement on that. Teachers coincide with representative sample of adults (altho mostly females) The values of children and values are generally similar, but teachers would value much more security, tradition than students. Students value hedonism and stimulation much more. American students value very low universalism (don’t care about outgroups, think healthcare system). Power at lowest level, but still significantly higher than general pop. L03 – Teaching as a Cultural Gadget Is teaching inborn/instictual (an adaptation) or learned/cultural (cognitive gadget)? if inborn, we can’t do too much about it. if learned, we can do much more to influence it. According to this theory, also Theory of Mind is learned. Implication: Autism can be treated, ToM can be taught with more intense behavioral approach. The document titled "The Cultural Evolution of Teaching" explores the cultural evolution of teaching as a learned cultural trait rather than an innate ability. Authors Eva Brandl, Ruth Mace, and Cecilia Heyes argue that human teaching develops through social learning, leveraging general cognitive mechanisms (such as prosociality and executive control) rather than through specific cognitive adaptations for teaching. Key Points: 1. Teaching as a cognitive gadget: Human teaching is viewed as a "cognitive gadget," meaning it is a culturally acquired skill, learned during social interactions, rather than a genetic instinct or an inherited predisposition. Children learn to teach by participating in teaching interactions with adults and peers. 2. Cognitive mechanisms involved: Teaching does not rely on specific mental processes like mindreading (theory of mind), but instead uses general cognitive mechanisms such as reinforcement learning and executive control. 3. Empirical evidence: Evidence supporting this hypothesis comes from studies showing significant cultural variation in teaching practices, the ontogenetic development of teaching in children, and the use of general cognitive capacities in teaching. 4. Cross-cultural variability: Teaching varies widely across cultures. For instance, in industrialized societies with formal education systems, direct verbal teaching is common, while in hunter-gatherer societies, children often learn through observation and imitation, with less verbal and more practical forms of teaching. 5. Cumulative cultural evolution: Human teaching is subject to cumulative cultural evolution, improving over generations through the transmission of practices and knowledge. Conclusions: The document concludes that teaching is a culturally transmitted characteristic, dependent on a "basic genetic starter kit," but primarily shaped through cultural learning. This challenges the view of teaching as a genetically inherited cognitive instinct. Issues, which will be addressed during our meeting: Note the difference between the “mentalistic” and the “functional” definitions of teaching. The “mentalistic” narrows down teaching to humans and to a particular psychological mechanism, it looks at teaching as a form of “natural cognition”. It focuses on the uniqueness of humans. The “functional” one is broader, focuses on the commonality between humans and non-human animals, and looks at conditions under which teaching would be adaptive. The functional definition led to multiple reports of teaching in different species. In modern, formal education we are used to “direct active teaching” based on verbal explanations, but there are many more behaviors, which could be defined as teaching. There is no one teaching behavior, which is best at facilitating learning. The “cognitive gadget” theory of teaching is different from the “natural cognition” theory. Cognitive gadget explains existence of teaching by referring to cultural evolution, it claims that children learn to teach by interacting with other people. This learning is possible thanks to genetically inherited cognitive mechanisms, but none of them is specific to teaching. On the other hand, the “cognitive instinct” theory claims that teaching is human specific and based on the genetically inherited mechanisms of shared intentionality (”mentalising”, “theory of mind”). TEACHING in the cognitive intuitive theory: an individual recognizes that another doesn’t know sth, so shows them how it works. But it is also about the learner - Remember inborn tendency to fix attention on shapes of faces (red lights in utero). Perhaps there is sth wrong with eye contact in autism => deficit of a developmental mechanism shapes life trajectory. They have to be taught to pay attention to human faces. - Contingencies how to form secure attachment (Camaleon effect = preference for interpersonal synchrony in adulthood). Turn-taking. Seems natural. From very early on is preferred by kids. Seem to be rewarded by the simple sychrony. - Infant-directed speech: higher pitched voice (probably hearing receptors for high pitch develop first) - Gaze cuing: tendency to follow the gaze of the person who you are looking at. How word-object association works - Rational imitation: not sure if reliable phenomenon… what to imitate? Infants somehow rationally choose it Theory of mind. We see kids developing it around preschool, now they have skills to figure out what other kids don’t know, so they start teaching. Seems to confirm Cognitive Instinct Theory Another argument comes from animal studies. Teaching occurs when mother cat modifies her behavior only when the naïve cat is present + there is no immediate reward for her. IN the article, evidence from meercats (responding to help cries), birds … some slight evidence, clearly instinctual Mentalistic definitions is about theory of mind: having the intention to teach sb, L04 – Intent Participation Model RECAP: The stability of Values. - Rather high after 2, 3. Even 8 years - More important than personality in setting goals - Values are in part causally dependent on temperament traits. In a population there is always a diversity of values. Diversity of values is what stabilizes a society - Evidence: - Major ife transitions can change values (eg emerging adulthood, then mid 30s: maybe there’s sth missing in my life- changing tracks, moving to another country). - But, university training and socialization itself change values minimally, if at all - How to change people’s values: persuasion, attachment priming (remembering childhood situations characterized by secure attachment) – moderate effect towards benevolence, terror management theory - Learning styles are a “neuromyth” Issues, which will be addressed during our meeting: General distinction between assembly-line instruction and intent participation. Contrasting processes are involved in intent participation as people engage together in a common endeavor and in assembly-line instruction, based on transmission of information from experts outside the context of purposeful, productive activity. The distinction between "assembly-line instruction" and "intent participation" centers on how learning is structured and the roles of both teachers and learners: 1. Assembly-Line Instruction: This method is hierarchical, with defined roles where an authority figure (teacher or expert) directs and manages learning. It emphasizes structured lessons that isolate skills or information, often disconnecting them from real-world application or purpose. Learners are recipients of knowledge, focusing on correct answers through repetitive practice, quizzes, and external motivators like grades or rewards. - No space for questioning the method - ADHD as a mismatch between child’s temperamental traits and the needs of the assembly line - Q&A structure - Assessment through tests = squeezing for retention of knowledge => motivation is not assessed (as it always comes from outside) BUT, in defense of formal education: - led to mass literacy rate increases all over the world. - a lot of things cannot be seen by everybody (atoms, laws of physics, planets, bacteria…), but still can be taught A lot of modern education is about taking what’s worth from IP and put it back into ALI. E.g., workshops, interactive lectures, science centers 2. Intent Participation: This approach is collaborative and horizontal, involving learners in real, meaningful activities. Knowledge is shared organically, often through observation, hands-on engagement, and participation alongside more experienced individuals. Learners are active participants, gaining understanding through contributing to ongoing tasks, with motivation driven by the inherent interest and relevance of the activities - Children schooled in a small scale society can sustain their attention for longer period of time, observing different things that are happening (not just one thing, what the teacher wants you to focus on and avoid distractions) - Learners ask questions, and don’t expect an explicit explanation - Assessment: evidence of successful learning = autonomy, initiative The article does provide examples contrasting assembly-line instruction with intent participation: 1. Assembly-Line Instruction: o Classroom Examples: In U.S. schools, instruction often follows a factory model where teachers “deliver” content through highly structured lessons. Students are expected to respond to “known-answer” questions in an initiation-reply-evaluation sequence. This approach is designed for efficiency and measurable outcomes, where learning is assessed through quizzes and grades. o Parent-Child Interactions: In Western middle-class families, parents sometimes structure conversations and activities to mimic school-like settings, quizzing children or prompting specific responses to prepare them for school environments 2. Intent Participation: o Indigenous Learning Contexts: Indigenous communities often practice intent participation, where children observe skilled adults and join in tasks when ready. For instance, children learn language and social customs by listening and watching adults, actively participating as they grow capable. o Community-Based Learning: In some collaborative U.S. schools and interactive museum settings, children are encouraged to learn by engaging directly with tasks or exhibits, observing and interacting in real-time rather than through isolated lessons. These examples illustrate how assembly-line instruction isolates learning into distinct lessons and assessment, while intent participation allows continuous, contextual engagement within real activities. Historical reasons for the existence of the cultural practice of “assembly-line” instruction: industrialization (vs farming), child labor, general literacy, first IQ tests The “assembly-line” instruction model in education was influenced by key historical factors associated with the rise of industrialization. As the United States shifted from a primarily agrarian society to an industrial economy, efficiency in all areas—including education—became paramount. This led to the adaptation of a factory-like approach in schooling, where structured, segmented instruction mirrored the assembly line. Additionally, the introduction of child labor laws and compulsory education aimed to protect children from exploitation in factories and to prepare them for the growing literacy demands of the workforce. IQ testing and grading systems further supported this model, categorizing students’ abilities to sort and allocate educational resources efficiently, much like products in a production line Possible reasons for the existence of the cultural practice of “intent participation”: verbal language learning, observational learning (importance of attention/intention!), social tolerance, opportunity provisioning, stimulus enhancement, evaluative feedback; children involvement in work; responsibilities for adult activities The cultural practice of "intent participation" is rooted in several factors, fostering learning through observation, engagement, and responsibility in shared community or family activities. Key reasons include: 1. Verbal and Observational Learning: Early language acquisition often occurs through listening and observing, with children learning appropriate speech forms by emulating adults. In many communities, children develop language skills without formal instruction by simply observing and mimicking language in social settings 2. Attention and Intention: Observational learning in intent participation heavily relies on the learner's focused attention and intent to participate. By observing skilled members of the community, children learn complex social cues and processes, aligning their actions with the ongoing task to gain expertise 3. Social Integration and Responsibilities: Many cultures value children's integration into adult tasks, assigning them responsibilities that increase gradually. This approach provides real-world applications and roles that are essential to adult life, fostering both skill acquisition and social responsibility through participation. 4. Stimulus enhancement in the context of intent participation refers to how an adult's or peer's interaction with an object or task can increase a child's interest and engagement with it, making the task or object more appealing and noticeable. 5. Feedback and Motivation: Rather than relying on rewards or grades, intent participation is driven by the relevance of the task itself. Children understand the value and outcomes of their contributions, and evaluative feedback often comes directly from the activity or community context, rather than from external grading. Differences in both educational approaches. - Roles taken by more- and less-experienced people “Switchboard participant structure”; known-answer quizzing; initiation-reply-evaluation format; mock excitement and praise; responsibility to watch; collaborative approach Roles and interactions are structured differently: Assembly-Line Instruction: o Less-Experienced Role: Learners are passive recipients; their contributions are brief and directed solely to the instructor without engagement with peers. Their primary responsibility is to watch and follow instructions without direct, active engagement in the learning process o More-Experienced Role: Instructors control the learning process with a “switchboard participant structure,” directing who speaks and interacts. Teachers ask “known-answer” questions, expecting correct responses to evaluate learning, following an “initiation-reply-evaluation” format. Teachers often use praise and mock excitement to sustain attention and control the class. Intent Participation: o Less-Experienced Role: Learners actively participate, taking responsibility within the group and learning through observation and contribution. Children’s responsibilities gradually increase, allowing them to take initiative and integrate their learning by observing and contributing to adult activities o More-Experienced Role: Experienced individuals guide and facilitate rather than direct, involving learners in real tasks and fostering a collaborative, horizontal structure. There’s no strict turn-taking; learners can observe, ask questions, and contribute naturally to the activity. The intent participation structure focuses on collaboration and shared purpose, contrasting with the hierarchical, segmented structure of assembly-line learning. - Motivation and purposes of activities. Clear purpose vs oblique purpose; incremental building block assembly line. The assembly-line and intent participation educational approaches differ significantly in how they shape motivation and activity purposes: 1. Assembly-Line Instruction: Activities often have an oblique purpose, with tasks broken down into disconnected, incremental steps that students may find difficult to connect to practical applications. This method, influenced by mass production, teaches skills in isolation, treating each as a "building block" without immediate context or purpose for students. Motivation is generally external, with students driven by rewards, grades, or praise that may feel artificial or detached from the activity itself. 2. Intent Participation: Here, activities have a clear, inherent purpose, and learners understand each task within the larger, meaningful context of real-life applications. Instead of arbitrary steps, each part of the activity contributes to a visible goal, making the purpose self-evident. Motivation is internal, driven by the relevance and immediate application of tasks that contribute directly to community or family needs - Source of learning. Keen, long-term attention; dependence on others; search for verbal rules. 1. Assembly-Line Instruction: Learning here often depends heavily on external guidance, with learners relying on verbal instructions and rules provided by an authority (teacher or expert). Learners tend to focus on searching for verbal explanations and set procedures, emphasizing structured responses to specific prompts. This reliance on others for rules and guidance aligns with the structured, segmented approach typical of assembly-line methods, where tasks are broken down and need explicit instructions 2. Intent Participation: In contrast, learning is driven by keen, long-term attention to activities, where learners are encouraged to observe and understand through participation rather than relying solely on verbal directions. Here, learning is self-initiated, with the learner observing, anticipating their involvement, and drawing understanding from the ongoing actions of more experienced individuals. This attentional depth helps learners organically grasp complex skills and tasks by immersing themselves in the context of real-world, collaborative activities rather than through isolated instructions This difference reflects the reliance on direct observation and active listening in intent participation versus the dependence on structured verbal guidance in assembly-line instruction - Forms of communication. Differences in conversations (in the service of activity vs substitution for activity) In assembly-line instruction and intent participation, communication styles and the role of conversation in learning vary distinctly: 1. Assembly-Line Instruction: Here, conversations are often a substitute for direct involvement in the actual activity. Teachers provide explanations or directives in a structured way, often using known-answer questions, and students respond in a controlled format like the initiation-reply-evaluation sequence. Communication serves primarily to test or transmit information, and is not necessarily linked to real-life, collaborative contexts 2. Intent Participation: In this approach, conversations occur in the service of the ongoing activity, supporting participation in meaningful tasks. Communication is used to coordinate and share relevant information as the activity unfolds. Rather than isolating talk from the task, intent participation integrates language as a supportive tool within the shared endeavor, often with the learner observing and participating as needed in real-world settings This difference underscores how assembly-line instruction uses conversation to replace direct engagement, while intent participation uses it to enrich and deepen active involvement in real activities. - Nature of assessment. Assessment for accountability (receipt and retention); measurement of spontaneous motivation; sorting and certifying. 1. Assembly-Line Instruction: Assessment here focuses on accountability for what students have received and retained. It often measures how well learners can recall and reproduce the taught material, emphasizing performance in standardized tasks or tests. This form of assessment is primarily designed to sort and certify students, assigning grades or ranks that determine their access to further resources or opportunities. The process tends to separate assessment from the learning activity itself, with a focus on externally imposed standards of success and failure. 2. Intent Participation: In contrast, assessment in intent participation is informal and embedded in the activity, focusing on learners' spontaneous motivation and engagement. This type of assessment includes noticing the learner's initiative, interest, and willingness to contribute meaningfully. Rather than using tests or grades, assessment happens through the learner's ongoing involvement and the adjustments made by more experienced participants to support learning. The aim is less about certification and more about encouraging genuine, sustained interest and the development of skills relevant to community practices. This contrast highlights how assembly-line instruction often treats learners as products for measurement, while intent participation fosters assessment as an integral part of the learning process, valuing self-motivated involvement over standardized evaluation. “Western” ideas for greater intent participation? Certain Western settings, like collaborative schools and interactive museums, have incorporated elements of intent participation. These environments sometimes focus on engaging learners through hands-on, community-oriented activities that allow children to learn by observing and participating, rather than through isolated, teacher-directed instruction. These examples reflect a shift within some Western educational approaches toward methods that mirror intent participation principles, emphasizing active involvement and collaborative learning. L05 - Teaching Machines !!! SEE Google NotebookLM fictional dialogue on Notions. Also for BA exam THE ROANOKE EXPERIMENT “the Roanoke Experiment” began in early 1960, when Allen Calvin, a psychology professor at nearby Hollins College, received a $68,000 grant from the Carnegie Foundation to assess the potential of programmed instruction and teaching machines, a little over half a million dollars today. Superintendent of the Roanoke district, Edward Rushton, was enthusiastic about new methods and new technologies of teaching, particularly those that would allow the over- crowded district to teach more students. Ninth-grade algebra would be taught via programmed instruction to eighth- grade students. If the experiment failed somehow and the teaching machines proved ineffective, the students would still be able to take ninth-grade algebra as normal the following year. “Of the 253 eighth grade students enrolled at Woodrow Wilson Junior High School, where the experiment would take place, a third, because of their above-average mathematical ability, had already been selected to begin first-year algebra at the ninth grade level but in conventional classes,” Rushton explained. “The students for the pilot study in programmed learning would be drawn, not from these above- average students, but from the other students. If they too could master first year algebra, it would be a clear gain. If not, no one could say that their participation in the experiment had held them back.” The program was written by Daniel Murphy, a former high school math teacher who was enrolled in the psychology graduate program at Hollins College and who, according to Skinner at least, could barely stay ahead of the students in writing the materials. The students worked on their own and at their own speed. They received no explanations and no help from the teacher; they were given no homework assignments. All the instruction and assessment were done by the teaching machines— each new concept introduced reduced to the smallest possible component and each student learning immediately if his or her answer was right so they could move on to the next step. Students were able to complete a full year’s ninth grade algebra course in a semester’s time and to score on a standardized test at least ‘average’ for the ninth grade norm. To say the least, this was highly encouraging.” One year later, the students were retested to see how well they could recall what they’d learned on the machines, and, as Rushton gushed, their scores “indicated an average rate of slightly more than 90 per cent!”. The Hollins researchers also asked the students what they thought of their experience, and only five of them said that they preferred traditional teaching methods to programmed instruction. When asked if they would prefer traditional teaching methods, a class taught by machines alone, or one in which the teacher gave help rather than just observed, only two said they’d prefer the first. Eight students said they’d prefer the programmed instruction. The majority of the students— twenty- four of them— said that they would prefer the latter option. Teaching machines in 1960 were similar in design to the modern Duolingo application. Small pieces of information, followed by multiple choice tests and immediate feedback. Result from this “experiment” are not conclusive. Experimental design was not followed, with a lack of random group assignment and unclear differences in precise teaching events between the two groups. It is possible that the initial motivational boost, coming from a participation in a “pioneering” program, would soon fade. There is also an unclear link between people reporting the study and teaching machine producers. These were expensive devices, and a “programmed textbook” potentially could offer the same functionality, in a much cheaper book format. After all, the main element is not the machine, but the approach to education: standardized, step-by-step, with frequent feedback and gradually increasing difficulty, with the possibility to work at your own pace, self-sufficient with intuitive interface (designed not to require an “online” explanation from the teacher). True innovators were therefore the teachers who produced the programs, not the machine designers, and the efficiency of teaching turned out to be dependent on the quality of those educational programs. Unfortunately, marketing and business preferred to advertise the expensive “machines” themselves, which soon led to a widespread belief among teachers and administrators, that programmed instruction is overpriced and not worth the effort. SUMMARY OF B.F. SKINNER IDEAS B.F. Skinner criticizes the American education system and proposes radical changes based on a behavioral approach to learning. Skinner argues that the current system is inefficient and does not fully utilize the potential of students. Instead of focusing on punishments and rewards, Skinner proposes a system based on positive reinforcement, in which students learn at their own pace, through curricula that provide them with a constant sense of success. Key points of the article include: A critique of dominant psychological theories: Skinner criticizes humanistic and cognitive psychology for their lack of practical solutions to education. He believes that these theories focus on abstract concepts, rather than observable behavior and its formation. Low school efficiency: Skinner believes that schools do not use educational technologies, such as teaching machines and programming, that could significantly increase the efficiency of learning. The "good teacher myth": Skinner argues that the success of education does not depend only on "good teachers" and "good students". What is needed is a system that allows every teacher to teach effectively, regardless of their natural talents. Proposed changes - Skinner proposes four major changes to the education system: 1. Clearly define the goals of education: Teachers should know exactly what they want to teach, rather than focusing on abstract goals such as "excellence" or "creativity." 2. Teach the essentials: Focus on the basic skills and knowledge that are essential for further learning. 3. Individualized learning pace: Students should be able to learn at their own pace, rather than being forced to fit into a rigid curriculum. 4. Curriculum: Curricula should be used that provide students with continuous positive reinforcement and a sense of success. Skinner believes that these changes will lead to a revolution in education, similar to the industrial revolution that revolutionized production. Students will be more motivated and engaged in learning, and teachers will be able to focus on developing each student's individual talents. Skinner's proposal, although radical and controversial, has both positive and negative aspects that are not immediately obvious. POSITIVE ASPECTS: Emphasis on individualization: Skinner rightly notes that an education system based on a rigid curriculum and the same pace of learning for all students is unfair and ineffective. Allowing students to learn at their own pace, adapted to their individual needs and abilities, is crucial to developing their potential. In this respect, Skinner's proposal is ahead of its time and is in line with contemporary trends in education, such as "personalized learning". Intrinsic motivation: Skinner's model, based on positive reinforcement, has the potential to develop students' intrinsic motivation to learn. Students who experience consistent success and satisfaction from learning are more likely to engage in the learning process of their own free will, rather than because of external pressures. The role of the teacher: Although Skinner criticizes traditional teaching methods, he does not deny the role of the teacher. On the contrary, he believes that the teacher plays a key role in creating curricula and supporting students in their individual educational path. Freeing teachers from routine tasks such as grading tests or "monitoring discipline" will allow them to focus on developing students' individual talents and building relationships based on mutual respect. NEGATIVE ASPECTS: Too mechanistic approach: Critics of Skinner's model accuse him of an overly mechanistic approach to learning, treating the student as a "machine for responding" to stimuli. Ignoring the emotional, social and cultural aspects of learning can lead to superficial and thoughtless acquisition of knowledge. The problem of "learned helplessness": A system based on continuous positive reinforcement can lead to "learned helplessness" in students who are not prepared for failures and difficulties. In the real world, success is not guaranteed, and the ability to cope with failures is essential to achieving long-term goals. Limited role of creativity: Skinner's model focuses on effective transfer of existing knowledge, which can limit the development of creativity and innovation in students. Students need space to experiment, ask questions, and go beyond the framework imposed by the curriculum. SCHOOLS AND VALUES The "A" school operates based on a clearly defined system in which every student and employee knows their place. There is a strong emphasis on respecting established rules and procedures. Teachers and staff act as guides and mentors, passing on knowledge and experience to younger generations. Education at this school focuses on transmitting content considered fundamental to understanding the history and culture of the nation. Students explore the richness of national literature, art and history, participating in events cultivating the memory of the past. The aim of this school is to educate individuals who are aware of their roots and ready to actively participate in social life, striving to achieve significant positions and influence. Based on: Conformity (clearly established roles), Tradition, Power (positions giving influence) The “B” school places emphasis on academic and athletic results. The school boasts a high percentage of graduates gaining admission to prestigious universities and numerous victories in sports competitions. Students are encouraged to compete and strive to be the best in their fields. School B is known for its strict rules and high standards. Students must adhere to a strict dress code. Teachers set ambitious goals for students and expect their full commitment. Graduates of the "B" school often emphasize the strong bonds that connect them and the pride of being part of an elite community. The school organizes numerous events integrating students and graduates, strengthening the sense of group identity. Benevolence (dependability), Achievement, Conformity The “C” school focuses on individual approach, developing the individual talents and interests of each student. The curriculum is flexible and adapted to the needs and abilities of students. Teachers act as mentors, supporting students in their development. School “C” promotes teaching methods based on discovery, experimentation and problem solving. Students are encouraged to ask questions, question established patterns and seek answers on their own. Students have great freedom in choosing subjects, projects and learning methods. The school makes students responsible for their own educational process, teaching them planning, organization and self-discipline. Self-direction ________________________________________________________________________________ The “D” school puts emphasis on learning foreign languages and the culture of other countries. Students learn several foreign languages, and the curriculum covers issues related to the history, culture and geography of various regions of the world. The school organizes international exchanges and cooperates with educational institutions from other countries. Students learn respect for differences, empathy and resolving conflicts in a peaceful way. School “D” students participate in social projects, volunteering and charity events, focusing on issues such as poverty, social inequality and environmental protection. Universalism The “E” school places emphasis on STEM learning and emerging technologies, science, technology, engineering and mathematics (STEM). Students use the latest educational tools, such as 3D printing, robotics and virtual reality. The school promotes learning programming and other skills necessary in the knowledge-based economy. Learning is perceived here not only as a duty, but also as a fascinating adventure, a source of joy and satisfaction from discovery. At School E, students work on real-world problems using an interdisciplinary approach. They are encouraged to experiment, prototype and create innovative solutions. The learning process is exciting and engages the senses, stimulating curiosity and the desire to discover. Stimulation (enjoyment), Hedonism (personal interest), Self-direction The “F” school focuses on community values, building a strong school community based on mutual respect, trust and cooperation. Students participate in group projects, discussions and debates, learning from each other. Students of School “F” are actively involved in the life of the local community. They participate in volunteering, civic initiatives and projects aimed at improving the quality of life in their surroundings. School “F” places emphasis on developing social sensitivity, empathy and responsibility. Humanities subjects such as philosophy, ethics and psychology play an important role in the curriculum. Universalism, Benevolence, Tradition (some elements, not in a conservative way) COGNITIVE GADGET VS INSTINCT The authors describe teaching as a "cognitive gadget" built from "old parts." Imagine this gadget is like a bicycle. What part of the bicycle would theory of mind represent? a) The frame of the bicycle - provides the foundation and structure, much like theory of mind is the foundation for human social cognition. [in line with Cognitive Instinct] b) The bell of the bicycle - although useful in some situations, is not essential for riding, just as theory of mind is not always essential for effective teaching. Animals can teach withoug having any ToM c) The wheels of the bicycle - allow us to move forward, much like theory of mind allows us to predict the behavior of others and adapt our actions to them. d) The handlebars of the bicycle - allow us to control and direct, much like theory of mind allows us to manipulate the behavior of others. The authors suggest that teaching, as a "cognitive gadget," can evolve culturally. Imagine that we are watching this process in fast forward, as in a time-lapse movie. Which of the following phenomena would we MOST likely observe in this film? a) The gradual disappearance of the "old parts" of the gadget, replaced by new, more specialized cognitive mechanisms. b) The emergence of new configurations of the "old parts", depending on changing environmental conditions and social needs. c) The emergence of a universal, optimal model of the gadget, identical in all cultures. d) The complete elimination of the influence of genetics on the development of the gadget, making it exclusively a product of culture. The "cognitive gadget" hypothesis has implications that extend beyond the field of education. In which of the following fields would this hypothesis be MOST useful in explaining complex social behavior? a) Politics - in understanding the mechanisms of political beliefs and ideologies. ideologies, religious beliefs b) Medicine - in developing new treatments for neurodegenerative diseases. c) Art - in the analysis of creative processes and the interpretation of works of art. d) Sport - in the optimization of training and performance of athletes. INTENT PARTICIPATION VS FACTORY MODEL Professor A: Education should draw inspiration from the natural learning process that we observe in everyday life. Children learn language by actively listening and participating in conversations, not by memorizing grammar rules. Similarly, they learn to cook by helping their parents in the kitchen, not by studying recipes in books. Professor B: Although practical experience is important, we cannot ignore the importance of systematic transfer of knowledge. Abstract concepts, grammar rules or laws of physics are not intuitive and require a structured teaching process. The "factory" model allows for the effective transfer of a large amount of knowledge in a relatively short time, which is necessary in today's world. Professor A.: The effectiveness of knowledge transfer does not automatically mean the effectiveness of learning. The "factory" model often leads to superficial learning based on mechanical memorization. Students are treated as empty vessels, not as active constructors of knowledge. Professor B.: I disagree. A well-conducted lesson in the "factory" model can be engaging. The teacher, as an expert, can convey knowledge in an inspiring way. Students can ask questions and draw conclusions. Professor A.: The "factory" model often isolates students from practical applications of knowledge. They learn about principles and rules, but are unable to apply them in real-life situations. We need a model that integrates theory with practice, by engaging students in authentic problems. Professor B.: But how can such learning be organized in practice? Access to experts and the possibility of observing authentic situations are limited. Can a primary school student assist in a neurosurgical operation? Can a high school student participate in a meeting of the Council of Ministers? Professor A.: Of course, there are limitations, but we can use simulations, educational games, research projects. We can invite experts to schools. It is important to change the way we think about education and treat it as a process of active discovery. Professor B.: Another important issue is assessment. The "factory" model offers clear assessment criteria based on standardized tests. How can we assess progress in learning based on "directed participation", where individual engagement and initiative of the student are key? Professor A.: Of course, assessment in the "directed participation" model is more complex, but not impossible. We can take into account the student's engagement, contribution to group work, creativity in solving problems. It is important that assessment is an integral part of the learning process, and not just a tool for segregating students. Professor B.: Let's remember, however, that the education system also has a selective function. We need to prepare students to compete on the job market. The "factory" model, although imperfect, teaches discipline, systematicity and efficiency, traits valued in the world of work. Professor A.: But is it at the expense of creativity, independence and critical thinking? The "directed participation" model better develops those competences that are increasingly in demand in the modern world. IN-CLASS QUESTION: Name main proposals of Skinner for improving education He wrote a revolutionary paper, bc up to that point and nowadays still Western education is focused on punishments (the “red pen”). Learning to avoid the consequences of not learning Problem with the Roanoke experiment: - Lack of controlling confounding variables - Motivation: lack of double blindness. Students knew they were going through an innovative teaching program with expensive technology. Same issue with psychotherapy: after the first session, strong effect of positive expectation about the outcome influenced by the change. What was important was the structure of the program: that it progresses in a continuous, step-by-step way. Today’s version of this: DUOLINGO Studies showed: - No real correlation between time spent on the app and language knowledge. - People can get addicted to the competitive aspect (streak points) without really learning - Took duolingo users on average half the time it took university students, even tho there was no external help (no teachers) - But, we are missing speaking and writing in duolingo. However, this might change with the increased use of AI - Also, limited approach (both duolingo and Skinner’s idea on algebra) when it comes to proficiency (multiple routes of solving problems) L06 - Achievement Goal Theory One of the major theories in education As well as in sports psychology and in psychology in general But first, RECAP: - Duolingo is the modern version of Skinnerian approach - Multiple rewards. Some are external (leadership board: competition with other learners – social comparison => social positive reinforcement based on affiliation motive if you consider those characters real xd, on the other hand we have the achievement motivation from comparison with others) - It adapts to our level (about 80% success rate is optimal to maintain interest in an activity) - You can make CHOICES as to which topic to focus on [choices increase motivation as well] - Works very well for basic skills. No longer when it comes to real life conversation Multistudy experiment on how to maintain gym visits. A megastudy - Multiple research teams working at the same time trying to come up with interventions having the same aim (eg increase length of gym attendance) - And then they test them in actual gyms - Planning, reminders and microinterventives - What turned out to be the best intervention was getting a bonus to return after a missed workout [opposite to school system: you get punished for missing classes] - Sport psychologists / gym instructors, regular Americans and experts of behavioral sciences were asked to predict effects. The real effect came out to be much lower. None of the groups predicted correctly. No differences in accuracy - Conclusions: 1. Psych interventions are effective (significantly). Not all. About 45%. 2. Much less effective than people estimated [very common in psychology] 3. Only 8-10% of interventions had a follow-up effect Measurement of Achievement Goals Elliot, A. J. & Murayama, K. (2008). On the measurement of achievement goals: Critique, illustration, and application. Journal of Educational Psychology, 100, 613-628. Combining the mastery–performance and approach–avoidance distinctions leads to four different types of achievement goals: a. mastery-approach (focused on attaining task-based or intrapersonal competence), b. performance-approach (focused on attaining normative competence), c. mastery-avoidance (focused on avoiding task-based or intrapersonal incompetence), and d. performance-avoidance (focused on avoiding normative incompetence). 1._MAp_ My aim is to completely master the material presented in my classes. 2._PAp_ I am striving to do well compared to other students. 3._MAp_ My goal is to learn as much as possible. 4._PAp_ My aim is to perform well relative to other students. 5._MAv_ My aim is to avoid learning less than I possibly could. 6._PAv_ My goal is to avoid performing poorly compared to others. 7._MAp_ I am striving to understand the content of my courses as thoroughly as possible. 8._PAp_ My goal is to perform better than the other students. 9._MAv_ My goal is to avoid learning less than it is possible to learn. 10._PAv_ I am striving to avoid performing worse than others. 11._MAv_ I am striving to avoid an incomplete understanding of the course material. 12._PAv_ My aim is to avoid doing worse than other students Reading 1: Situational vs Individual interest What happens to individual interest in different academic subjects through adolescence? Individual interest in academic subjects often declines during adolescence. Studies suggest that as students grow older, they tend to lose interest and motivation in academic topics, which may be particularly pronounced in subjects like mathematics and science. This drop can stem from various factors, including increased academic pressure, lack of personal relevance, and changes in social interests and priorities Can we explain persistence, enjoyment and pace or learning in a certain context, using the concept of an “individual interest”? Yes, individual interest is crucial in explaining persistence, enjoyment, and pace of learning. When students have an individual interest in a subject, they are more likely to persist in learning tasks, find enjoyment in the subject, and engage at a pace that reflects genuine curiosity and motivation. Interest-driven learning can promote deeper engagement and sustained attention, contributing to better cognitive and emotional experiences How can we increase situational interest? What self-regulated strategies can be used? Situational interest can be enhanced by making learning materials more engaging and personally relevant, introducing novelty, and incorporating collaborative activities. Self-regulation strategies include students using “interest-enhancing” techniques, such as reframing tasks to make them more engaging (e.g., making games out of repetitive tasks). Teachers can support these strategies by helping students see the real-world applications of lessons, giving students autonomy, and setting up challenges that match their current skill levels Extrinsic vs Intrinsic Motivation How is self-efficacy and self-regulation related to intrinsic motivation? Self-efficacy and self-regulation are closely related to intrinsic motivation because they contribute to a sense of competence and control over one’s learning. When students believe in their ability to succeed (self-efficacy) and can manage their learning processes effectively (self-regulation), they are more likely to engage in tasks for intrinsic reasons, such as personal satisfaction and mastery Is it possible that an activity starts being extrinsically motivated, but then motivation becomes intrinsic? What needs to happen? Yes, an activity initially motivated by external rewards can become intrinsically motivated. This shift requires that the individual begins to find personal relevance, enjoyment, or interest in the activity itself. Over time, the activity’s intrinsic value increases, making external motivators less necessary as the person becomes self-motivated to engage in the activity What could be the most realistic approach to those who are not engaged in academic tasks? For students unengaged in academic tasks, a realistic approach might combine extrinsic rewards with efforts to cultivate situational interest. This dual approach can help motivate students to participate initially, while gradually building interest and intrinsic motivation as they experience success and begin to see the personal relevance of the tasks. How is the “locus of causality” related to those types of motivation? The locus of causality refers to whether individuals perceive their motivation as internally or externally driven. Intrinsic motivation has an internal locus of causality, meaning that individuals feel motivated by personal interest or enjoyment. In contrast, extrinsic motivation has an external locus of causality, where the drive comes from outside rewards or obligations Performance vs Mastery Goals Why is perceived competence so important for performance goals? Perceived competence is essential for performance goals because these goals are closely tied to demonstrating ability. When students feel competent, they are more likely to pursue performance goals, as they feel capable of achieving high marks or outperforming others. Without perceived competence, performance goals can lead to avoidance and fear of failure. Why is achievement orientation (high achievement value) important for performance goals? A high achievement orientation drives individuals to seek success and recognition, which aligns well with performance goals focused on attaining competence relative to others. Individuals with a strong achievement orientation are motivated by success and often adopt performance goals as a way to meet their aspirations Are mastery and performance goal orientations mutually exclusive or can you endorse both goals? Mastery and performance goals are not mutually exclusive, and students can endorse both. Research indicates that students can simultaneously pursue mastery goals (focused on learning and improvement) and performance goals (focused on demonstrating competence relative to others). Combining both goals can be beneficial, promoting adaptive behaviors like self-regulation and engagement Is it possible to have an intrinsic performance goal and an extrinsic performance goal? (same idea is discussed in the other paper) Yes, it is possible to have both intrinsic and extrinsic performance goals. Intrinsic performance goals are driven by a personal desire to demonstrate competence or achieve a high standard. In contrast, extrinsic performance goals are pursued to gain rewards or avoid negative consequences. This distinction suggests that performance goals can be motivated by both internal and external factors What are the two arguments, posted by Harackiewicz, about the adaptiveness of performance goals? Harackiewicz argues that performance goals can be adaptive under certain conditions. First, performance-approach goals, which focus on achieving competence relative to others, can lead to positive outcomes such as increased motivation and engagement. Second, when performance goals are combined with mastery goals, they can complement each other and foster both engagement and high performance in academic contexts What is the general conclusion of this paper? The general conclusion of the paper is that to motivate academically unmotivated students, educators need to adopt a more nuanced view that incorporates multiple motivational factors. This includes acknowledging the value of both intrinsic and extrinsic motivations, individual and situational interest, and mastery and performance goals. The authors argue for a multidimensional approach that integrates these various types of motivation to optimize academic engagement and performance. This approach challenges the dichotomous view of motivation and suggests that combining these factors can benefit students, especially those who may lack intrinsic motivation initially Reading 2: This paper provides a comprehensive overview of the development, evolution, and future directions of Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) within motivation research, particularly in educational contexts. The theory, emerging in the late 1970s, originally highlighted how achievement motivation could be shaped by personal definitions of success, with researchers like Carole Ames, Carol Dweck, Martin Maehr, and John Nicholls contributing foundational perspectives on mastery (learning) and performance (ego) goals. Mastery goals emphasize self-improvement and competence development, while performance goals focus on demonstrating competence relative to others. Over the decades, AGT has undergone significant shifts. Initially, it focused on broad systems of beliefs and behaviors in achievement contexts, blending psychological motivation with ethical and educational values. However, a more recent trend has narrowed these concepts, defining achievement goals with specific aims (e.g., approach vs. avoidance in mastery or performance settings). This shift toward specific measurable constructs allowed for more methodological precision but led to debates about the effectiveness and utility of performance-approach goals and the application of AGT in educational interventions. AGT research has revealed that mastery goals generally foster positive engagement and persistence, while performance-avoidance goals are linked to disengagement and low achievement. Despite this, the implementation of AGT in real educational settings has shown mixed results, particularly when aiming to alter entire classroom or school cultures to emphasize mastery over performance. Additionally, cultural factors have been found to influence how students interpret and adopt achievement goals, with varying impacts on motivation based on cultural backgrounds, gender, and other identity factors. The paper concludes with recommendations to advance AGT by returning to a focus on integrated, complex systems of motivation that address diverse cultural and contextual factors. This includes using new research methodologies that better capture the dynamic and situated nature of motivation within real educational contexts. Why did the achievement goal theory receive so much research attention? Which philosophical ideologies do they align with? Achievement Goal Theory (AGT) attracted substantial research attention due to its focus on the varying ways that students define and pursue success, which resonated with longstanding debates in education. Specifically, AGT aligned with philosophical ideologies that challenged competitive, performance-based approaches in schools and advocated for approaches fostering individual growth. Key educational debates that AGT engages with include: - Tracking: The practice of categorizing students by ability levels was questioned by AGT proponents, who argued that it often reinforces a fixed mindset and comparative standards. They suggested that tracking could undermine mastery-oriented learning and restrict students' potential for growth. - Teacher-Centered Instruction: AGT aligns with a student-centered philosophy, suggesting that classrooms should encourage self-directed mastery goals rather than simply performing to meet teacher expectations. This debate emphasizes a need for instructional approaches that prioritize understanding and skill-building over compliance or competition. - Formative vs. Summative Assessment: AGT advocates for formative assessments, which focus on feedback and learning progress, as they support mastery goals by valuing improvement. In contrast, summative assessments, often used to rank students, may encourage performance goals, leading students to prioritize social comparison over personal development. Why did AGT become so popular? Related to Self-efficacy. Remember Bandura from Bobo Doll study [showed contrast to behaviorism. No need for rewards or punishments. Can learn thru observation alone]. Self-efficacy is created thru previous experience i.e. history of reinforcements (Skinner would agree with this) + seeing others succeeding and being rewarded (also why people from lower SES who are say first in their family at uni have lower SE) + Identity development (through development you learn that you are part of a specific group. Eg blacks do not belong in academia). Distiction between 3 types of AGs became so popular, seen as a good way to improve education. 1. Assumption was that you have a conscious access to the goals you have, so self-reports would reflect that 2. General tendency for young kids to overestimate their capabilities. After going to school, being compared to others on a constant basis, their SE on average decreases. ⇨ Mastery goal concept was so popular bc… (psychologists are usually progressive: like the idea that everyone can and should succeed). Main characteristics of Mastery Goals: - It’s important that you master as much as you can - New, a lot, as much, thoroughly - Improve as much as you can - Try to take the focus away from social comparison. Every result is ok. What matters is that you improve FORMATIVE vs SUMMATIVE ASSESSMENT Summative is about the sum of all the work put in, done at the end: the GPA. The goal is not to help learn, but to rank students Formative is about receiving feedback in such as way that its goal is to change or encourage the way you learn, to direct in the correct decision How did the attempts to create interventions aimed at changing goal structures go? Were they successful? Attempts to create interventions aimed at shifting educational contexts to emphasize mastery over performance goals have faced challenges, yielding modest results overall. These interventions often targeted school- or classroom-wide changes to encourage mastery goals and deemphasize performance goals. Although some individual studies, such as Ames' TARGET framework intervention and the projects by Maehr and Midgley, showed slight improvements, broader transformations in school cultures have proven complex and difficult to sustain. This limited success reflects the influence of competing pressures, such as societal and institutional emphasis on standardized testing and external competition, which often conflict with mastery-oriented approaches. But, the interventions that were designed to improve the level of mastery didn’t succeed as planned. Why? - They were introduced too late: children already learned that hierarchies are what matters What is the TARGET framework, developed by Ames (1990)? Carol Ames developed the TARGET framework as a method to foster mastery goals within classrooms. TARGET stands for Task, Authority, Recognition, Grouping, Evaluation, and Time. This framework encourages teachers to: Design tasks that emphasize learning rather than mere performance. Provide students with authority and autonomy in learning decisions. Recognize and reward effort and improvement rather than comparison. Group students to promote collaboration over competition. Use evaluations that focus on individual progress. Allocate time in ways that support deep engagement with learning materials. The TARGET framework sought to systematically encourage mastery-oriented environments, though real-world application proved difficult due to ingrained educational practices and external pressures. What are the (Urban & Kaplan – Target framework)… How do people figure out what is important in learning without being told? Tasks Autority Recognition Grouping Evaluation Time These are the environmental ques based on which people figure out what is the achievement required and rewarded. If there is a mismatch between the environment and what the teacher says, they will follow the environment TYPES OF TASKS: differences b2 performance and mastery orientation If the tasks is eg run as quickly as you can Tasks are either one-solution, or open solution E.g. mathematics: there is always one correct solution, differences in how quickly students reach it => Performance-oriented. People tend to figure out quickly whether they are good or bad at it. Also, people don’t really care about the solution, it’s just about showing that they can reach it. Mastery orientation: more like an essay. Much wider choice to go about. No clear criteria for comparison with others. Very individual School extbooks are full of the first category of tasks AUTHORITY Either the auth fully lies within the one who created the task, or it can lie completely within your interpretation, or some of both RECOGNITION & EVALUATION either upon task completion, or throughout the process of improving. Private or Public GROUPING Either Ability grouping or Small Mixed group. Long-standing controversy in education is to what degree should you do “screening”- then grouping on the basis of that (also includes flunking school years). TIMING Deadlines, no flexibility => performance More flexibility => mastery Academic self-handicapping strategies Perfomance (bc of the social evaluation). People who know they don’t often succeed, so try to change the interpretation of a failure in a way that doesn’t hurt heir ego. Turned out to be one of the common ways associated with performance avoidance: trying to avoid challenging situation, or if forced to be in one then trying to avoid the most painful interpretation. Feeling less responsible for a failure Avoiding novelty Performance-avoidance. There is no self-direction. You prefer to solve the problems for which you already have an answer to Cheating Performance. About appearing as a succesful person Parent performance goal – eg children in polish schools getting stripes on diploma. Performance In the early days of achievement goal theory research, there was a lot of mixed results on the outcomes associated with performance goals. What was missing? Scholars later identified that one key element missing from early analyses was a differentiation between approach-oriented and avoidance-oriented motives within performance goals. This distinction clarified why some performance goals, particularly performance-avoidance goals (focused on avoiding failure), correlated with negative outcomes, while performance-approach goals (focused on achieving success) showed more positive or mixed associations. What are the recommendations for the future of research in this field? To advance AGT, researchers have recommended several approaches to better capture the complexity of motivation within educational contexts: 1. Complex Dynamic Systems: Future research should view achievement goals as part of complex dynamic systems that account for the interplay of cognitive, emotional, and contextual factors. This approach would capture the non-linear and interconnected nature of motivation, emphasizing the need for research methodologies that go beyond linear, self-report measurements. 2. Authentic Contexts: Research should focus on authentic educational settings to better understand how goal structures function within real classrooms and schools. Such studies could offer insights into how broader social, cultural, and policy-related factors influence students’ goal orientations and learning behaviors in practical settings A lot of research is done in the lab 3. Personal Identity and Understanding of Success: AGT research would benefit from integrating identity factors such as ethnicity, culture, and gender, and examining how these aspects shape students' definitions of success and influence their goal orientations. A focus on personal identity within AGT could reveal how diverse students relate to and interpret achievement in ways that traditional studies may overlook. By addressing these areas, future AGT research could deepen understanding of how educational environments and personal identities interact to shape motivation and learning. Is it possible to have an intrinsic performance goal and an extrinsic performance goal? Yes, both can be present at the same time. For example, a student might want to aim to get a high grade because of both the sense of pride and accomplishment it will bring (intrinsic), as well as praise from parents and colleagues (extrinsic). Please produce 2 sample questions (items) for measuring Mastery Goal Orientation, Performance-Approach Goal Orientation and Performance-Avoid Goal Orientation Performance-Approach: My goal is to perform better than the other students; I am striving to do well compared to other students. Performance-Avoidance: My goal is to avoid performing poorly compared to others; My aim is to avoid doing worse than other students. Mastery Goal Orientation 1. I prefer school tasks that challenge me to learn something new, even if they’re difficult. 2. I strive to fully understand the topics covered in my classes, rather than just completing them. L07 – Application of Concepts Discussed So Far You won’t hear about a “behaviorist approach to education”, bc it has bad associations, but this is it, Same as why u wouldn’t bring your autistic child to a behaviorist (dogs go there). Also, Skinner was not very liked by the GP: he wrote “beyond freedom and dignity”, as if they didn’t exist, view that we are fully determined by environment. See Clockwork Orange: how it would look to live in a total Skinnerian society. So his views were rejected, mostly for his philosophical takes. Unfortunately, also his psychological works were rejected. In Poland, this vision of engineering society has a very negative connotation. Unfortunately bc there were a lot of practical laws they got right. Direct Instruction is a summary of behaviorism, without its label. Still being rejected by many in psychology. Basically scripted education. Teachers are given a role to play, everything is scripted. Many teachers reject this idea The paper explores Direct Instruction (DI) as a behavioral-based teaching model that has influenced curriculum and instructional practices for over three decades. Here's a summary of the key points: Overview of DI Origins: Rooted in the behavioral theories of B.F. Skinner and popularized by Siegfried Engelmann and Carl Bereiter in the 1960s. Definition: DI is not a lecture-based approach; it emphasizes teacher-student interaction, modeling, feedback, and structured learning tasks. Components: o Clear objectives. o Sequential breakdown of material into small steps. o Opportunities for guided and independent practice. o Immediate feedback and assessment. Evolution and Models Traditional Models: DI has been refined through models like Engelmann’s DISTAR, Rosenshine’s Explicit Teaching, and Gagné’s Events of Instruction. These focus on structured teaching, scaffolding, and feedback mechanisms. Criticism and Controversy: Often criticized as rigid and overly directive but acknowledged as effective for teaching foundational and prerequisite skills. Applications in Technology DI principles have been applied to computer-based and distance learning systems, offering automated feedback, customized pacing, and data-driven adjustments to support learners. Examples include systems like Core Concepts and intelligent tutoring systems that use DI to teach specific skills like problem-solving in mathematics. Advantages and Limitations Advantages: High success rates in skill acquisition, maintaining time-on-task, and fostering academic achievement when used appropriately. Limitations: Its structured nature may not suit higher-order thinking tasks or all learner contexts. Future Directions Despite waning popularity in some educational philosophies, DI’s structured and measurable approach aligns well with technology-driven education and accountability systems like standards-based performance. The authors argue that DI remains relevant and effective when applied thoughtfully, particularly in technology-mediated settings where its principles can guide automated, scalable learning solutions. ________________________________________________________________________________ Direct Instruction is composed of scripted teaching. For many people, this is highly controversial. What might be the reasons? If you have some experience in “tabletop/fantasy” role-playing games, then you might see the analogy between unscripted game sessions, partially scripted sessions, and fully scripted experience of “computer” RPG games. Main components of various DI models include: 1. Materials and curriculum are broken down into small steps and arrayed in what is assumed to be the prerequisite order. 2. Objectives must be stated clearly and in terms of learner outcomes or performance. 3. Learners are provided with opportunities to connect their new knowledge with what they already know. 4. Learners are given practice with each step or combination of steps. 5. Learners experience additional opportunities to practice that promote increasing responsibility and independence (guided and/or independent; in groups and/or alone). 6. Feedback is provided after each practice opportunity or set of practice opportunities. L08 – Active Learning Questions from grade I-III teachers: [context: self-regulation of children to learn at home] A student starts education in grade I. What skills/attitudes are necessary to feel safe in the classroom and to succeed? 1. Feel safe Having gone to kindergarten => child will be completely fine (not the first such experience) Attachment styles Ability to communicate emotions & needs improvement if social skills was found in children with siblings younger of a couple years peer context: to have general wellbeing, having at least 1 friend is good enough [where intimacy appears: sharing things only to that person and vv.] 2. Succeeding Issue of school readiness => social skills, language, mathematical skills, emotional regulation, general motor skills (often neglected but important), speech Earlier parental involvement What activities/methods of work help pupils in grades I-III learn? How to involve parents in this process? How can I best support children's attention span in the classroom (examples)? What role does play have in learning and how can teachers include it in the teaching process? What can teachers do to build a positive learning environment that encourages children to perseverance and supports them in dealing with frustration? What should you pay attention to when giving feedback to a student in grades I-III so that it contributes to building self-confidence and motivation in children? Questions from grade I-III parents: My son/daughter starts education in grade I. What skills/attitudes are necessary for her/him to feel safe and successful? How to support them? What can/should a parent do? What can be worrying? What to ask the teacher for? When is it worth going to a specialist? How can parents help their child cope with the stress or anxiety of starting school? What are the best ways to support your child's attention and focus in their first year of school? Questions from teachers of adolescents: Teenager - what stereotypes are included in this word in the context of teenage learning and going to school? What developmental changes affect the learning process of adolescents? - Paradox of feedback in modern schooling: who receives most feedback? Children before 4th grade (descriptive general feedback vs grades- from 4th on). But at that age abstract thinking is limited, so it should be the other way around for max effect. - Mismatch between biological clock and starting classes at 8. Should be at 9 - Puberty changes other things become more motivationally important What do secondary school students need to learn independently? How to shape good habits in teenage learning? How can we support students with diverse educational needs (e.g. ADHD, dyslexia) in a way that will appeal to teenagers? Dyslexia: overused term. Paradox: Can be reliably assessed in 3rd grade, but it would be much better to start intervention in 1st grade What recommendations can a teacher give to parents of teenagers in the context of learning and development? The article by Freeman et al. (2014) is a significant meta-analysis that evaluates the effectiveness of active learning compared to traditional lecturing in undergraduate STEM education. It synthesizes data from 225 studies, highlighting that active learning not only enhances student performance but also reduces failure rates. Active learning encompasses a variety of instructional strategies that engage students in the learning process, requiring them to participate actively rather than passively receiving information through traditional lectures. The authors highlight that active learning can include methods such as group problem-solving, interactive tutorials, and the use of personal response systems. These approaches are designed to promote student engagement and foster a deeper understanding of the material by encouraging students to construct their own knowledge through collaboration and hands-on activities. Skinner box is still passive learning, even if the mouse/pigeon does things in the box Key Findings Increased Performance: The analysis reveals that students in active learning environments scored, on average, 0.47 standard deviations higher on examinations and assessments than those in traditional lecture settings. This translates to an approximate increase of 6% in average examination scores Reduced Failure Rates: The odds of failing were found to be nearly double (1.95 times) for students in traditional lecture courses compared to those engaged in active learning. Specifically, failure rates were 21.8% under active learning versus 33.8% under lecturing, indicating a 55% increase in failure rates associated with traditional teaching methods Broad Applicability: The benefits of active learning were consistent across various STEM disciplines and class sizes, although the most pronounced effects were observed in smaller classes (≤50 students) Methodological Rigor: The study accounted for potential biases and methodological variations among the included studies, concluding that the results are robust and not significantly affected by publication bias or differences in study quality Implications Freeman et al.'s work challenges the long-standing reliance on traditional lecturing as a primary teaching method in STEM fields. It advocates for a shift towards active learning strategies as a means to improve educational outcomes, addressing concerns about student retention and performance in STEM disciplines. This meta-analysis is considered a "modern classic" due to its comprehensive approach and compelling evidence supporting active learning as an empirically validated teaching practice ________________________________________________________________________________ Deslauriers et al. (2019) examine the barriers to implementing active learning in STEM education, particularly the influence of Students Evaluations of Teaching (SETs) on teaching quality assessments. The study reveals that while active learning methods enhance actual student learning, students often perceive their learning as less effective compared to traditional lectures. This disconnect arises because active learning requires greater cognitive effort, leading students to mistakenly equate effort with lower learning outcomes. Key Points Perception vs. Reality: Students in active learning environments reported feeling they learned less, despite achieving better results on assessments compared to their peers in passive lecture settings. This misperception can discourage both students and instructors from adopting active teaching strategies. Barriers to Adoption: Instructors cite several obstacles to implementing active learning, including concerns about SETs, which often favor traditional lecturing due to students' immediate perceptions of their learning experience. Many instructors revert to passive methods due to student complaints and a desire for favorable evaluations. Recommendations for Instructors: The authors suggest that instructors should proactively address students’ misconceptions about active learning early in the semester. Strategies include explaining the benefits of active engagement and providing support to help students adjust to these methods. This research underscores the need for a shift in how teaching effectiveness is evaluated, advocating for a broader understanding of student learning that goes beyond immediate perceptions influenced by traditional lecture formats. What are the possible explanations of a negative (or zero) correlation between feeling of learning and actual learning? 1. COGNITIVE FLUENCY = how easy it seems to perceive the things that are happening during the lecture 2. Novices have poor metacognition 3. Increased cognitive struggle/fatigue L09 – Self-Regulated Learning First clinical trial in history was lemon juice to treat scurvy on long boat travels The paper explores the challenges and strategies associated with self-regulated learning. It highlights key findings in cognitive psychology about how people manage their learning processes and often misjudge their effectiveness due to misconc

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