English Language 1 PDF

WRITING  TOPIC SENTENCES Writers often express their main idea in a clearly defined sentence known as a topic sentence. Topic sentences are usually found at the beginning of a paragraph in order to immediately establish the main idea. But this is not always the case...

WRITING  TOPIC SENTENCES Writers often express their main idea in a clearly defined sentence known as a topic sentence. Topic sentences are usually found at the beginning of a paragraph in order to immediately establish the main idea. But this is not always the case—topic sentences can be found anywhere in a paragraph, and sometimes, the author chooses not to use one at all. Still, looking for the topic sentence is a good skill to have when ferreting out the meaning of a reading passage. TOPIC SENTENCE: A sentence that introduces or defines the topic of a paragraph. This is frequently the first sentence in a paragraph—but not always. EXERCISES: A) For the following three questions, choose the topic sentence that best fits the paragraph. 1. The term spices is a pleasant one, whether it connotes fine French cuisine or a down-home, cinnamon-flavored apple pie. ____________. In the past, individuals traveled the world seeking exotic spices for profit and, in searching, have changed the course of history. Indeed, to gain control of lands harboring new spices, nations have actually gone to war. 2 a. The taste and aroma of spices are the main elements that make food such a source of fascination and pleasure. b. The term might equally bring to mind Indian curry made thousands of miles away and those delicious barbecued ribs sold on the corner. c. It is exciting to find a good cookbook and experiment with spices from other lands—indeed, it is one way to travel around the globe! d. The history of spices, however, is another matter altogether, and at times, it can be filled with danger and intrigue. 2. ___________________. It rained in April; it rained in May. It rained in the mornings; it rained in the afternoons. It poured, it drizzled, it showered, it misted—but always it rained. But the good news is we won’t have a drought this summer. a. The rain makes me gloomy. b. This spring was the rainiest on record. c. Rain is nice, but I prefer sunshine. d. Scientists know very little about the global climate. 3. It weighs less than three pounds and is hardly more interesting to look at than an overly ripe cauliflower. ____________________. It has created poetry and music, planned and executed horrific wars, and devised intricate 3 scientific theories. It thinks and dreams, plots and schemes, and easily holds more information than all the libraries on Earth. a. The human brain is made of gelatinous matter and contains no nerve endings. b. The science of neurology has found a way to map the most important areas of the human brain. c. Nevertheless, the human brain is the most mysterious and complex object on Earth. d. However, scientists say that each person uses only 10% of his or her brain over the course of a lifetime! B) For the following questions, a topic sentence is given. Try choosing the sentence that best develops or supports it. 4. A fireplace should be lined with special fire bricks to prevent heat transfer. a. Normal bricks are not dense enough to withstand excessive heat. b. Fire codes also require a smoke alarm in every room. c. Good up-drafts can make a pleasant fire, however. d. Modern houses don’t use as much lumber as older homes did. 4 5. Cosmetic plastic surgery is one of the fastest-growing segments of U.S. medicine. a. Cosmetic plastic surgery can have dangerous side effects, some of which can be fatal. b. Americans are eager to make their bodies as perfect as possible and to minimize the visible signs of aging. c. The price of cosmetic plastic surgery is also on the rise. d. This increase in cosmetic plastic surgery says something quite disturbing about our culture. 6. If a car suddenly begins to skid on ice, a driver’s instinctive reaction might be the wrong one. a. Skids can be a terrifying experience. b. Cars can be very unpredictable on ice. c. Many people instinctively turn the wheel in the wrong direction, making the skid worse. d. New tires can help reduce the risk of skidding on ice. 7. The “lead” inside the common pencil is actually not lead at all. a. Lead is commonly mined in Africa. b. Pencils were invented in 1603 by William Ledbelly. c. Even when sharpened, a pencil may not write as well as a pen. d. The substance used in pencils today is graphite. 5 8. The Greek ideal of the hero most closely resembles today’s free agent superstar. a. A superstar is an athlete who commands a great salary based on his individual skills. b. The Greek warrior’s focus was on grasping at immortality, and he did this by ensuring that his name would live on, long after he died. c. The Greek hero valued self-interest above loyalty to a cause, his king, or to his army, just as the free-agent superstar values his contract salary above any special team, coach, or the game. d. The Greek hero was impressive in his performance on the battlefield as well as in the sports arena. 9. There is no instruction by the old bird in the movements of flight; no conscious imitation by the young. a. The most obvious way in which birds differ from humans in behavior is that they can do all that they have to do, without ever being taught. b. More extraordinary than the fact that a bird is able to fly untaught, is that it is able to build a nest untaught. c. Young birds frequently make their first flights with their parents out of sight. d. Young birds brought up in artificial environments will build the proper kind of nest for their species when the time comes. 6 10. Parents play an important role in their children’s academic success. a. Video games have a negative impact on children’s academic success. b. Studies show that children of parents who regularly assist with homework and show an active interest in their child’s studies bring home better grades. c. Studies show that watching less television and spending less time playing video games help children get better grades. d. Children who are avid readers get much better grades than their peers. 11. In special cases, needy people who have nowhere else to go are permitted to enter the United States as refugees. a. Other people, however, enter the United States illegally. b. The total number of newcomers was over one million. c. United States immigration laws put limits on the number of people permitted to enter the United States. d. As many as 12 million people may be living in the United States illegally. 12. More and more people are eating organically grown fruits and vegetables. a. Organic food is usually more expensive than non-organic food. 7 b. A wide variety of organic chocolate products are now available in stores. c. Raw foods are enjoying increasing popularity, now that people are discovering how a raw-foods diet leaves you feeling and looking great. d. Fresh organic produce contains more vitamins, minerals, and enzymes than non-organic produce. 13. In Oklahoma, a girl is forbidden to take a bite from her date’s hamburger. a. It’s illegal for teenagers to take a bath during the winter in Clinton, Indiana. b. Youngsters may not spin Yo-Yos on Sunday in Memphis, Tennessee. c. It may be hard to believe, but these types of strange laws are still on the books! d. It is illegal to parade an elephant down Main Street in Austin, Texas. 14. A cat’s whiskers are among the most perfect organs of touch. a. The hairs themselves are very sensitive. b. Whiskers are generally white in color. c. Touch is very important to a cat. d. Dogs have very sensitive noses. 8 15. People are now living longer than ever before for many different reasons. a. Some people in the Soviet Union’s Caucasus Mountains live to be over 100 years of age. b. No one seems to understand this phenomenon. c. Advances in medical science have done wonders for longevity. d. The people in this region do not seem to gain anything from medical science. 16. For 16 years, he spread violence and death throughout the west. a. Jesse was gunned down on April 3, 1882. b. He left a trail of train and bank robberies. c. His crimes were committed during the late 1860s. d. Jesse Woodson James was the most legendary of all American outlaws. C) For the final two questions, choose the sentence that does not support the given topic sentence. 17. In ancient Greece, honor was not just the domain of the warrior. a. A great orator [speaker], who could sway the public with his logic and wit, was greatly respected. b. A revered poet’s name lived on long after he died. 9 c. Great wealth was characteristic of the truly great kings. d. A warrior’s quest for the esteem of his peers would bring him great prizes, which would secure a long-lasting reputation. 18. In Moby Dick, Herman Melville wrote that the whale men were “enveloped in whale lines,” that each man relied on the others during moments of danger. a. The small boats that pursued the whales left the whaling ship far behind; each man in a boat had to depend on the others to stay alive. b. Once the whale was harpooned, the whale line unraveled so fast that water had to be poured on it to keep it from smoking. c. The whale line was the rope, dozens of yards long, that attached to the harpoon; it was raveled under the seats of all the men metaphorically connecting each man to the next. d. One wrong move and the line would snap a man right out of the boat; thus, his life depended on whether the crew would cut the whale loose to save him, or leave him in the ocean during the heat of the hunt. 10 More EXERCISES ON TOPIC SENTENCES The topic sentence is the most important sentence of a paragraph. It states the main idea and introduces the reader to the topic. 1. CHOOSING TOPIC SENTENCES Choose the best topic sentence for each group of supporting sentences. Write it on the line provided. Example: ___________b_____________. I usually go skiing every weekend in the winter even though it is expensive. I love the feeling of flying down a mountain. The views are beautiful from the top of a mountain and along the trails. Even the danger of falling and getting hurt can’t keep me away from the slopes on a winter day. a) Skiing is expensive. b) Skiing is my favourite sport. c) Skiing is dangerous. 1.)________________________________________________. North Americans send cards for many occasions. They send cards to family and friends on birthdays and holidays. They also send thank-you cards, get well cards, graduation cards, and congratulation cards. It is very common to buy cards in stores and send them through the mail, but turning on the computer and sending cards over the Internet is also popular. 11 a) Sending cards is very popular in North America. b) Birthday cards are the most popular kind of card. c) It is important to send thank-you cards. 2.) _____________________________________________. I enjoy summer sports like water skiing and baseball. The weather is usually sunny and hot, so I can go to the beach almost every day. Gardening is my hobby and I spend many summer days working in my garden. Unfortunately, the days pass too quickly in summer. a) I like to garden in summer. b) Summer is my favourite season. c) Summer is to short. 3.) ________________________________________. First of all, we need money to repair old roads and build new roads. We also need more to pay teachers’ salaries and to pay for services such as trash collection. Finally, more tax money is needed to give financial help to the poor citizens of the city. It is clear that the city will have serious problems if taxes are not raised soon. a) We should raise city taxes. b) City taxes are too high. c) City taxes pay for new roads. 12 4.) _________________________________________. For example, a person can have breakfast in New York, board an airplane, and have dinner in Paris. A businesswoman in London can instantly place an order with a factory in Hong Kong by sending a fax. Furthermore, a schoolboy in Tokyo can turn on a TV and watch a baseball game being played in Los Angeles. a) Airplanes have changed our lives. b) Advances in technology have made the world seem smaller. c) The fax machine was an important invention. 5.) ___________________________________________. One thing you must consider is the quality of the university’s educational program. You also need to think about the school’s size and location. Finally, you must be sure to consider the university’s tuition to make sure you can afford to go to school there. a) It is expensive to attend a university in the United States. b) There are several factors to consider when you choose a university to attend. c) You should consider getting a good education. 13 2. WRITING A TOPIC SENTENCE Write a topic sentence for each paragraph. Make sure your topic sentence expresses the main idea of the paragraph. Example: Miami is the perfect place to take a vacation. It is always sunny and warm. The beaches are gorgeous, with soft white sand and beautiful water. There are many fine restaurants in the Miami area, and most of the hotels offer terrific entertainment nightly. It’s no wonder that Miami is my first choice for a vacation destination. 1.) ________________________________________________. He has collected stamps and coins ever since he was a child. He is very proud of his valuable collections. Paul also enjoys painting and drawing. Recently he has become interested in gardening. Out of all his hobbies, Paul’s favourite one is reading. He usually reads at least one book every week. Paul keeps busy with all of his hobbies. 2.) _____________________________________________. I can’t wait to come home from school and eat the delicious meals she has prepared. She is famous for her desserts like peach pie and chocolate soufflé. She is always experimenting with new recipes and trying different ingredients. No one in the world can cook the way my mother does. 3.) ____________________________________________. It never starts in cold weather. The horn and the left turn signal 14 don’t work properly. Worst of all, the radio only gets one station and the CD player is completely broken. I wish I could get a new car. 4.) ____________________________________________. First and most importantly, the work is very interesting. I learn new things every day and I get to travel a lot. In addition, my boss is very nice. She is always willing to help me when I have a problem. I have also made many new friends at my job. Last, but not least, the salary is fantastic. 5.) ______________________________________________. To start things off, my plane was six hours late. When I finally got to my hotel, I was very disappointed. It was small and dirty. On the third day, my wallet was stolen, and I lost all my credit cards. It rained very day except one, and on that day I got a terrible sunburn. All in all, it wasn’t a vacation to remember. B) SUPPORTING SENTENCES The supporting sentences develop the main idea in the topic sentence. They add details to the topic. 15 Read the following paragraphs and underline the supporting sentences. 1.) Use of the internet has grown very quickly. In 1983, there were 562 computers connected to the Internet. By the turn of the century, there were 72.3 million computers in 247 countries on-line. Experts say that the Internet is now growing at a rate of approximately 40 percent a year. As time goes on, the Internet is becoming more and more popular. 2.) There are many reasons I hate my apartment. The plumbing doesn’t work properly and the landlord refuses to fix it. I also have noisy neighbours who keep me up all night. Furthermore, there are so many bugs in my apartment that I could start an insect collection. I really want to move. 3.) Vegetables and fruits are an important part of a healthy diet. First, fruits and vegetables are packed with the vitamins and minerals you need to keep your body functioning smoothly. In addition, they give you the carbohydrates you need for energy. Fruits and vegetables have lots of fiber to help your digestive system work properly. Finally, many scientists believe that the nutrients in fruits and vegetables can help fight diseases. If you eat a diet rich in fruits and vegetables, you’ll be on the road to better health. 16 C) IRRELEVANT SENTENCES Every supporting sentence in a paragraph must relate to the main idea stated in the topic sentence. A sentence that does not support the main idea does not belong in the paragraph, thus such a sentence should be omitted. When a sentence does not belong in a paragraph, it is called an irrelevant sentence. Example: The students in the class come from many different party of the world. Some are from European countries, such s France, Spain, and Italy. Others are from Middle Eastern countries like Saudi Arabia and Israel. Still other students were born in Asian countries, including Japan and Korea. Korean food is delicious. The largest number of students is from Latin American countries like Mexico, Venezuela and Peru. The class is an interesting mix of people from many different countries. There is one irrelevant sentence in each paragraph that follows. Find that sentence and cross it out. 1)There are several ways people can conserve natural resources. One way is to turn lights off and appliances when they are not in use. Another way is to drive cars less. My favourite kind of car is convertible. People can also insulate their houses better. Finally, by reusing things like bottles and plastic bags, people can reduce the amount of waste. By 17 practicing these simple guidelines, we can save our natural resources. 2.) Cats make wonderful house pets. They are very loving and friendly. Cats are alsoclean. They don’t eat much, so they are not expensive. Unfortunately, some people are allergic to their hair. Cats look beautiful and they’re fun to have in your home. 3.) The capital city of a country is usually a very important city. The government offices are located in the capital city and political leaders usually live there nearby. There are many different types of governments in the world. The capital may also be the centre of culture. There are often museums, libraries, and universities in the capital. Finally, the capital city can serve as a centre of trade, industry and commerce, so it is often the financial centre of the country. 4.) The Japanese automobile industry uses robots in many stages of its production process. In fact, one large Japanese auto factory uses robots in all of its production stages. Some Japanese universities are developing medical robots to detect certain kinds of cancer. Another automobile factory in Japan uses them to paint cars as they come off the assembly line. 18 Furthermore, most Japanese factories use robots to weld the parts of the finished car together. 5.) The packaging of many products is very wasteful. Often the packaging is twice as big as the product. Packaging is used to protect things that are breakable. Many food items, for example, have several layers of extra packaging. Most of these extra layers could be eliminated. D) CONCLUDING SENTENCES Some paragraphs end with a concluding sentence. This sentence states the main idea of the paragraph again using different words. It summarizes the main points of the paragraph, or makes a final comment on the topic. Concluding sentences are not always necessary. In fact, short paragraphs that are part of longer pieces of writing often do not have concluding sentences. Write a concluding sentence for each paragraph. 1.) There are many reasons why I like wearing a uniform to school. First of all, it saves time. I don’t have to spend time picking out my clothes every morning. Wearing a uniform also saves money. It’s cheaper to purchase a new uniform than to go out and buy lots of school clothes. In addition, I don’t have 19 the pressure of keeping up with the latest styles. Most importantly, wearing a school uniform gives me a sense that I belong. I really think that it adds to the feeling of school spirit and community._ ____________________________________. 2.) There are many reasons why I am against wearing a school uniform. For one thing, I don’t like they style of the uniform. The navy blazer and plaid skirt are too conservative for me. Secondly, the uniform isn’t comfortable. I prefer to wear baggy pants and a sweater instead of a skirt and a jacket. Finally, I want the freedom to express my individuality through my style of dressing._ _______________________. 3.) Credit cards have a lot of advantages. First of all, credit cards are convenient because you don’t have to carry a lot of cash around. You can buy the products and services you need even if you do not have cash in your pocket. In addition, credit cards are very helpful in emergencies. Finally, you can become a better money manager as you learn to use credit cards responsibly.______________________________________. 20  Punctuation Marks in English Punctuation is used to create sense, clarity and stress in sentences. You use punctuation marks to structure and organize your writing. 1. THE PERIOD, FULL STOP OR POINT The period (known as a full stop in British English) is probably the simplest of the punctuation marks to use. You use it like a knife to cut the sentences to the required length. Generally, you can break up the sentences using the full stop at the end of a logical and complete thought that looks and sounds right to you. A. MARK THE END OF A SENTENCE WHICH IS NOT A QUESTION OR AN EXCLAMATION EXAMPLES  Rome is the capital of Italy.  I was born in Australia and now live in Indonesia.  The Dalai Lama is the spiritual leader of the Tibetan people. B. INDICATE AN ABBREVIATION Many abbreviations require a period. Dr, Mr, Mrs, and Ms do not take a period in British English, nor do most abbreviations taken from the first capital letters such as MA, Phd, or CIA. In American English, some of these do require periods or both usages are correct (with and without periods). If you require 21 100% accuracy in your punctuation, refer to a detailed style guide for the abbreviation usage rules in the variety of English you are using. EXAMPLES  I will arrive between 6 a.m. and 7 a.m.  We are coming on Fri., Jan. 4. C. ELLIPSIS Often you will see a sentence concluding with three dots. This indicates that only part of the sentence or text has been quoted or that it is being left up to the reader to complete the thought. EXAMPLES  The Lord's Prayer begins, "Our Father which art in Heaven...'"  He is always late, but you know how I feel about that... D. PERIOD AFTER A SINGLE WORD Sometimes a single word can form the sentence. In this case you place a fullstop after the word as you would in any other sentence. This is often the case when the subject is understood as in a greeting or a command. EXAMPLES  "Goodbye."  "Stop." 22 E. PERIODS IN NUMBERS Numbers use periods in English to separate the whole number from the decimal. A period used in a number is also called a "decimal point" and it is read "point" unless it refers to money. EXAMPLES  $10.43 = ten dollars and 43 cents  14.17 = fourteen point one seven 2. THE COMMA There are some general rules which you can apply when using the comma. However, you will find that in English there are many other ways to use the comma to add to the meaning of a sentence or to emphasise an item, point, or meaning. Although we are often taught that commas are used to help us add 'breathing spaces' to sentences they are, in fact, more accurately used to organise blocks of thought or logical groupings. Most people use commas to ensure that meaning is clear and, despite grammatical rules, will drop a comma if their meaning is retained without it. A. SEPARATE PHRASES, WORDS, OR CLAUSES IN LISTS When making a list, commas are the most common way to separate one list item from the next. The final two items in the list are usually separated by "and" or "or", which should be preceeded by a comma. Amongst editors this final comma in a list is known as the "Oxford Comma". 23 B. A SERIES OF INDEPENDENT CLAUSES (SENTENCES) EXAMPLES  I met Harry, we went for a swim together, and afterwards Harry went home.  I like your son, I might even love him, but he is not a very good soccer player. C. A SERIES OF NOUNS EXAMPLES  For dinner I had soup, fish, chicken, dessert, and coffee.  This afternoon I went to Oxford Circus, Picadilly, Hamstead, and Gatwick Airport. D. A SERIES OF ADJECTIVES A list of adjectives usually requires commas. However, if an adjective is modifying another adjective you do not separate them with a comma (sentence 3). EXAMPLES  She was young, beautiful, kind, and intelligent.  The house we visited was dark, dreary, and run-down.  She was wearing a bright red shirt. E. A SERIES OF VERBS EXAMPLES  Tony ran towards me, fell, yelled, and fainted. 24   The boy leapt, spun, twisted, and dove into the water. F. A SERIES OF PHRASES EXAMPLES  The car smashed into the wall, flipped onto its roof, slid along the road, and finally stopped against a tree.  The dog leapt into the air, snatched the frisbee in its mouth, landed, and ran off into the forest. G. ENCLOSING DETAILS Use a comma to enclose non-defining relative clauses and other non-essential details and comments. The comma is placed on either side of the insertion. EXAMPLES  China, one of the most powerful nations on Earth, has a huge population.  Jason's grandmother, who was born in 1930, lived through the Second World War.  Cats, unlike dogs, do not respect their masters.  My friend, Jim, likes to go scuba diving. H. PARTICIPIAL PHRASES EXAMPLES  Hearing that her father was in hospital, Jane left work immediately.  Walking to the bus stop that morning, Sam knew it was going to be a special day. 25  I. TAG QUESTIONS EXAMPLES  She lives in Paris, doesn't she?  We haven't met, have we? J. INTERJECTIONS EXAMPLES  Yes, I will stay a little longer, thank you.  No, he isn't like other boys.  Wait, I didn't mean to scare you. A FINAL WARNING Putting a comma in the wrong place can lead to a sentence with a completely different meaning, look at these two sentences: I detest liars like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = I detest you because you are a liar. I detest liars, like you; I believe that honesty is the best policy. = You and I both detest liars. 3. THE EXCLAMATION MARK The exclamation mark is used to express exasperation, astonishment, or surprise, or to emphasise a comment or short, sharp phrase. In professional or everyday writing, exclamation marks are used sparingly if at all. 26 EXAMPLES  Help! Help!  That's unbelievable!  Get out!  Look out! You can also use exclamation marks to mark a phrase as humourous, ironic or sarcastic. EXAMPLES  What a lovely day! (when it obviously is not a lovely day)  That was clever! (when someone has done something stupid) In very informal writing styles (SMS, chat, Twitter or Facebook, etc.), an exclamation mark is sometimes combined with a question mark to indicate both surprise and slight uncertainty. Double and triple exclamation marks are common in very informal writing styles, but are a sign of being uneducated in less casual correspondence. EXAMPLES OF CASUAL WRITING  He's getting married!?  That's insane!!! 4. THE QUESTION MARK Use the question mark at the end of all direct questions. EXAMPLES 27   What is your name?  Do you speak Italian?  You're spanish, aren't you? Do not use a question mark for reported questions EXAMPLES  He asked me what my name was.  She asked if I was Spanish.  Ask them where they are going. Long questions still need question marks EXAMPLES  Isn't it true that global warming is responsible for more and more problems which are having a disastrous effect on the world's climate and leading to many millions of people in countries that can least afford it having to contend with more and more hardship?  Why is it that even though you are unkind to me, ignore me when I ask you for help, and consistently forget to thank me when I do favors for you, you still claim to want me to be your friend and appear surprised when I prefer to hang out with other people? Question marks can sometimes appear within sentences EXAMPLES 28   There is cause for concern (isn't there?) that the current world economic balance is so fragile that it may lead to a global economic downturn.  "Why is she here?" asked Henry. 5. THE COLON The colon expands on the sentence that precedes it, often introducing a list that demonstrates or elaborates whatever was previously stated. EXAMPLES There are many reasons for poor written communication: lack of planning, poor grammar, misuse of punctuation marks, and insufficient vocabulary.  He collected a strange assortment of items: bird's eggs, stamps, bottle tops, string, and buttons.  Peter had an eclectic taste in music: latin, jazz, country and western, pop, blues, and classical.  He had just one fault: an enormous ego. The colon is also used to divide the hour from the minutes in writing a time in English. EXAMPLES  4:15 = "four fifteen"  6:45 = "six fourty-five"  29 6. THE SEMICOLON The semicolon is somewhere between a full stop and a comma. Semicolons can be used in English to join phrases and sentences that are thematically linked without having to use a conjunction (example 1 below). Semicolons can also be used instead of commas to separate the items in a list when the items themselves already contain commas (example 2 below). EXAMPLES  I like your brother; he's a good friend.  Many great leaders, Churchill, leader of Britain during the Second World War; Alexander, the great Emperor and general; and Napolean, the brilliant French general, had strong characters, which were useful when their countries were at war but which did not serve them well in times of peace. 7. QUOTATION MARKS Use quotation marks to cite something someone said exactly. When rephrasing what someone told you, no quotation marks are needed. EXAMPLES  "I'm going to the store now," she said.  Harry told me, "Don't forget your soccer jersey."  Harry told me not to forget my soccer jersey. 30 If quoting others within a quote, both single and double quotation marks are used to set the two separate quotations off from each other. EXAMPLE 'I haven't spoken to Peter for months,' Dianne said.'The last time I spoke to him he said, "I'm going to Bahrain and won't be back for about three years", I've heard nothing since then'. You may see single or double quotation marks used to mark out idiomatic or unfamiliar expressions EXAMPLES  I've always thought that he was very annoying, a bit of a 'pain in the neck.'  I'm not sure what you mean by "custodial care", but I'm sure you will explain it to me. Quotation marks both single and double are also used for specific purposes in bibliographic references or when citing sources in academic writing. There are a number of ways of organising bibliographies which set out standard formats. Most organisations and academic institutions will prefer one of these or have their own format published in a 'style guide'. EXAMPLE  "The Migration Flight of the Lesser Tweazle", by Jeremey Adams, The Bird Spotter Magazine, July 2009. 31 8. THE APOSTROPHE The apostrophe probably causes more grief than all of the other punctuation marks put together! The problem nearly always seems to stem from not understanding that the apostrophe has two very different (and very important) uses in English: possession and contractions. THE APOSTROPHE IN CONTRACTIONS The most common use of apostrophes in English is for contractions, where a noun or pronoun and a verb combine. Remember that the apostrophe is often replacing a letter that has been dropped. It is placed where the missing letter would be in that case. Type Without contractions Using "not" is not, has not, had not, did not, would not, can not isn't Using "is" she is, there is, he is, it is, Mary is, she's Jim is, Germany is, who is Using "am" I am Using "will" I will, you will, she will, we will, they will Using "would" I would, you would, he would, we would, they would 32  Type Without contractions Using "have" I have, you have, we have, they have Using "are" you are, they are, we are People, even native English speakers, often mistake its and it's, you're and your, who's and whose, and they're, their and there. See below for the difference. EXAMPLES  It's a nice day outside. (contraction)  The cat is dirty. Its fur is matted. (possession)  You're not supposed to be here. (contraction)  This is your book. (possession)  Who's at the door? (contraction)  Whose shoes are these? (possession)  They're not here yet. (contraction)  Their car is red. (possession)  His car is over there. (location) THE POSSESSIVE APOSTROPHE In most cases you simply need to add 's to a noun to show possession EXAMPLES  a ship's captain  a doctor's patient 33   a car's engine  Ibrahim's coat  Mirianna's book Plural nouns that do not end in s also follow this rule: EXAMPLES  the children's room  the men's work  the women's club Ordinary (or common) nouns that end in s, both singular and plural, show possession simply by adding an apostrophe after the s. EXAMPLES  the bus' wheel  the babies' crying  the ladies' tennis club  the teachers' journal Proper nouns (names of people, cities, countries) that end in s can form the possessive either by adding the apostrophe + s or simply adding the apostrophe. Today both forms are considered correct (Jones's or Jones'), and many large organisations now drop the apostrophe completely (e.g. Barclays Bank, Missing Persons Bureau) when publishing their name. 34 EXAMPLES  The Hughes' home (or the Hughes's home)  Mr Jones's shop (or Mr Jones' shop)  Charles' book (or Charles's book) 9. HYPHENS AND DASHES A hyphen joins two or more words together while a dash separates words into parenthetical statements. The two are sometimes confused because they look so similar, but their usage is different. Hyphens are not separated by spaces, while a dash has a space on either side. HYPHENS Generally, hyphens are used to join two words or parts of words together while avoiding confusion or ambiguity. Consult your dictionary if you are not sure if a hyphen is required in a compound word, but remember that current usage may have shifted since your dictionary was published. EXAMPLES  run-down  up-to-date There are some cases where hyphens preserve written clarity such as where there are letter collisions, where a prefix is added, or in family relations. Many words that have been hyphenated in the past have since dropped the hyphen and become a single word (email, nowadays). 35 EXAMPLES  co-operate  bell-like  anti-nuclear  post-colonial  great-grandmother  son-in-law In some cases though, a hyphen does change the meaning of a sentence. EXAMPLE  I am thinking of re-covering my sofa (= to put a new cover on it)  I would like to recover my sofa. (= from someone who has borrowed or stolen it) HYPHENS IN NUMBERS Use a hyphen with compound numbers from twenty-one to ninety-nine. EXAMPLES  fifty-one  eighty-nine  thirty-two  sixty-five In written fractions place a hyphen between the numerator and denominator except if there is already a hyphen in either the numerator or the denominator. EXAMPLES  two-fifths  one-third 36   three-tenths  nine-hundredths  sixty-nine eighty-ninths Use a hyphen when a number forms part of an adjectival compound EXAMPLES  France has a 35-hour working week.  He won the 100-metre sprint.  Charles Dickens was a great nineteenth-century novelist. DASHES Dashes can be used to add parenthetical statements or comments in much the same way as you would use brackets. In formal writing you should use the bracket rather than the dash as a dash is considered less formal. Dashes can be used to create emphasis in a sentence. EXAMPLES  You may think she is a liar - she isn't.  She might come to the party - you never know. 10. BRACKETS AND PARENTHESES The difference between a 'bracket' and a 'parentheses' can be a bit confusing. Generally, 'parentheses' refers to round brackets ( ) and 'brackets' to square brackets [ ]. However, we are more and more used to hearing these referred to simply as 'round brackets' or 'square brackets'. Usually we use square brackets - [ ] - for special purposes such as in technical manuals. Round brackets - ( ) - are used in a 37 similar way to commas when we want to add further explanation, an afterthought, or comment that is to do with our main line of thought but distinct from it. Many grammarians feel that the parentheses can, in fact, be replaced by commas in nearly all cases. EXAMPLES  The government's education report (April 2005) shows that the level of literacy is rising in nearly all areas.  I visited Kathmandu (which was full of tourists) on my way to the Himalayas for a trekking expedition.  You can eat almost anything while travelling in Asia if you are careful to observe simple rules (avoiding unboiled or unbottled water is one of the main rules to be aware of.) 38 Grammar 39  KINDS OF SENTENCES The four kinds of basic sentences in English are simple, compound, complex, and compound-complex. The terms may be new to you, but if you can recognize subjects and verbs, you should be able to identify and write any of the four kinds of sentences. The only new idea to master is the concept of the clause. CLAUSES A clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb that functions as a part or all of a complete sentence. The two kinds of clauses are independent (main) and dependent (subordinate). Independent Clause: I have the money. Dependent Clause: When I have the money Independent Clauses An independent (main) clause is a group of words with a subject and a verb that can stand alone and make sense. An independent clause expresses a complete thought by itself and can be written as a separate sentence. She plays the bass guitar. The manager is not at fault. 40 Dependent Clauses A dependent clause is a group of words with a subject and verb that depends on a main clause to give it meaning. since Shannon came home [no meaning alone] Since Shannon came home, her mother has been happy. [has meaning] because she was needed [no meaning alone] She stayed in the game because she was needed. [has meaning] TYPES OF SENTENCES On the basis of the number and kinds of clauses it contains, a sentence may be classified as simple, compound, complex, or compound-complex. In the examples in the following list, the dependent clauses are italicized, and the independent clauses are underlined. Simple Sentences A simple sentence consists of one independent clause and no dependent clauses. It may contain phrases and have more than one subject and/or verb. The lake looks beautiful in the moonlight. [one subject and one verb] 41  The Army, Navy, and Marines sent troops to the disaster area. [three subjects and one verb] We sang the old songs and danced happily at their wedding. [one subject and two verbs] My father, mother, and sister came to the school play, applauded the performers, and attended the party afterward. [three subjects and three verbs] Compound Sentences A compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses with no dependent clauses. Take, for example, the following two independent clauses: He opened the drawer. He found his missing disk. Here are two ways to join the independent clauses to form a compound sentence. 1. The two independent clauses can be connected by a connecting word called a coordinating conjunction. The coordinating conjunctions are for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so. (Remember the acronym FANBOYS.) He opened the drawer, and he found his missing disk. 42  He opened the drawer, so he found his missing disk. Use a comma before the coordinating conjunction (FANBOYS) between two independent clauses (unless one of the clauses is extremely short). 2. Another way to join independent clauses to form a compound sentence is to put a semicolon between the clauses. He opened the drawer; he found his missing disk. Complex Sentences A complex sentence consists of one independent clause and one or more dependent clauses. In the following sentences, the dependent clauses are italicized. When lilacs are in bloom, we love to visit friends in the country. [one dependent clause and one independent clause] Although it rained last night, we decided to take the path that led through the woods. [one independent clause and two dependent clauses] 43 Compound-Complex Sentences A compound-complex sentence consists of two or more independent clauses and one or more dependent clauses. Albert enlisted in the Army, and Jason, who was his older brother, joined him a day later. Independent Albert enlisted in the Army Clauses: Jason joined him a day later Dependent Clause: who was his older brother Exercise: Indicate the kind of sentence by writing the appropriate letter(s) in the blank. S simple CP compound CX complex CC compound-complex 1. The Titanic, a British passenger liner, began its maiden voyage from England to New York on April 10, 1912. 2. It was the largest and most luxurious ship ever built, and it carried 2,227 passengers and crew members. 3. The ship was described as a floating palace, and because its hull included a complicated system of watertight 44 compartments, it was also declared to be “practically unsinkable.” 4. After three days of calm, clear weather at sea, the captain received seven warnings of ice in the area. 5. At 11:40 p.m. on April 14, lookouts in the ship’s crow’s nest saw an iceberg directly in the vessel’s path, but it was too late to change course. 6. The Titanic struck the iceberg in the North Atlantic Ocean. 7. Because the ship was supposedly unsinkable, it carried only twenty lifeboats. 8. Women and children were first to board the lifeboats, which offered room for only about half of the people aboard. 9. Water poured into the ship, and by 1:15 a.m., its bow sank. 10. At 2:17 a.m., as the stern rose almost vertically into the air, the lights finally flickered and went out. 11. At 2:18 a.m. on April 15, the sinking ship broke in two, and at 2:20 a.m., it disappeared beneath the waves. 12. Those who did not drown froze to death in the icy water. 13. The disaster claimed 1,522 lives; 705 people were rescued. 14. After this tragedy occurred, new agreements revised lifeboat standards and created the International Ice Patrol in North Atlantic sea lanes. 15. Immediately, people began talking about ways to find the Titanic and raise it to the surface. 45 16. Not until 1985, though, did a team of U.S. and French researchers locate the wreck off the coast of Newfoundland at a depth of two and a half miles. 17. Several subsequent expeditions sent cameras, lights, and manned submarines down to the eerie scene, where they explored and photographed the rusted wreckage and collected artifacts from it. 18. The photos revealed that the iceberg ripped a hole in six of the watertight compartments; the ship might have survived if only four of its compartments had been ruptured. 19. In 1996, when researchers tried to salvage a section of the ship’s hull by raising it to the surface with balloons, a storm caused the lines to break, and the piece fell back to the bottom of the sea. 20. The ship is deteriorating rapidly in its saltwater grave, and it will eventually melt into the floor of the sea. SUBJECT-VERB AGREEMENT The basic principle of subject-verb agreement is that if the subject is singular, the verb should be singular, and if the subject is plural, the verb should be plural. There are ten major guidelines. In the examples under the following guidelines, the simple subjects and verbs are italicized. 46 1. Do not let words that come between the subject and verb affect agreement. Modifying phrases and clauses frequently come between the subject and verb: The various types of drama were not discussed. Angela, who is hitting third, is the best player. The price of those shoes is too high. Certain prepositions can cause trouble. The following words are prepositions, not conjunctions: along with, as well as, besides, in addition to, including, together with. The words that function as objects of prepositions cannot also be subjects of the sentence. The coach, along with the players, protests the decision. When a negative phrase follows a positive subject, the verb agrees with the positive subject. Philip, not the other boys, was the culprit. 2. Do not let inversions (verb before subject, not the normal order) affect the agreement of subject and verb. Verbs and other words may come before the subject. Do not let them affect the agreement. To understand subject-verb relationships, recast the sentence in normal word order. Are Juan and his sister at home? [question form] 47  Juan and his sister are at home. [normal order] 3. A singular verb agrees with a singular indefinite pronoun. Most indefinite pronouns are singular. Each of the women is ready at this time. Neither of the women is ready at this time. One of the children is not paying attention. Certain indefinite pronouns do not clearly express either a singular or plural number. Agreement, therefore, depends on the meaning of the sentence. These pronouns are all, any, none, and some. All of the melon was good. All of the melons were good. None of the pie is acceptable. None of the pies are acceptable. 4. Two or more subjects joined by and usually take a plural verb. The captain and the sailors were happy to be ashore. The trees and shrubs need more care. If the parts of a compound subject mean one and the same person or thing, the verb is singular; if the parts mean more than one, the verb is plural. 48  The secretary and treasurer is not present. [one] The secretary and the treasurer are not present. [more than one] When each or every precedes singular subjects joined by and, the verb is singular. Each boy and each girl brings a donation. Each woman and man has asked the same questions. 5. Alternative subjects—that is, subjects joined by or, nor, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also—should be handled in the following manner: If the subjects are both singular, the verb is singular. Rosa or Alicia is responsible. If the subjects are plural, the verb is plural. Neither the students nor the teachers were impressed by his comments. If one of the subjects is singular and the other subject is plural, the verb agrees with the nearer subject. Either the Garcia boys or their father goes to the hospital each day. Either their father or the Garcia boys go to the hospital each day. 49 6. Collective nouns—team, family, group, crew, gang, class, faculty, and the like—take a singular verb if the verb is considered a unit, but they take a plural verb if the group is considered as a number of individuals. The team is playing well tonight. The team are getting dressed. In the second sentence the individuals are acting not as a unit but separately. 7. Titles of books, essays, short stories, and plays, a word spoken of as a word, and the names of businesses take a singular verb. The Canterbury Tales was written by Geoffrey Chaucer. Ives is my favorite name for a pet. Markel Brothers has a sale this week. 8. Sums of money, distances, and measurements are followed by a singular verb when a unit is meant. They are followed by a plural verb when the individual elements are considered separately. Three dollars was the price. [unit] Three dollars were lying there. [individual] Five years is a long time. [unit] 50  The first five years were difficult ones. [individual] 9. Be careful of agreement with nouns ending in -s. Several nouns ending in –s take a singular verb—for example, aeronautics, civics, economics, ethics, measles, mumps. Mumps is an unpleasant disease. Economics is my major field of study. 10. Some nouns have only a plural form and so take only a plural verb—for example, clothes, fireworks, scissors, pants. His pants are badly wrinkled. Marv’s clothes were stylish and expensive. EXERCISE: Underline the correct verb form. 1. There (is, are) very little remote wilderness left in the world. 2. Neither the jungles, nor the oceans, nor the desert (has, have) gone unexplored. 3. Mount Everest, the world’s highest mountain, (is, are) no exception. 4. Before 1953, though, many a thrill-seeker (was, were) hoping to be the first to stand on its summit. 5. Everyone (know, knows) that George Mallory died trying in 1924. 51 6. Although we can never be sure, some of us (believe, believes) Mallory was the first to make it to the top. 7. According to the record books, Sir Edmund Hillary, along with his partner Tenzing Norgay, (was, were) the first to reach the highest place on Earth on May 29, 1953. 8. There (is, are) many reasons why someone would want to climb Mount Everest. 9. (Is, Are) personal satisfaction or prestige more important to today’s climbers? 10. (Is, Are) mountaineers driven by passion or by sport? 11. Now, $65,000 (is, are) the price anyone can pay for a guided hike to the summit. 12. Trips to the top of Mount Everest (is, are) now routine. 13. A 64-year-old man, a legally blind person, and an amputee (has, have) successfully climbed the mountain. 14. A solo climber or a group (take, takes) about eleven hours to ascend. PRONOUN-ANTECEDENT AGREEMENT Every pronoun refers to an earlier noun, which is called the antecedent of the pronoun. The antecedent is the noun that the pronoun replaces. The pronoun brings the reader back to the earlier thought. Here are some examples: 52  I tried to buy tickets for the concert, but they were all sold. Roger painted a picture of a pickup truck. It was so good that he entered it in an art show. A pronoun agrees with its antecedent in person, number, and gender. Person—first, second, or third—indicates perspective, or point of view. Number indicates singular or plural. Gender indicates masculine, feminine, or neuter. Agreement in Person Avoid needless shifting of person, which means shifting of point of view, such as from I to you. First person, second person, and third person indicate perspectives from which you can write. Select one point of view and maintain it, promoting continuity and consistency. Needless shifting of person, meaning changing perspectives without reasons important for your content and purpose, is distracting and awkward. Each point of view has its appropriate purposes. Agreement in Number Most problems with pronoun-antecedent agreement involve number. The principles are simple: If the antecedent (the word the pronoun refers back to) is singular, use a singular pronoun. If the antecedent is plural, use a plural pronoun. 53 1. A singular antecedent requires a singular pronoun. Tom forgot his notebook. 2. A plural antecedent requires a plural pronoun. Many students cast their votes today. 3. A singular indefinite pronoun as an antecedent takes a singular pronoun. Most indefinite pronouns are singular. The following are common indefinite singular pronouns: anybody, anyone, each, either, everybody, everyone, no one, nobody, one, somebody, someone. Each of the girls brought her book. When one makes a promise, he or she should keep it. 4. A plural indefinite pronoun as an antecedent takes a plural pronoun. Few knew their assignments. 5. Certain indefinite pronouns do not clearly express either a singular or plural number. Agreement, therefore, depends on the meaning of the sentence. These pronouns are all, any, none, and some. 54  All of the apple was wormy. All of the apples were wormy. None of the cake is acceptable. None of the cakes are acceptable. 6. Two or more antecedents, singular or plural, take a plural pronoun. Such antecedents are usually joined by and or by commas and and. Howard and his parents bought their presents early. Students, instructors, and the administration pooled their ideas at the forum. 7. Alternative antecedents—that is, antecedents joined by or, nor, whether/or, either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also— require a pronoun that agrees with the nearer antecedent. Neither Alex nor his friends lost their way. Neither his friends nor Alex lost his way. 8. In a sentence with an expression such as one of those ______ who, the antecedent is usually the plural noun that follows the preposition of. He is one of those people who want their money now. 55 9. In a sentence with the expression the only one of those ______ who, the antecedent is usually the singular word one. She is the only one of the members who wants her money now. 10. When collective nouns such as team, jury, committee, and band are used as antecedents, they take a singular pronoun if they are considered as units. The jury is doing its best. When individual behavior is suggested, antecedents take a plural form. The jury are putting on their coats. 11. The words each, every, and many a(n) before a noun make the noun singular. Each child and adult was his or her own authority. Each and every person doubted himself or herself. Many a person is capable of knowing himself or herself. Agreement in Gender The pronoun should agree with its antecedent in gender, if the gender of the antecedent is specific. Masculine and feminine 56 pronouns are gender-specific: he, him, she, her. Others are neuter: I, we, me, us, it, they, them, who, whom, that, which. The words who and whom refer to people. That can refer to ideas, things, and people, but usually does not refer to individuals. Which refers to ideas and things, but never to people. My girlfriend gave me her best advice. [feminine] Mighty Casey tried his best. [masculine] The people with whom I work are loud. [neuter] EXERCISE Underline the correct pronoun form. 1. When someone does a favor for you, (he or she, they) must be thanked. 2. The audience clapped and cheered to communicate (their, its) approval. 3. No one in the maze could find (his or her, their) way out. 4. The corporation has decided to move (its, their) headquarters to Hawaii. 5. Everyone wearing high heels knew that (she, they) had made a bad shoe choice. 6. Ricardo is one of those people who like to do everything (himself, themselves). 57 7. Lynn’s name was on the list of people (that, who) still owed money. 8. The drill sergeant required perfection from everyone and everything (who, that, which) was part of his platoon. 9. Ellen is the only one in the whole class who can laugh at (himself or herself, themselves, herself) after making a mistake. 10. Both of my parents are conscientious about taking care of (his or her, their) health. 11. The team faces (its, their) toughest challenge this Friday. 12. Neither of the men wanted to carry (his, their) wife’s purse while she shopped. 13. Either John or Ralph will win the contest and see (his, their) hard work pay off. 14. A parent should read to (you, his or her, their) child every day. 15. Either of the mothers will be willing to tell you (her, their) story. 16. The writer and the artist have joined forces to produce (his or her, their) next book. 17. Neither George nor his brothers have been able to locate (his, their) grandmother’s jewelry box. 58 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF PARALLELISM Parallelism as it relates to sentence structure is usually achieved by joining words with similar words: nouns with nouns, adjectives (words that describe nouns and pronouns) with adjectives, adverbs (words that describe verbs, adjectives, and other adverbs) with adverbs, and so forth. Men, women, and children enjoy the show[nouns] The players are excited, eager, and enthusiastic. [adjective] The author wrote skillfully and quickly. [adverbs] You can create parallel structure by joining groups of words with similar groups of words: prepositional phrase with prepositional phrase, clause with clause, sentence with sentence. She fell in love and out of love in a few minutes. [prepositional phrases] Who he was and where he came from did not matter. [clauses] He came in a hurry. He left in a hurry. [sentences] Parallelism means balancing one structure with another of the same kind. Faulty parallel structure is awkward and draws unfavorable attention to what is being said. 59 Balancing Sentence Parts Nonparallel: Gary Payton’s reputation is based on his ability in passing, shooting, and he is good at rebounds. Parallel: Gary Payton’s reputation is based on his ability in passing, shooting, and rebounding. In the nonparallel sentence, the words passing and shooting are of the same kind (verblike words used as nouns), but the rest of the sentence is different. You do not have to know terms to realize that there is a problem in smoothness and emphasis. Just read the material aloud. Then compare it with the parallel statement; he is good at rebounds is changed to rebounding to make a sentence that’s easy on the eye and ear. SIGNAL WORDS Some words signal parallel structure. If you use and, the items joined by and should almost always be parallel. If they are not, then and is probably inappropriate. The weather is hot and humid. [and joins adjectives] The car and the trailer are parked in front of the house. [and joins nouns] The same principle is true for but, although it implies a direct contrast. 60 Where contrasts are being drawn, parallel structure is essential to clarify those contrasts. He purchased a Dodger Dog, but I chose the Stadium Peanuts. [but joins contrasting clauses] She earned an A in math but failed her art class. [but joins contrasting verbs] You should regard all the coordinating conjunctions (FANBOYS: for, and, nor, but, or, yet, so) as signals for parallel structure. COMBINATION SIGNAL WORDS The words and and but are the most common individual signal words used with parallel constructions. Sometimes, however, combination words signal the need for parallelism or balance. The most common ones are either/or, neither/nor, not only/but also, both/and, and whether/or. Now consider this faulty sentence and two possible corrections: Nonparallel: Either we will win this game, or let’s go out fighting. Parallel: Either we will win this game, or we will go out fighting. The correction is made by changing let’s to we will to parallel the we will in the first part of the sentence. The same construction should follow the either and the or. 61 Nonparallel: Flour is used not only to bake cakes but also in paste. Parallel: Flour is used not only to bake cakes but also to make paste. The correction is made by changing in (a preposition) to to make (an infinitive). Now an infinitive follows both not only and but also. EXERCISE Mark each sentence as P for parallel or NP for nonparallel. Correct the sentences with nonparallel structure. 1. Jacques Cousteau was an adventurer, explorer, and educated people. 2. He will be remembered not only as a pioneer but also he was an environmentalist of great influence. 3. His love for the sea led him to devote his life to research, protecting, photographing, and writing about it. 4. His passion for the world’s oceans made him an environmentalist, inventive, and a romantic. 5. He is credited with co-inventing scuba gear, developing a bathyscaphe, and helped start the first human undersea colonies. 6. Cousteau also helped invent skin-diving gear that freed divers from air hoses and to allow them to fl oat at will. 62 7. His famous boat, the Calypso, was not only his transportation but also giving him a marine laboratory for experiments. 8. He not only was a filmmaker who created many documentaries but also the author of countless books. 9. His famous adventures included unearthing an ancient Greek shipwreck and photography of Antarctica’s underwater ice sculptures. 10. Millions recognized Cousteau, who was thin, bespectacled, and he wore a red cap. 11. Cousteau was born in 1910, and his death occurred in 1997. 12. Although he was a sickly child, he liked going to the beach, swimming, and to dive. 13. He started out aiming for the skies in naval aviation school but ending up in the water. 14. He was honored both with France’s Legion of Honor for his military service and forty Emmy nominations for his documentaries. 15. In his eighties he gave up diving, but he did not give up his mission to protect the sea for future generations. 16. To preserve the oceans for future generations was as important to him as teaching people. 63 17. Not long before he died at age 87, Cousteau said that he was proudest of helping to save the environment and with informing people everywhere. 18. He was not only beloved in France but also the subject of American songs such as John Denver’s “Calypso.” 19. Cousteau’s films and what he believed influenced people of all ages. 20. He brought the mystery and beauty of the sea into the lives of even those who were landlocked. Commonly Confused Words 1. Allusion vs. Illusion An allusion refers to implying or referring to something, especially in literature. Ex. The horse mentioned in the text is clearly an allusion to the Trojan horse. An illusion refers to a misleading image, object, or idea that does not exist as it appears. Ex. The magician created the illusion of a disappearing coin. 2. Among vs. Between Among is used when referring to three or more. Ex. Among the paintings was an original Picasso. Between is used when referring to two. Ex. I am stuck in traffic between Alden Rd. and Pennell Dr. 64 3. Effect vs. Affect An effect is a result or a consequence. (usually a noun) Effect may also function as a verb meaning “to bring about something.” Ex. The effect was catastrophic. OR He effected the change in the existing system. An affect is to have an impression, influence, or effect on something. (usually a verb) Ex. This greatly affected his mental state that evening. 4. Fewer vs. Less Fewer is used when referring to things that can be counted. Ex. There were fewer customers than anticipated. Less is used when referring to uncountable and usually abstract nouns. Ex. I have less patience than Ted. 5. Hanged vs. Hung Hanged refers to the past tense and past participle of hang (to put to death). Ex. Many people were hanged during the Salem Witch Trials. Hung refers to the past tense and past participle of hang (to suspend). Ex. He hung the picture on the wall. 65 6. Imply vs. Infer To imply means to suggest something without specifically stating it. Ex. Are you implying that I did something wrong? To infer means to draw a conclusion about something that hasn’t been directly stated. Ex. From your statement, I can infer that you believe he is guilty. 7. Lie vs. Lay Use lie when the object is laying itself down. Ex. I am going to lie down. OR Go lie down on the couch. Use lay when the object is being laid down. Ex. I will lay the book on the table. OR Now I lay me down to sleep. 8. Many vs. Much Many is used when referring to a large but definite number. Many refers to things that can be counted. Ex. I have too many shoes. Much is used when referring to something great in quantity, amount, extent or degree. Much refers to things that cannot be counted. Ex. You have too much time on your hands. 66 9. Rise vs. Raise Use rise when the object is lifting itself. Rise is an intransitive verb. Ex. I rise each morning at six. Use raise when the object is being risen by another force. Raise is a transitive verb. Ex. She raised her hand at the teacher’s request. 10.Than vs. Then Than is used to draw a comparison. Ex. I like vanilla more than chocolate. Then is used to refer to time/at that time. Ex. I went to the store; then I went to David’s graduation. 11. Their vs. They’re vs. There Their is the third person plural pronoun. It indicates a possession or relationship. Ex. Their dog was in the backyard. They’re is the contraction of “they” and “are.” Ex. They’re going to the amusement park on Friday. There is used to refer to a specific location, position, or time. It may also be used to introduce a sentence of clause when the verb has no definite subject. Ex. The books are over there. OR There will be cake at the party. 67 12. To vs. Too To is used with verbs to form the infinitive or as a preposition expressing movement towards something. Ex. It is important to tell the truth. OR We went to the mall. Too is used to show an extensive degree or as a synonym of “also.” Ex. He is too young for that ride. OR I am going to the movies too. 13.Who vs. Whom Who is used when it is the subject of a sentence or a predicate noun. Ex. Who wants ice cream? Whom is used when it is the direct object, the indirect object, or the object of a preposition. Ex. Whom did you ask to the dance? OR You are giving the ring to whom? 14.Whose vs. Who’s Whose is a pronoun expressing possession. Ex. Whose car are we taking? Who’s is the contraction of who is. Ex. Who’s going to the concert? 68 Commonly Confused Words Practice Exercises For each of the following sentences, circle the correct word choice: 1. We discussed the multiple literary (illusions/allusions) within the text. 2. (Among/Between) me and you, I think Kallie won the contest. 3. She had too (many/much) sweaters in her closet. 4. Alex was (to/too) excited to sleep. 5. (Their/They’re/There) going to the amusement park tomorrow. 6. The sugar had a negative (effect/affect) on the science experiment. 7. Nicole has (fewer/less) shoes than Sara. 8. The gas prices continue to (raise/rise). 9. Michael (hanged/hung) the picture for his mother. 10. Cindy, (lay/lie) the book on the table. 11. John scored higher on the exam (then/than) I did. 12. (Who/Whom) wants to go to the mall tonight? 13. Haley did not mean to (infer/imply) that Jenny was to blame. 14. John had (less/fewer) travel time because he lives closer to the airport. 15. (Whose/Who’s) watch is this on the counter? 69 16. I am going to (lie/lay) down for an hour. 17. The disappearing penny was simply an optical (allusion/illusion). 18. The book is on the table over (their/there/they’re). 19. (Whose/Who’s) responsible for the advertising of the event. 20. From your words, I can (infer/imply) that you think he is guilty. 21. The weather greatly (effected/affected) the outcome of the race. 22. (Their/They’re/There) books are on the bottom shelf. 23. Earlier today we walked (to/too) the ice cream parlor. 24. The prisoner was (hung/hanged) last night. 25. There are red roses scattered (among/between) the carnations. 26. Kelly ordered her lunch, and (then/than) she went back to work. 27. Mark wanted (to raise/to rise) the flag at the assembly today. 28. (Who/Whom) did you ask to the party? 29. There was too (much/many) chlorine in the pool. 70 Vocabulary Meaning from Context 71  Managing Vocabulary Even if you are a native English speaker, you may at times feel overwhelmed by the amount of unfamiliar vocabulary you encounter. Of course, as a university student, you have a great opportunity and need to build you vocabulary (discipline specific and general), so consult glossaries and use a dictionary. Keep a list of new words: record their definitions and write example sentences which show meaning and usage. When using your dictionary, be discerning. Know which words can be ignored, and see if it is possible to guess the meanings of words. You may be able do this if you: 1. Guess using context: The patient suffered from respiratory ailments, skin problems, anacritis, and hypertension What could anacritis mean? (NB. Not a real word!) 2. Guess using prefixes, suffixes and word stems Antichocoflavourism Aquaengineacousticology What could these words mean? (NB. Not real words!) Read the following sentences, and then try to choose the best definition for the italicized word by searching for context clues in the sentence: 1- As the summer sun sent scattered rays through the maple and oak leaves overhead, the young deer stood frozen, making it almost impossible for the hikers to see her. In the above passage, the word “frozen” means _______. a. very cold 72 b. visible c. not moving d. not melted 2- Christmas is a time when Dad reverts to his childhood. I really think he looks forward to Santa’s visit more than any other member of the family. Mom says that he’ll always be a child during this season. What does “reverts” mean in the above passage? a. stands up straight b. peeks at presents c. drinks too much egg nog d. goes back to being what he was 3- Fortunately, the explosion diverted the asteroid from a course that would have sent it hurdling into our planet. To divert is to _______. a. change the direction of b. look for really high waves c. jump into a dry river d. look through a telescope 4- A wonderful 98 year old woman is working day and night to knit scarves to send as gifts for the troops. What a selfless person she is! A selfless woman _______. 73 a. is selfish b. has no name c. likes to wear scarves d. cares more about others than herself 5. In the early 1600s, a dangerous trip across the Atlantic Ocean was a daunting idea. The Europeans, who would someday be known as the Pilgrims, must have been a very determined and brave group of settlers. A daunting task is one that would _______ someone. a. tickle b. amuse c. lose or misplace d. frighten or intimidate 6. The original Pilgrims called themselves the “Saints” and referred to others who joined with them for the voyage as the “Strangers.” In this context, “original” means _______. a. one of a kind b. first c. humorous c. musical 7. The Saints and Strangers argued about how they would live in the New World. After much discussion, they came together and signed the Mayflower Compact. 74 The Compact was _______. a. a container for makeup b. a small item c. a machine used for mashing corn d. an agreement 8. When the Pilgrims landed in what is now Massachusetts, they were fearful that the Native Americans would attack them. However, the people that they encountered, the Wampanoag Indians, were a peaceful and generous tribe. To encounter, is to _______. a. meet b. note how many c. fight d. exchange text messages 9.I believe that if you lower taxes so that people can keep more of the money they earn, it will be an incentive for them to work harder. What is the meaning of “incentive”? __________. a. a reason to do something b. a small amount of money c. a tax d. a good job 10. Most of America's Founding Fathers did not believe in women's suffrage. Only men could vote in the United states until 1920. 75 What is “suffrage” ? a. something that causes physical pain b. an early flag c. skirts that did not cover ankles d. the right to vote 11. Some people are sure that the new health care law will mean better care for everyone. Others argue that the law will mean less care and longer waiting lines for those who need to see doctors. It's a controversy that will not go away soon. A controversy is something that people _______. a. have strong disagreements over b. blow their noses into c. need to pay for a visit to a doctor d. eat with sweet candy 12. Removing seeds from cotton plants was a slow job until Eli Whitney invented the cotton gin. What is a cotton gin? a. a drink b. a book c. a machine d. a cloth 13.No matter where you go, the Internet is following you. Almost every portable device is being made with an Internet connection. Most new TVs and many other appliances come 76 with Internet connections as well. The Internet is truly ubiquitous. If something is ubiquitous, __________. a. it is fuzzy and will bite you b. it is everywhere c. it costs too much money d. it causes rashes 14. Speaking rudely to the judges was rash behavior. You really hurt your chances of winning! In the above context, what does “rash” mean? a. an itchy skin condition b. funny c. trying to hide or disguise a piece of cheese d. with little thought or consideration 15. Some people are always bashing the president just like others bashed the one before him. Wouldn't you think that everyone could find something to praise him for, at least once in a while? What does “bashing” mean in the above selection? a. hitting hard with a heavy tool b. going to too many expensive parties c. speaking or writing harshly about d. voting for a different candidate 16. Wherever he goes, the esteemed Dr. Sanchez is applauded for his life saving research. 77 What does “esteemed” mean? a. held over boiling water b. very old c. unable to chew gum d. greatly admired 17. Poor Farmer Chevez labors sixteen hours a day and never has time for a vacation. He deserves better! Everyone should have at least one day a week for rest and relaxation. A. plays B. eats C. works D. unions Note: The word “labor” is spelled “labour” in some parts of the world such as the United Kingdom. 18. It's not that I'm unfriendly, but sometimes I want to leave society behind and be alone for awhile. A. people living as members of a group B. homes with messy floors C. the fastest runners D. people who are afraid of Girl Scouts 19. Our new alarm system will wake up the entire neighborhood if an intruder gets in the house. An intruder is someone who intrudes. To intrude is to __________. 78 A. paint or repair old buildings B. wear ones shoes on the wrong feet C. go where one is not wanted or doesn't belong D. be very noisy 20. Those scientists want to hear what our professor thinks about their theory because he is the foremost expert in their field. A. The first or main one B. craziest C. least informed D. loudest 21.Fortunately, the dizzy spell was transient. He was able to continue playing within seconds and had no trouble winning the match. When you describe an event as “transient,” you are saying that __________. a. it sounds like a train b. it is quite harmful c. it helps you win d. it doesn't last long 22. Brea and Elizabeth are having a dispute over which radio station to play at work. It would be so much simpler if they both liked the same kind of music. A dispute is a __________. 79 a. musical instrument b. choice of music c. discovery d. disagreement 23. When they heard the good news about the court’s decision, the angry crowd cheered and then began to disperse. “It looks like everyone is going home,” one reporter stated. Which would be the opposite of “disperse”? a. come together b. smile c. fly like a bird d. sing 24. It’s a wonder to me how anyone can still be undecided about this election. These two candidates are certainly distinct. Each would lead our nation in opposite directions. What does “distinct” mean? a. needing a bath b. dishonest c. clearly different d. about the same age 25. Your plan looks good. I hope it will really work. It’s time to implement it and see if it’s as brilliant as you claim. a. instrument b. take apart 80 c. change d. carry out 26. If your plan fails, we’ll have to find someone who can devise a better one. a. design b. dislike c. appliance d. to use peanut butter as toothpaste 27. Of course, I’m not saying that your plan is no good. I tend to be optimistic, so I won’t be surprised when you succeed. a. expecting the best to happen b. needing glasses to see c. full of gas d. unselfish 28. When your plan brings us great wealth, you will be rewarded for your sagacity. a. good looks b. mistakes c. intelligence d. huge appetite for herbs 29. No matter what happens, I assure you that I will not forget how hard you have worked on this project. a. dare b. promise 81 c. act like a donkey d. forget 30-Ryan is a great inventor. However, I don’t think that his latest invention, edible socks, is likely to be too successful. Not many people want to eat socks. There are some things in life that should remain inedible. Which word in the passage means “fit to be eaten”? Which word in the passage means “not fit to be eaten”? 31-Marsha is really an introvert. When I took her to Jason’s party, she sat in a corner without speaking to anyone. All she did was eat most of the snacks. The only reason she hangs out with me is because I never try to force her to be sociable. She would never forgive me if I introduced her to anyone. An introvert is usually _____. a. friendly b. hungry c. unclean d. shy 32-Sunshine said, “Amber, why are you making such a big deal about Robert’s hair? Yes, he did dye it purple. It is rather unusual for a guy to have purple hair. On the other hand, it’s not exactly going to change the course of world history. It’s really quite a trivial matter.” What does “trivial” mean? 82 a. strange b. unimportant c. disgusting d. dangerous READING COMPREHENSION 83  Different Reading Techniques and When To Use Them There are different reading techniques and the students should be aware of which technique is most suited, depending on the reading task required by the text or by their teacher. Training students to know their reading techniques and deduce when best to apply them is indeed important, especially under exam conditions when time constraints come into play and decisions need to be made depending on time availability and the importance of the task at hand. The four main types of reading techniques are the following:  Skimming  Scanning  Intensive  Extensive Skimming Skimming is sometimes referred to as gist reading. The goal of skimming is to get the general meaning (gist) of the story without trying to decode exactly what each word means. You might typically do this with a magazine or newspaper and would help you mentally and quickly shortlist 84 those articles which you might consider for a deeper read. You might typically skim to search for a name in a telephone directory. Scanning Picture yourself visiting a historical city, guide book in hand. You would most probably just scan the guide book to see which site you might want to visit. Scanning involves getting your eyes to quickly scuttle across sentence and is used to extract specific pieces of information. Interestingly, research has concluded that reading off a computer screen actually inhibits the pathways to effective scanning and thus, reading of paper is far more conducive to speedy comprehension of texts. Something students sometimes do not give enough importance to is illustrations. These should be included in your scanning. Special attention to the introduction and the conclusion should also be paid. Intensive Reading You need to have your aims clear in mind when undertaking intensive reading. Remember this is going to be far more time consuming than scanning or skimming. If you need to list the chronology of events in a long passage, you will need to read it intensively. This type of reading has indeed beneficial to language learners as it helps them understand vocabulary by deducing the meaning of words in context. It 85 moreover, helps with retention of information for long periods of time and knowledge resulting from intensive reading persists in your long term memory. This is one reason why reading huge amounts of information just before an exam does not work very well. When students do this, they undertake neither type of reading process effectively, especially neglecting intensive reading. They may remember the answers in an exam but will likely forget everything soon afterwards. Extensive reading Extensive reading involves reading for pleasure. Because there is an element of enjoyment in extensive reading it is unlikely that students will undertake extensive reading of a text they do not like. It also requires a fluid decoding and assimilation of the text and content in front of you. If the text is difficult and you stop every few minutes to figure out what is being said or to look up new words in the dictionary, you are breaking your concentration and diverting your thoughts. 86 Read the following passages and answer the questions that follow each: (1) Christmas is my favorite holiday. My grandmother makes ham, salad, and cupcakes on Christmas. I also get a present on Christmas! Last year I got a new set of paint brushes. This year I hope to get new pencils and a drawing pad. I always have fun on Christmas. Halloween is another good holiday. My grandmother makes candy corn and cupcakes on Halloween. People wear costumes during Halloween. Last year I wore a skeleton costume. This year I am going to wear a zombie costume. July 4 is a good holiday. July 4 is the birthday of the United States of America. My grandmother makes hot dogs and salad on July 4. I don’t have to go to school on July 4. But I don’t get any presents either. If I got presents on July 4 it would be my favorite holiday. 1) When does the author’s grandmother make cupcakes? I. Christmas II. Halloween 87 III. July 4 A. I only B. I and II only C. I, II, and III 2) Which holiday does the author like most? A. Christmas B. Halloween C. Easter 3) Based on the things the author gets for Christmas, we can understand that he likes A. sports B. art C. music 4) What is the author’s favorite thing about holidays? A. not going to school B. eating candy C. getting presents 5) What costume did the author wear for Halloween last year? A. a skeleton costume B. a zombie costume 88 C. a pumpkin costume 6) Based on what you know about the author, what costume will he probably wear next year? A. a pumpkin costume B. a flower costume C. a ghost costume 7) This story is mainly about A. why the author likes some holidays B. how someone can get out of school C. which foods are the best to eat on different holidays 8) What is the best title for this passage? A. The Holidays I Like B. Why Christmas is Best C. Hot Dogs and Salad (2) Most human beings are awake during the day and sleep all night. Owls live the opposite way. Owls are nocturnal. This means that they sleep all day and stay awake at night. Because owls are nocturnal, this means they must eat at night. But 89 finding food in the dark is difficult. To help them, they have special eyes and ears. Owls have very large eyes. These eyes absorb more light than normal. Since there is little light during the night, it is helpful to be able to absorb more of it. This helps owls find food in the dark. Owls also have very good hearing. Even when owls are in the trees, they can hear small animals moving in the grass below. This helps owls catch their prey even when it is very dark. Like owls, mice are also nocturnal animals. Mice have an excellent sense of smell. This helps them find food in the dark. Being nocturnal helps mice to hide from the many different animals that want to eat them. Most of the birds, snakes, and lizards that like to eat mice sleep at night—except, of course, owls! 1) In paragraph 1, we learn that "Owls are nocturnal." The word diurnal is the opposite of the word nocturnal. Using information in the passage as a guide, we can understand that an animal that is diurnal A. sleeps at night and is awake during the day B. hunts during the day and is awake at night C. sleeps every other night and is awake during the day D. hunts during the day and night 90 2) Based on information in paragraph 2, it can be understood that an animal with small eyes A. must be diurnal B. has trouble seeing in the dark C. can see very well at night D. is likely to be eaten by an owl 3) According to the passage, owls can find food in the dark using their sense of I. sight II. sound III. smell A. l only B. I and II only C. II and III only D. I, II, and III 4) In paragraph 3 the author writes, "This helps owls catch their prey even when it is very dark." Based on its use in the passage, we can understand that prey is A. a noise that an animal makes during the night B. a small animal such as a pet dog or cat 91 C. an animal that is hunted by other animals D. an animals that hunts other animals 5) Based on information in the final paragraph, it can be understood that mice sleep during the day in order to A. find food that other animals can not B. keep themselves safe C. store energy for night time activities D. release stress 6) Based on information in the final paragraph, it can be understood that A. owls hunt mice B. mice can hide from owls C. mice and owls both hide from birds, snakes, and lizards D. birds and snakes often hunt lizards 7) If added to the end of this passage, which of the following conclusions would fit best? A. The owl is a nocturnal animal. This means it is active at night. The owl's excellent sense of sight and sound enable it to find food in the dark. 92 B. Mice are nocturnal animals. This means they are active at night. Similar to the owl, mice use their excellent sense of smell to find food in the dark. C. Both mice and owls are nocturnal. This means they are active at night. Because these animals are active at night, they must sleep during the day. This makes them especially vulnerable to attack from diurnal animals. D. Some animals are nocturnal. This means they are active at night. The owl and the mouse are good examples of nocturnal animals that use their senses to find food in the dark. (3) Lilly loves her new town. She loves the mall. She loves the parks. She also loves her school. Most of all, though, Lilly loves the seasons. In her old town, it was hot all of the time. Sometimes it is cold in Lilly's new town. The cold season is in winter. Once in a while it snows. Lilly has never seen snow before. So for her, the snow is exciting as well as very beautiful. Lilly has to wear gloves to keep her hands warm. She also wears a scarf around her neck. In spring, flowers bloom and the trees turn green with new leaves. Pollen falls on the cars and windowsills and makes Lilly sneeze. People work in their yards and mow their grass. In summer, Lilly wears her old shorts and sandals— the same ones she used to wear in her old town. It’s hot outside, and 93 dogs lie in the shade. Lilly and her friends go to a pool or play in the water sprinkler. Her father cooks hamburgers on the grill for dinner. Lilly’s favorite season is autumn. In autumn, the leaves on the trees turn yellow, gold, red, and orange. Halloween comes in autumn, and this is Lilly’s favorite holiday. Every Halloween, Lilly wears a costume. Last year she wore a mouse costume. This year she will wear a fish costume. One evening in autumn, Lilly and her mom are on sitting together on the porch. Mom tells Lilly that autumn is also called “fall”. This is a good idea, Lilly thinks, because in fall all of the leaves fall down from the trees. 1) Which of the following words best describes the way Lilly feels about living in her new town? A. skeptical, meaning questioning or showing doubt B. apprehensive, meaning anxious or worried C. overjoyed, meaning extremely happy D. content, meaning satisfied with what one is or has 2) This passage is mainly about A. Lilly’s favorite season B. Lilly and the four seasons 94 C. Lilly’s favorite activities during winter D. Lilly's favorite Halloween costumes 3) What is Lilly’s favorite thing about her new town? A. her school B. going to the pool C. the food D. the seasons 4) In paragraph 2 the author writes, "She also wears a scarf around her neck.” What is the best way to rewrite this sentence while keeping its original meaning? A. In addition, she wears a scarf around her neck. B. However, she wears a scarf around her neck. C. Nevertheless, she wears a scarf around her neck. D. As a result, she wears a scarf around her neck. 5) Which of the following best describes the structure of this passage? A. The author talks about Lily's new town, and then talks about how the seasons are changing. B. The author introduces Lilly, and then describes her in relation to the four seasons. 95 C. The author introduces Lilly, and then explains why autumn is her favorite season. D. The author discusses the four seasons, and then describes which one Lilly likes best. 6) How is Lilly’s new town different from her old town? I. It snows in her new town. II. Lilly wears different summer clothes in her new town. III. Lilly wears a Halloween costume in her new town. A. I only B. I and II only C. II and III only D. I, II, and III 7) Based on information in paragraph 5, which of the following costumes is Lilly most likely to wear next year? A. a princess costume B. a fairy costume C. a ghost costume D. a bird costume 8) Based on information in the passage, we can understand that, which season has two names? 96 A. spring B. summer C. fall D. winter (4) Karl Benz invented the modern car in 1888 in Germany. Emile Roger worked for Benz in France. He made cars in France. By 1900, many people were building cars in France and in the U.S. The first company to build only cars was Panhard et Levassor in France. Panhard started in 1889. The Peugeot car company started in 1891 in France. In the US, Frank and Charles Duryea started the Duryea Motor Wagon Company in 1893. It was the first US car company. By 1902, Ransom E. Olds started the Olds Motor Vehicle Company. A year later, Henry Ford started the Ford Motor company. It produced the Cadillac. All these early modern cars burned gasoline or diesel fuel. Ford opened factories in France and Britain in 1911. Then, they opened a factory in Denmark in 1923. Later, they opened a factory in Germany in 1925. Ford was one of the first manufacturers to use an assembly. With an assembly line, factory workers could produce cars faster and safer than other production systems. Most modern cars still burn gasoline or diesel fuel. These cars cause air pollution. They get the air dirty. Now many people are looking for 97 cleaner cars. And, many car companies are looking for cleaner fuels. 1) Which company first built only cars? A. Benz B. Ford C. Duryea D. Panhard 2) When did the Peugeot car company start? A. 1888 B. 1889 C. 1890 D. 1891 3) What was the first U.S. car company? A. Ford B. Olds C. Duryea D. Cadillac 4) The Ford Motor Company opened a… A. factory in Denmark in 1911. B. factory in Germany in 1925. C. factory in Britain in 1929. D. factory in France in 1931. 5) Whose idea was the assembly line? A. Charles Duryea’s 98 B. Emile Roger’s C. Henry Ford’s D. Karl Benz’s 6) Produced means… A. bought. B. named. C. made. D. sold 7) Fuel is… A. a car production system. B. what makes cars go. C. the price of a car. D. None of the above 8) What is a factory? A. A place where people make things B. A place where people recycle things C. A school for car workers D. A school for drivers (5) When you imagine the desert, you probably think of a very hot place covered with sand. Although this is a good description for many deserts, Earth’s largest desert is actually a very cold place covered with ice: Antarctica. 99  In order for an area to be considered a desert, it must receive very little rainfall. More specifically, it must receive an average of less than ten inches of precipitation—which can be rain, sleet, hail, or snow—on the ground every year. Antarctica, the coldest place on earth, has an average temperature that usually falls below the freezing point. And because cold air holds less moisture than warm air, the air in Antarctica does not hold much moisture at all. This is evident in the low precipitation statistics recorded for Antarctica. For example, the central part of Antarctica receives an average of less than 2 inches of snow every year. The coastline of Antarctica receives a little bit more—between seven and eight inches a year. Because Antarctica gets so little precipitation every year, it is considered a desert. When precipitation falls in hot deserts, it quickly evaporates back into the atmosphere. The air over Antarctica is too cold to hold water vapor, so there is very little evaporation. Due to this low rate of evaporation, most of the snow that falls to the ground remains there permanently, eventually building up into thick ice sheets. Any snow that does not freeze into ice sheets becomes caught up in the strong winds that constantly blow over Antarctica. These snow-filled winds can make it look as if it is snowing. Even though snowfall is very rare there, blizzards are actually very common on Antarctica. 100 1) The main purpose of paragraph 1 is to…….. A. accept a conclusion B. introduce an argument C. provide a brief history D. deny a common belief 2) The best title for this passage would be ………… A. Earth’s Many Deserts B. Antarctica: The Coldest Place on Earth C. A Desert of Ice D. Unusual Blizzards 3) Africa’s Sahara Desert is the second-largest desert on earth. Based on the information in the passage, what characteristic must the Sahara share wit