ENV101: The Science of Critical Thinking PDF

# ENV101: The Science of Critical Thinking ## Understanding Pseudoscience and Logical Fallacies ## 1. The Evolution of Scientific Thinking ### Critical Thinking & Scientific Method Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information objectively to form a reasoned ju...

# ENV101: The Science of Critical Thinking ## Understanding Pseudoscience and Logical Fallacies ## 1. The Evolution of Scientific Thinking ### Critical Thinking & Scientific Method Critical thinking is the ability to analyze, evaluate, and synthesize information objectively to form a reasoned judgment. It requires skepticism, open-mindedness, and a focus on evidence. #### Importance: - Ensures that personal biases, emotions, and preconceived ideas don't influence scientific conclusions. - Encourages continuous questioning of theories, ensuring progress. - Example: Revisiting Newton's classical mechanics when Einstein's theory of relativity emerged. ### Core Characteristics of a Critical Thinker: - **Curiosity:** Asking meaningful questions. - **Skepticism:** Challenging claims and seeking evidence. - **Humility:** Accepting when one's knowledge or understanding is incomplete. The Scientific Method we use today didn't appear suddenly; it emerged through centuries of intellectual development, debate, and refinement. This journey reflects humanity's evolving understanding of how to investigate and comprehend the natural world. ## I. Ancient Greek Foundations The story of scientific thinking begins with the Greek Philosophers, who first proposed that the universe operates according to natural laws rather than divine whims. These early thinkers made several groundbreaking contributions. ### 1. The Pre-Socratic Revolution - **Thales of Miletus (c. 624-546 BCE):** Proposed that all matter derived from water, marking the first attempt to explain natural phenomena through natural causes rather than mythological explanations. - **Democritus (c. 460-370 BCE):** Developed the atomic theory, suggesting that all matter consists of invisible particles—a remarkably prescient idea for its time. ### 2. Aristotelian Method Aristotle (384-322 BCE) established what many consider the first systematic method of natural phenomena investigation: 1. **Observation:** Direct examination of natural phenomena. 2. **Classification:** Organizing observations into categories. 3. **Deductive Reasoning:** Drawing conclusions from general principles. #### Teleological Explanation: Understanding things in terms of their purpose. #### Limitations of Aristotelian Method: - Over-reliance on logical reasoning without experimental verification. - Acceptance of common beliefs without testing. - Teleological assumptions about nature's "purpose". ## II. The Medieval Islamic Golden Age During the 8th-14th centuries, Islamic scholars made crucial contributions to scientific methodology: ### 1. Alhazen's Contribution (Abu Ali al-Hasan ibn al-Haytham): - Introduced systematic experimentation. - Emphasized the importance of empirical evidence. - Developed early versions of controlled variables. - Introduced mathematical modeling in physics. ### 2. Al-Razi's Medical Investigations (Abū Bakr al-Rāzī): - Pioneered clinical trials. - Introduced placebo controls. - Emphasized systematic observation in medicine. ## III. The Modern Scientific Revolution The Scientific Revolution (16th-17th centuries) marked a fundamental shift in how we understand and investigate nature. ### 1. Francis Bacon's Empiricism Bacon (1561-1626) established the foundations of modern scientific method: - **Inductive Reasoning:** Drawing general conclusions from specific observations. - **Systematic Observation:** Carefully planned and documented experiments. - **Elimination of Idols:** Identifying and removing sources of bias: - Idols of the Tribe (human nature biases) - Idols of the Cave (individual biases) - Idols of the Marketplace (language limitations) - Idols of the Theater (dogmatic beliefs) ### 2. Galileo's Mathematical Approach Galileo Galilei (1564-1642) revolutionized scientific investigation by: - Combining mathematics with experimental observation. - Developing the concept of idealized experiments. - Introducing quantitative measurement in physics. - Emphasizing repeatability in experiments. ### 3. Newton's Synthesis Isaac Newton (1643-1727) combined mathematical analysis with experimental verification: - Developed the hypothetico-deductive method. - Established universal laws of motion and gravitation. - Created mathematical tools for scientific analysis. ## 2. Logical Fallacies in Scientific Context Understanding and Identifying Flaws in Scientific Reasoning. Logical fallacies can undermine scientific thinking even when other aspects of the scientific method are followed correctly. Understanding these fallacies is crucial for developing critical thinking skills in science. ### 1. Definition of Logical Fallacies - Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that undermine the validity of an argument. - They can appear persuasive but lack evidence or logical coherence. ### 2. Why Logical Fallacies Matter in Science - Science relies on sound reasoning and evidence to reach reliable conclusions. - Fallacies can lead to misinformation, pseudoscience, or flawed scientific practices. ### 3. Examples of Logical Fallacies in Real-World Science - Example: Anti-vaccine arguments based on anecdotal evidence (appeal to emotion). ### II. Common Logical Fallacies in Scientific Contexts #### 1. Strawman Fallacy - **Definition:** Misrepresenting an argument to make it easier to attack. - **Example in Science:** - Claim: "Scientists think humans evolved from monkeys, but I've never seen a monkey turn into a human." - **Flaw:** This misrepresents evolutionary theory, which explains that humans and monkeys share a common ancestor, not that one evolved directly into the other. - **Response:** Explain the actual principles of evolutionary biology, emphasizing gradual change over millions of years. #### 2. Correlation vs. Causation - **Definition:** Mistaking correlation for causation. - **Example in Science:** - **Claim:** "Every time I bring my umbrella, it rains. Therefore, my umbrella causes rain." - **Flaw:** Correlation does not mean the umbrella causes the rain. Both are related to weather conditions. - **Response:** Highlight the importance of controlled studies to establish causation. #### 3. Cherry-Picking - **Definition:** Selecting only the evidence that supports a claim while ignoring contradictory data. - **Example in Science:** - **Claim:** "Global temperatures dropped in one year; therefore, global warming is a hoax." - **Flaw:** Ignoring long-term trends in favor of short-term variability. - **Response:** Use data showing overall trends rather than isolated anomalies. #### 4. Ad Hominem - **Definition:** Attacking the person rather than their argument. - **Example in Science:** - **Claim:** "You can't trust this climate scientist's data because they work for a university funded by oil companies." - **Flaw:** The source of funding might be worth questioning, but it doesn't automatically invalidate the data. - **Response:** Evaluate the methods and results of the research, not the person or their affiliations. #### 5. Hasty Generalization - **Definition:** Drawing a conclusion based on limited or insufficient evidence. - **Example in Science:** - **Claim:** "This one study found that coffee causes cancer, so drinking coffee is dangerous." - **Flaw:** A single study cannot establish a scientific consensus; other studies might contradict this finding. - **Response:** Explain the role of replication and large-scale studies in confirming scientific claims. #### 6. Appeal to Emotion - **Definition:** Manipulating emotions rather than presenting evidence. - **Example in Science:** - **Claim:** "Think of the children! We must ban GMOs because they're unnatural." - **Flaw:** Emotional appeals don't provide scientific evidence of harm caused by GMOs. - **Response:** Explain the rigorous testing GMOs undergo before being deemed safe. #### 7. Argument from Ignorance - **Definition:** Occurs when someone claims something must be true because it hasn't been proven false, or must be false because it hasn't been proven true. - **example in science:** - **Claim:** "Nobody has proven ghosts don't exist, therefore they must exist". - **Flaw:** Shifting the “Burden of Proof”. - **Response:** The person making a claim has the responsibility to provide evidence for it. ## 3. Understanding Pseudoscience #### Distinguishing Science from Non-Science Pseudoscience refers to claims, beliefs, or practices presented as scientific but which do not adhere to valid scientific methodology. #### Key characteristics include: 1. **Claims to Scientific Status** - Uses scientific-sounding language - Adopts the appearance of scientific rigor - Appeals to scientific authority 2. **Methodological Failures** - Lacks empirical evidence - Resists peer review - Cannot be falsified - Relies on confirmation rather than refutation ## The Demarcation Problem: What separates science from pseudoscience? ### 1. Karl Popper's Falsifiability Criterion - **Key Idea:** For a theory to be considered scientific, it must be falsifiable. This means the theory should make predictions that can be tested and potentially proven wrong. - **Implication:** Claims that cannot be falsified (e.g., vague or unfalsifiable statements) are outside the scope of science. #### Examples: - **Falsifiable claim:** "If a glass is dropped, it will fall due to gravity." (This can be tested experimentally.) - **Unfalsifiable claim:** "Invisible forces guide our destiny." (This cannot be tested or proven false.) ### 2. Thomas Kuhn's Paradigm Perspective - **Key Idea:** Kuhn emphasizes the role of paradigms—shared frameworks of understanding—in shaping scientific progress. - **Paradigm Shifts:** Occur when new evidence challenges the existing framework, leading to a complete change in scientific understanding. #### Example: Plate Tectonics (Geology) - **Old Paradigm:** The Earth’s surface was thought to be static, with continents and oceans remaining fixed. - **New Paradigm:** The theory of plate tectonics proposed that the Earth’s lithosphere is divided into moving plates. - **Impact:** Explained phenomena like earthquakes, mountain formation, and continental drift. ### 5. Discuss Implications: Reflect on the potential harm caused by pseudoscientific beliefs. ## 4. Conclusion and Key Takeaways ### Course Summary Critical thinking is the process of analyzing, evaluating, and reasoning logically to make informed decisions or judgments. It involves questioning assumptions, examining evidence, identifying biases, and using structured reasoning to assess the validity of claims. ### Key Principles of Critical Thinking 1. **Skepticism:** - Question claims and demand evidence before accepting them. - Example: Don't believe a health claim without scientific studies to support it. 2. **Objectivity:** - Avoid personal biases and focus on facts. - Example: Evaluating data fairly, even if it contradicts personal beliefs. 3. **Empirical Evidence:** - Base conclusions on observable (senses), measurable, and reproducible data. - Example: Trusting a peer-reviewed study over anecdotal evidence. 4. **Falsifiability:** - Claims must be testable and disprovable. - Example: "All swans are white" is falsifiable because a single black swan disproves it. 5. **Logical Reasoning:** - Use deductive, inductive, and abductive reasoning to draw valid conclusions. - Example: If all humans are mortal and Socrates is human, Socrates must be mortal. ### Essential Takeaways 1. **The Evolution of Scientific Thinking:** - Scientific method emerged through centuries of intellectual development. - Key transitions moved us from pure philosophy to empirical investigation. - Modern scientific method combines mathematical analysis, empirical observation, and systematic experimentation. - Understanding this history helps us appreciate why we do science the way we do today 2. **Logical Reasoning in Science:** - Logical fallacies are errors in reasoning that weaken arguments. - Recognizing and avoiding them is essential for clear and effective thinking. - Critical thinking tools apply across all scientific disciplines. ### 3. Science vs. Pseudoscience - **Science is characterized by:** - Falsifiability - Empirical testing - Peer review - Self-correction - **Pseudoscience typically shows:** - Resistance to testing - Lack of self-correction - Appeal to authority rather than evidence - Use of unfalsifiable claims **Remember:** Critical thinking in science is not about knowing all the answers, but about knowing how to ask the right questions and evaluate the evidence systematically. ## Environmental Science ### 1.1: What is Environmental Science? - Environmental science is the dynamic, interdisciplinary study of the interaction of living and nonliving parts of the environment, with special focus on the impact of humans on the environment. - The study of environmental science includes circumstances, objects, or conditions by which an organism or community is surrounded and the complex ways in which they interact. ### 1.2: Environment and Sustainability - **Sustainable development:** Defined in Our Common Future (1987), the report of the World Commission on Environment and Development, as... - ...development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. - ...development that considers both future and present needs. ### 1.2: Environment and Sustainability **Important concepts related to sustainability:** - **Ecological footprint:** measures the amount of land needed to support a person’s consumption and needs - **Calculate your footprint:** - https://footprint.wwf.org.uk/#/ - **Precautionary principle:** proceeding cautiously if some cause/effect relationships are not fully established scientifically ### Indicators of Global Environmental Stress: What are some specific ways that humans have impacted the following? - Soil, fresh water, marine fisheries, biodiversity, atmosphere, toxic chemicals, hazardous wastes, waste ### 1.3: Environmental Ethics - **Frontier Ethic :** - Assumes the Earth has an unlimited supply of resources. If resources run out in one area, more can be found elsewhere, or alternatively, human ingenuity will find substitutes. - This attitude sees humans as masters who manage the planet. - **Sustainable Ethic:** - Assumes that Earth’s resources are not unlimited and that humans must use and conserve resources in a manner that allows their continued use in the future. - Also assumes that humans are a part of the natural environment and that we suffer when the health of a natural ecosystem is impaired. - **Land Ethic:** - Respects all parts of the natural world (not just the living) regardless of their utility. - Positions humans as a member of the ecological community, not the conqueror. - “Anything is right when it tends to preserve the integrity, stability and beauty of the biotic community. It is wrong when it tends to do otherwise.” (Aldo Leopold, 1949) Did you ever hear the Tragedy of the Commons? - Watch this video to understand the Tragedy of the Commons. - Following the video, can you think of any modern examples of this? - Is there a solution to this tragedy or we humans are doomed? Explain. ### 1.4: Environmental Justice & Indigenous Struggles #### To Dam or Not to Dam? #### The New Centennial Water Source - Kaliwa Dam Project **Project Rationale** - Manila is provided solely by Angat Dam. - The project will decrease reliance on Angat Dam. - The dam is proposed to have a reservoir capacity of 57 million cubic meters and a surface area of 291 hectares. - The project site is located in Reina Natural Park, Wildlife Sanctuary and within Presidential Proclamation No. 1636. **Recent Development** - The Department of Environment and Natural Resources (DENR) has put on hold the issuance of an Environment Compliance Certificate (ECC) for the construction of the controversial Kaliwa Dam project in Quezon province on October 11, 2022 in response to the pronouncement in the Senate hearings on Kaliwa Dam Project. - The dam project’s threats to the ecological integrity of the Sierra Madre Mountain range, which we witnessed as a crucial natural defense in the recent Super Typhoon #KardingPH, can no longer be ignored. ### 1.4: Environmental Justice & Indigenous Struggles **Environmental justice:** the fair treatment of all people regardless of race, national origin, income, etc. with respect to the development, implementation, and enforcement of environmental and policies. **Environmental racism:** environmental injustice suffered by people because of their race. **Indigenous Struggles** Indigenous peoples face issues such as the lack of human rights, exploitation of their traditional lands and themselves, and degradation of their culture. Can you think of any issues in recent current events that exemplify indigenous struggles, both domestically and in other nations?