English Book Fall 2025-1 PDF

Horus University in Egypt Department of English Language Faculty of Dentistry English Language Course Compiled & Edited by Staff of English Department 0|Page 1|Page  Table of Contents N...

Horus University in Egypt Department of English Language Faculty of Dentistry English Language Course Compiled & Edited by Staff of English Department 0|Page 1|Page  Table of Contents N Topic Page 1 Basic Grammar Structure 3 2 Paragraph Writing 49 3 Idioms 65 4 Reading 72 2|Page Basic Grammar Structure 3|Page 4|Page 5|Page 6|Page 7|Page 8|Page 9|Page 10 | P a g e 11 | P a g e 12 | P a g e 13 | P a g e 14 | P a g e 15 | P a g e 16 | P a g e 17 | P a g e 18 | P a g e 19 | P a g e 20 | P a g e 21 | P a g e 22 | P a g e 23 | P a g e 24 | P a g e 25 | P a g e 26 | P a g e 27 | P a g e 28 | P a g e 29 | P a g e 30 | P a g e 31 | P a g e 32 | P a g e 33 | P a g e 34 | P a g e 35 | P a g e 36 | P a g e 37 | P a g e 38 | P a g e 39 | P a g e 40 | P a g e 41 | P a g e 42 | P a g e 43 | P a g e 44 | P a g e 45 | P a g e 46 | P a g e 47 | P a g e 48 | P a g e Writing 49 | P a g e  Effective Paragraphs: Components and Development  What is a paragraph? A paragraph is a collection of sentences dealing with a single topic. It should be unified, coherent, and well-developed. Typically, you want to keep one idea to one paragraph.  Elements of a Paragraph A paragraph is made up of a topic sentence, the developing details, and a concluding sentence. o Topic Sentence:  The topic sentence expresses the main point of the paragraph. The topic sentence is typically the first sentence of the paragraph. It helps your reader to understand what the topic of your paragraph is going to be. The purpose of the topic sentence is to state the main point of the paragraph and to give the paragraph a sense of direction. o Adequate Development  It is important to fully develop and discuss the topic of your paragraph. If your paragraph is only 2-3 sentences, there is a good chance that you have not developed it enough.  Here are some ways you can develop and support your topic: 1. Use examples 50 | P a g e 2. Tell a story illustrating the idea 3. Compare and Contrast 4. Give data (such as facts, statistics, etc) A good way to think of a paragraph and how it is structured is like a sandwich. The topic sentence is the top layer of bread, the concluding sentence is the bottom layer, and all of the developing details in- between are the meat and other goods of the sandwich.  When to Start a New Paragraph It can be difficult to know when to start a new paragraph sometimes. Typically, if you find yourself beginning to transition to a new idea, it is best to start a new paragraph. Here are some other times when you may want to start a new paragraph:  To contrast information  To break up dense text—long paragraphs can be taxing to the reader. When you find that your paragraph is exceeding a page, you may wish to start thinking of ways to separate that paragraph into smaller paragraphs. First, look for areas that start new ideas and split the paragraph there. o Concluding Sentence:  The concluding sentence is the ending line of the paragraph. It should restate the main idea of the paragraph. 51 | P a g e Paragraph Types Depending on your purpose—what you want to accomplish— you can use several methods of development: narration definition description classification illustration cause and effect comparison/contrast Each method can be used separately or in combination with any of the others. Learning which methods best suit your purpose will help when you create outlines and write first drafts of paragraphs and essays. LEARN TO NARRATE Use narration to recall an event or explain how a process works. A narrative is a story. It arranges information in chronological (time) order; one event in a story or one step in a process follows another just as it happened. Narratives contain action words—verbs and adverbs—that help move the story or process along and make it more interesting. They also use transitions such as first, then, soon, after, and suddenly, which maintain coherence and show movement from one event to the next. Read this paragraph from Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. It recalls a childhood incident when neighborhood children mocked her and her grandmother. Action words are in red; transitions are in blue: Before the girls got to the porch, I heard their laughter crackling and popping like pine logs in a cooking stove. I suppose my lifelong 52 | P a g e paranoia was born in those cold, molasses-slow minutes. They came finally to stand on the ground in front of Momma. At first they pretended seriousness. Then one of them wrapped her right arm in the crook of her left, pushed out her mouth and started to hum. I realized that she was aping my grandmother. LEARN TO DESCRIBE Use description when you need to explain the nature of people, places, and things. It's always a good idea to start a physical description by relying on your five senses to gather details about what your subject looks, sounds, feels, smells, or even tastes like. Unlike narration, which presents information from beginning to end, description can be arranged in any pattern you think best. Usually, the pattern is spatial, presenting things as they appear in space. But each writer chooses his or her own perspective—the position from which to view a subject. And each decides where to begin and where to end. Read this paragraph from Maya Angelou's I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Angelou doesn't simply describe her subjects' appearance; she uses description to explain their characters. She also uses it to reveal her emotional reaction to their behavior. The dirt of the girls' cotton dresses continued on their legs, feet, arms, and faces to make them all of a piece. Their greasy uncolored hair hung down, uncombed, with a grim finality. I knelt to see them better, to remember them for all time. The tears that had slipped down my dress left unsurprising dark spots, and made the front yard blurry and even more unreal. The world had taken a deep breath and was having doubts about continuing to revolve. LEARN TO EXPLAIN, CONVINCE, AND PERSUADE Narration and description can also be used to explain an idea or statement, to convince readers that an opinion is correct, or to persuade them to do something. But such purposes also lend themselves to other methods. 53 | P a g e USING ILLUSTRATION Illustration explains abstract ideas by providing clear, specific, and concrete examples. Take this paragraph from "A Few Kind Words for Superstition" by Robertson Davies: Many superstitions are so widespread and so old that they must have risen from a depth of human mind that is indifferent to race or creed. Orthodox Jews place a charm on their doorposts; so do (or did) the Chinese. Some peoples of Middle Europe believe that when a man sneezes, his soul, for that moment, is absent from his body, and they hasten to bless him, lest he should be seized by the Devil. How did the Melanesians come by the same idea? Superstition seems to have a link with some body or belief that far antedates the religions we know—religions which have no place for such comforting little ceremonies and charities. There are two concrete examples here: 1. Orthodox Jews place a charm.... 2. Some peoples of Middle Europe believe.... 54 | P a g e USING COMPARISON/CONTRAST A comparison explains similarities. A contrast explains differences. The first half of the following paragraph compares a harpsichord and a piano. The second half contrasts these instruments. USING DEFINITION A definition identifies a term and sets it apart from all other terms that may be related to it. Often, definitions begin by mentioning the general class to which a term belongs. Then they provide specifics to distinguish the term from other members of that class. For example, if you were to define whale, you might start by saying it is an aquatic mammal. Then you could talk about its size, shape, varieties, environment, breeding habits, and so on. Read this paragraph. Try to determine the general class to which the subject belongs; then find specifics that distinguish it from other members of that class. 55 | P a g e The viola is a stringed instrument in the violin family. It is only slightly larger than the violin and is tuned at a lower pitch. Like its smaller relative, the viola is held on the shoulder under the chin and is played with a bow. While the violin has many uses, the viola is used mainly in orchestral and chamber music. COMBINING METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT One method of development can be used in combination with others. Reread the paragraph defining the viola. Pick out examples of comparison and contrast. The viola is a stringed instrument in the violin family. It is only slightly larger than the violin and is tuned at a lower pitch. Like its smaller relative, the viola is held on the shoulder under the chin and is played with a bow. While the violin has many uses, the viola is used mainly in orchestral and chamber music. USING CLASSIFICATION Classification—distinguishing types or classes—can help you explain a great deal of seemingly unrelated information in an organized and easy-to-follow manner. Take this paragraph that explains stringed instruments: There are many types of stringed instruments. The violin family is made up of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Fretted instruments (frets are strips that show players where to put their hands) include the banjo, mandolin, lute, ukulele, and guitar. Related to these instruments are the lyre and the harp. The dulcimer, zither, and psaltery form another family, whose strings are stretched over flat sound boxes. Finally, there are the keyboard stringed instruments such as the piano, clavichord, and harpsichord. NOTE: Once again, remember that two methods of development can be used together. Read the paragraph on stringed instruments above again. 56 | P a g e  See if you can find places where the writer has used definition and description. There are many types of stringed instruments. The violin family is made up of the violin, viola, cello, and double bass. Fretted instruments (frets are strips that show players where to put their hands) include the banjo, mandolin, lute, ukulele, and guitar. Related to these instruments are the lyre and the harp. The dulcimer, zither, and psaltery form another family, whose strings are stretched over flat sound boxes. Finally, there are the keyboard stringed instruments such as the piano, clavichord, and harpsichord. USING CAUSE AND EFFECT The cause-and-effect method is useful in explaining why something happens. Take this paragraph on the causes of avalanches: An avalanche is a huge snow slide that rushes down the side of a mountain, carrying large trees, rocks, and other debris in its path. Avalanches are similar to landslides but can be more dangerous and destructive. Avalanches can occur when huge amounts of new snow fall on layers of snow and ice that have become unstable because of melting. They can also be triggered by explosions or earthquakes. COMBINING METHODS OF DEVELOPMENT Read the paragraph on avalanches again: An avalanche is a huge snow slide that rushes down the side of a mountain, carrying large trees, rocks, and other debris in its path. Avalanches are similar to landslides but can be more dangerous and destructive. Avalanches can occur when huge amounts of new snow fall on layers of snow and ice that have become unstable because of melting. They can also be triggered by explosions or earthquakes. Where is definition used in this paragraph? How about comparison? 57 | P a g e MASTER FOUR PATTERNS OF ARRANGEMENT As you have learned, there are several ways to develop details in a paragraph. These methods—narration, description, comparison/contrast, definition, classification, illustration, and cause and effect—relate to the paragraph's purpose. You should also learn patterns of arrangement—ways to organize details in a paragraph. There are four basic patterns, but there are as many variations on such patterns as there are writers who use them. Study these four patterns of arrangement. You can use any of them regardless of the method of development you choose. General Begin with a general statement (topic to sentence); develop the rest of the specific: paragraph with supporting details. Specific Begin with supporting details that lead to a to broad concluding statement (topic general: sentence). Question Begin with a question; follow with details to that answer that question. answer: Order Begin with the least important detail; end of with the most important detail. importance: GENERAL-TO-SPECIFIC PATTERN The pattern that begins with a general statement followed by specific supporting details can be used to argue a point or make an abstract idea clear. In the next paragraph, the writer starts with the idea that living with an alcoholic parent is difficult. This is the topic sentence. She then gives details to explain how difficult this 58 | P a g e problem is. The nights that my mother was home were nightmares. She sat on the living room couch with a case of Budweiser, just drinking, listening to music, and talking to herself. On many occasions, she turned up the record player so high that the police stopped by our house late at night to ask that she lower the volume. I spent those evenings sitting up with my crying sister reassuring her that everything would be all right, while the sounds of Paul Anka vibrated into her bedroom. My brother went for long walks and sometimes didn't return until school was dismissed the next afternoon. The day after, I would find my mother sitting on the couch surrounded by beer cans and slumped over one corner of the couch. The record player would still be running, with the needle in the center of the record, playing nothing. (Author anonymous, "Mom") SPECIFIC-TO-GENERAL PATTERN This pattern can help you create suspense or build to an emotional high point. The following paragraph starts with a specific detail that leads to a more general topic sentence. I was too cold now. My teeth were chattering, my feet frozen like lifeless stumps. I looked up to the heavens and screamed in agony, damning the fates. I lit another cigarette and expressed my dismay over the two friends who had accompanied me on this pilgrimage. Suddenly, I spotted them walking back to the car, their heads down, shoulders hunched, and hands buried deep within their coat pockets. I knew there was no need to talk. I understood immediately that they had found no help. I handed the keys and the lighter to Jason. He fumbled with them for a few minutes, but with no luck. Robert walked to the park bench and sat down. I looked away from them. My own frustration was compounded by the pain in their eyes. I felt another surge of self-pity. The dull agony of the cold, the biting pain of the wind, the guilt of endangering the lives of my friends: it was all too much to bear. (Bill McGlynn, "Taking the Blame") 59 | P a g e QUESTION-TO-ANSWER PATTERN Beginning with a question can capture the reader's attention. It is also an easy way to arrange information. After asking the question, you can fill the rest of the paragraph or essay with details that answer or relate to it. What's so bad about junk food? A great deal. For example, it usually contains artificial colors, flavors, and preservatives—additives that pose serious health hazards and, over the long run, may cause cancer. In addition, much junk food is packed with sugar, fats, or cholesterol. It adds inches to our waistlines, clogs our arteries, and disturbs our metabolism. Most important, junk food contains few nutrients. Eating cotton candy, potato chips, and chocolate bars may satisfy our hunger, but for that very reason it keeps us from eating the foods we need to stay healthy. ORDER-OF-IMPORTANCE PATTERN Fiction writers often save the most important or startling information for last. This technique helps them maintain suspense and create emphasis. You can use this pattern whether your purpose is to tell a story, describe a scene, explain an idea, or defend an opinion. The next paragraph is a good example. I am divorced now, free and alone, a woman of 45 with children who have gone off to finish school, to start families, and to spin out lives of their own. I got married when I was nineteen. Back then, some young people got married because they were genuinely in love, but too many of those I knew tied the knot for the wrong reasons. Some sought security; some, companionship, romance, or sex. A few even "had to" get married. But the most compelling reason to wed in those days was that everyone else was doing it, and nobody wanted to be left behind. (Lena Schmidt, "Time to Grow Up"). 60 | P a g e Here are a few examples of the most common paragraph types: 61 | P a g e 62 | P a g e 63 | P a g e 64 | P a g e Idioms 65 | P a g e A List of Common Idioms 66 | P a g e 67 | P a g e 68 | P a g e 69 | P a g e 70 | P a g e 71 | P a g e Reading 72 | P a g e 73 | P a g e 74 | P a g e 75 | P a g e 76 | P a g e 77 | P a g e 78 | P a g e 79 | P a g e 80 | P a g e 81 | P a g e 82 | P a g e 83 | P a g e 84 | P a g e 85 | P a g e 86 | P a g e 87 | P a g e 88 | P a g e 89 | P a g e References Argyle,M. (2024). Structure. London: Methuen. Mandel,S. (2022). English Language. London: Kogan Press. Tierney,E.P. (2022). Common Idioms: A guide to making effec ve conversa ons. Dublin:Oak Miklin,M. (2023). Reading and Wri ng. London: Methuen. 90 | P a g e