Grammar for Better Writing PDF

AMSCO A M S C O S C H O O L P U B L I C AT I O N S , I N C. 315 Hudson Street, New York, N.Y. 10013 Contributing Editors Auditi Chakravarty Director of Language Arts Amsco School Publications, Inc. Bonnie Boehme Editor Nesbitt Graphics, Inc. This book has been adapted fro...

AMSCO A M S C O S C H O O L P U B L I C AT I O N S , I N C. 315 Hudson Street, New York, N.Y. 10013 Contributing Editors Auditi Chakravarty Director of Language Arts Amsco School Publications, Inc. Bonnie Boehme Editor Nesbitt Graphics, Inc. This book has been adapted from the following Amsco publications: Building Power in Writing By Henry I. Christ English Alive: Complete Edition By Harold Levine Text and cover design: Nesbitt Graphics, Inc. Composition: Nesbitt Graphics, Inc. When ordering this book please specify: Either R 798 W or GRAMMAR AND USAGE FOR BETTER WRITING Please visit our Web site at www.amscopub.com ISBN 1-56765-117-8 NYC Item 56765-117-7 Copyright © 2004 by Amsco School Publications, Inc. No part of this book may be reproduced in any form without written permission from the publisher. Printed in the United States of America. 1234 6789 08 07 06 05 04  Contents Introduction: How to Use This Book vii Part ONE Parts of Speech 1 The Subject 3 The Predicate 7 Verbs 10 Action and Linking Verbs 13 Helping Verbs and Verb Phrases 16 Verbs in Contractions 19 Nouns 22 Common and Proper Nouns 24 Plural Nouns 27 Possessive Nouns 34 Compound Subjects 38 Compound Verbs 41 Nouns as Direct Objects 45 Nouns as Indirect Objects 48 Pronouns and Antecedents 52 Personal Pronouns 55 Pronouns in Contractions 58 Review of Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns 61 Adjectives 68 Predicate Adjectives and Predicate Nouns 72 Adverbs 79 Forming Adverbs from Adjectives 84 Recognizing Adverbs and Adjectives 86 iii Review of Adjectives and Adverbs 89 Prepositions 94 Prepositional Phrases 98 Conjunctions 102 Interjections 108 Review of Prepositions, Conjunctions, and Interjections 111 Part TWO Sentence Composition 115 Characteristics of Good Sentences 116 Comparing Sentences 117 Writing Sentences 120 Revising Sentences 121 Clear, Forceful Sentences 123 Conciseness (Economy) 123 Clarity and Specificity 126 Varying Sentences 132 Unity 145 Part THREE Common Usage Errors 149 Problems with Sentence Structure 150 Simple Sentences 150 Compound Sentences 151 Complex Sentences 152 Sentence Fragments 155 Run-on Sentences 164 Problems with Nouns 171 Plurals of Nouns 171 Possessives of Nouns 172 Problems with Verbs 175 Using the Correct Tense 175 Principal Parts of Verbs 177 Agreement of Subject and Verb 181 Troublesome Verb Pairs 185 Problems with Modifiers 189 Adjectives and Adverbs Confused 189 Double Negatives 190 Other Errors 191 iv CONTENTS Problems with Pronouns 193 Personal Pronouns 193 Indefinite Pronouns 196 Possessive Pronouns 198 Problems with Punctuation 201 End Punctuation 201 The Comma 202 Quotation Marks 209 Punctuating Titles 210 Problems with Capitalization 214 In Letters 214 In Quotations 214 First Words 214 Proper Nouns and Proper Adjectives 215 Problems with Spelling 221 Frequently Misspelled Words 221 Words Often Confused 223 Seven Helpful Spelling Rules 224 Contractions 230 Part FOUR Basic Paragraph Composition 231 The Paragraph 232 A Note About Paragraph Length 233 Unity in the Paragraph 235 The Topic Sentence 239 The Clincher Sentence 242 Developing a Paragraph with Reasons 244 Arranging the Reasons 245 Arranging the Reasons—Another Look 248 Developing a Paragraph with Examples 249 Varying Sentence Beginnings 253 Index 259 CONTENTS v  Introduction How To Use This Book Grammar and Usage for Better Writing is a basic workbook that can provide a founda- tion for further study in English grammar and usage. It will benefit students who are learn- ing the essentials for the first time as well as those who wish to review concepts they have previously learned. The premise of this book is that understanding how language works enables us to use it more effectively. This skill can enhance our personal communications, schoolwork, and professional lives. The workbook is organized into four major parts. The parts in turn consist of brief lessons, each with explanations, examples, and practice to ensure that students understand the concepts being introduced. The book is structured sequentially, with the most basic elements—the parts of a sentence—introduced in Part One, followed by the composition of sentences in Part Two. Part Three focuses on some common problems that people en- counter when using English, and it places more emphasis on applying the rules. Students who are new to grammar study should begin with Part One and work through each section in order; more advanced students who already know the parts of speech may want to start with Part Two and use the first section for reference. Once writers learn the parts of sentences and how they work together to determine the meaning and effect of a sentence, they can begin to understand what good writing is all about. Part Four is designed to help students make the transition from crafting sentences to developing good paragraphs, the foundation for most kinds of writing. It serves as an in- troduction to further study of rhetoric and composition. Study the rules, review the examples, and look for more examples of good writing in books, newspapers, magazines, Web sites, and other available sources. Complete the exer- cises to practice what you have learned, but also remember to apply the rules whenever you speak and write. The more you use what you learn in this book, the better and more natural your use of the English language will be. In the end, you will be a stronger, more effective speaker and writer. You’re on your way—good luck! INTRODUCTION vii  Part ONE Parts of Speech In a sentence, a word may play one of eight parts. It may be either 1. a noun, 5. an adverb, 2. a pronoun, 6. a preposition, 3. a verb, 7. a conjunction, or 4. an adjective, 8. an interjection. These eight parts are known as the parts of speech. We use the parts of speech to build sentences. For example, if we put together the noun sunburn and the verb itches, we can make the following statement: Sunburn itches. N. V. We can expand this statement by adding the adjective my: My sunburn itches. ADJ. N. V. We can also add the adverb painfully: My sunburn itches painfully. ADJ. N. V. ADV. If we should want to ask a question, we can begin with a verb. Here is a question made up of the verb is, the noun sunburn, and the adjective painful. Is sunburn painful? V. N. ADJ. 1  Of course, we can expand this question. For example, we can add the adverb usually. Is sunburn usually painful? V. N. ADV. ADJ. The system that our language uses to put parts of speech together into sentences is known as grammar. The first two lessons focus on the two basic parts of any sentence: the subject and the predicate. 2 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Lesson 1 The Subject A sentence has two parts: (1) a subject and (2) a predicate. This lesson deals with the subject. The subject is the part of the sentence about which something is told or asked. The seats on the bus are very comfortable. QUESTION: About what is the sentence telling something? ANSWER: The seats on the bus. SUBJECT: The seats on the bus. Amelia Earhart disappeared over the Pacific. QUESTION: About whom is the sentence telling something? ANSWER: Amelia Earhart. SUBJECT: Amelia Earhart. Has your brother Tom found a summer job? QUESTION: About whom is the sentence asking something? ANSWER: your brother Tom. SUBJECT: your brother Tom. Position of the Subject The subject is usually found at the beginning of the sentence, but it can also appear in other positions. SUBJECT AT THE BEGINNING OF THE SENTENCE: An experienced pilot was at the controls at the time of the crash. SUBJECT AT THE END OF THE SENTENCE: At the controls at the time of the crash was an experienced pilot. THE SUBJECT 3  SUBJECT WITHIN THE SENTENCE: At the time of the crash, an experienced pilot was at the controls. Finding the Subject A sure way to find the subject is to answer one or the other of these questions: About whom or about what is the sentence saying or asking something? Who or what is doing, or has done, or will do something? Question 1: What is the subject of the following sentence? The score at the end of the quarter was 12–12. Procedure: Ask yourself: “About what is the sentence saying something?” Obviously, The score at the end of the quarter. Answer: The subject is The score at the end of the quarter. (The subject tells about what the sentence is saying something.) Question 2: What is the subject of the following sentence? The orchestra members tuned their instruments. Procedure: Ask yourself: “Who did something?” Answer: The subject is The orchestra members. (The subject tells who did something.) Question 3: What is the subject of the following? Wait outside, please. Procedure: Ask yourself: “Who is to wait outside?” Answer: The subject is You (understood). (You) wait outside, please. Note: In an imperative sentence (a sentence expressing a command or mak- ing a request), the subject You is not expressed but understood. Question 4: What is the subject of the following? Is the door to the basement locked? Procedure: Ask yourself: “Is what locked?” Answer: The subject is the door to the basement. (The subject tells about what the sentence is asking something.) 4 PA R T S O F S P E E C H EXERCISE 1. Write the subject in the space provided. Sample: The apples in the fruit bowl were all sour. The apples in the fruit bowl 1. Next to the hardware store is a ski shop. 2. Will your father drive us to the game? 3. Is the noise from the next room bothering you? 4. Our math teacher coaches the bowling team. 5. The bowling team is coached by our math teacher. Simple Subject and Complete Subject When a subject consists of more than one word, the main word in that subject is called the simple subject. The seats on the bus are very comfortable. SIMPLE SUBJECT: seats The simple subject and the words that describe it are to- gether known as the complete subject. COMPLETE SUBJECT: The seats on the bus Question: Does a simple subject ever consist of more than one word? Answer: Yes, especially if it is a name. For example: The late Amelia Earhart was a pioneer in aviation. COMPLETE SUBJECT: The late Amelia Earhart SIMPLE SUBJECT: Amelia Earhart THE SUBJECT 5 EXERCISE 2. Write the complete subject in the C.S. space and the simple subject in the S.S. space. Sample: The first reporters on the scene did not get all the facts. C.S. The first reporters on the scene. S.S. reporters Hint: You can be sure that you have correctly chosen the simple subject if you can prove to yourself that it cannot be omitted. If The, first, and on the scene were omitted from the C.S., above, the sentence would still make sense. But if reporters were omitted, the sentence would not make sense. This proves that reporters is the sim- ple subject. 1. The famous Mona Lisa is a painting by Leonardo da Vinci. C.S.. S.S. 2. Did a letter from your sister come this morning? C.S.. S.S. 3. Farther up on the hill is a house with white shutters. C.S.. S.S. 4. Asleep in the crib was a six-month-old baby. C.S.. S.S. 5. My older brother is graduating in June. C.S.. S.S. 6 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Lesson 2 The Predicate Before we talk about the predicate, remember that The subject is the part of the sentence about which something is told or asked. Prices are higher. subject What Is the Predicate? The predicate is the part of the sentence that tells or asks something about the subject. Prices are higher. predicate You can easily find the subject and the predicate of a sentence by asking two simple questions: Prices are higher. QUESTION 1: About what is the sentence telling something? ANSWER: Prices. The subject is Prices. QUESTION2: What is the sentence saying about Prices? ANSWER: Prices are higher. The predicate is are higher. My sister Karen is waiting for us. QUESTION 1: About whom is the sentence telling something? ANSWER: My sister Karen. The subject is My sister Karen. T H E P R E D I C AT E 7  QUESTION2: What is the sentence saying about My sister Karen? ANSWER: My sister Karen is waiting for us. The predicate is is waiting for us. Was Andy angry? QUESTION 1: About whom is the sentence asking something? ANSWER: Andy. The subject is Andy. QUESTION2: What is the sentence asking about Andy? ANSWER: Was Andy angry? The predicate is Was angry. Position of the Predicate The predicate usually comes after the subject, but it can also appear in other positions. PREDICATE AFTER THE SUBJECT: The parking lot is next to the stadium. S. P. PREDICATE BEFORE THE SUBJECT: Next to the stadium is the parking lot. P. S. PREDICATE PARTLY BEFORE AND PARTLY AFTER THE SUBJECT: Is the parking lot next to the stadium? P. S. P. EXERCISE 1. First draw a single line under the complete subject of the sentence. Then, above the double line at the right, write the predicate. Samples: SUBJECT PREDICATE The temperature dropped suddenly. dropped suddenly Has the plane landed? Has... landed Under the tree lay many rotting apples. Under the tree lay 8 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  1. Has our teacher recovered from the flu? 2. Behind the wheel was my sister Maria. 3. How comfortable these new seats are! 4. Finally, the suspect surrendered to the police. 5. A flock of seagulls landed on the beach. EXERCISE 2. Complete the sentence by adding a predicate. Samples: The apple was not ripe. A speck of dust flew into my eye. 1. The onion soup 2. Your suede jacket 3. Her new pen 4. The owner of the car 5. My desk at home T H E P R E D I C AT E 9  Lesson 3 Verbs The main word in the predicate is called the verb. Here are a few examples: 1. The temperature dropped rapidly. PREDICATE: dropped rapidly VERB: dropped 2. José often visits exhibits at the natural history museum. PREDICATE: often visits exhibits at the natural history museum VERB: visits 3. Have you no sense? PREDICATE: Have no sense VERB: Have Without a verb, the predicate cannot tell or ask anything about the subject. For in- stance, if the verb dropped is left out of the first sentence above, the resulting sentence cannot convey any clear meaning: The temperature... rapidly. Question: Does a verb ever consist of more than one word? Answer: Yes, often. A verb may consist of one to four words: SENTENCE VERB They have no questions. have Do you have any questions? Do... have We have been calling John all week. have been calling His phone may have been disconnected. may have been disconnected 10 PA R T S O F S P E E C H EXERCISE 1. Find the verb and write it in the blank space. Samples: Ben was at the door. was They must have been treated badly. must have been treated 1. Mindy has a lot of friends. 2. The water is boiling in the microwave. 3. I should have listened to you. 4. He must have been pushed by someone in the crowd. 5. Did the light bother you? EXERCISE 2. Write the simple subject in the S.S. space, the predicate in the P. space, and the verb in the V. space. Samples: The pond froze during the night. S.S. pond P. froze during the night V. froze Wash your hands. S.S. You (understood) P. Wash your hands V. Wash Did you hear the wind? S.S. You P. Did hear the wind V. Did hear 1. Comb your hair. S.S. P. V. 2. The bus will come at any minute. S.S. P. V. VERBS 11  3. Has it been coming on time lately? S.S. P. V. 4. For some time, light rain has been S.S. falling. P. V. 5. It must have been raining since dawn. S.S. P. V. 6. In my pocket was the missing glove. S.S. P. V. 7. Fuel bills have been increasing S.S. every year. P. V. 8. The cold weather has been affecting S.S. the spring crops. P. V. 9. Does your remote control need fresh S.S. batteries? P. V. 10. Someone must have taken my books S.S. by mistake. P. V. 12 PA R T S O F S P E E C H Action and Linking Verbs ACTION VERBS What Is an Action Verb? An action verb is a verb that expresses action. There are two kinds of action verbs: 1. Verbs that express physical action—action that can be seen or heard: The car skidded, left the road, and smashed into a telephone pole. (Skidded, left, and smashed express physical action.) 2. Verbs that express mental action—action that takes place in the mind and therefore cannot be seen or heard: We believed and trusted them because we knew them. (Believed, trusted, and knew express mental action.) EXERCISE 1. If the italicized verb expresses physical action, write P in the space provided. If it expresses mental action, write M. Samples: Pat tagged the runner. P Did you understand the lesson? M 1. I forgot the combination. 2. Open a window. 3. Who rang the bell? 4. He considers me his best friend. 5. We are hoping for the best this season. LINKING VERBS Not all verbs are action verbs. The verb is in the following sentence does not express action. It is a linking verb. Jordan is angry at us. L.V. VERBS 13 What Is a Linking Verb? In the preceding sentence, the verb is has little meaning of its own. Its main function is to link (connect) Jordan with angry. For this reason, we call is a linking verb. A linking verb links (connects) the subject with a word in the predicate that describes or identifies the subject. miiiijx The road was slippery. L.V. (Slippery describes the subject road.) miiiijx Ama is the captain of the volleyball team. L.V. (Captain identifies the subject Ama.) What Are Some Common Linking Verbs? 1. The most frequently used linking verb is be, whose forms include the following: am, are, is, was, were. Of course, verb phrases ending in be, being, and been are also linking verbs: will be, would be, are being, have been, could have been, etc. 2. In addition, each of the following verbs can be either an action verb or a linking verb, depending on the way it is used. VERB USED AS ACTION VERB USED AS LINKING VERB miiiiijx appear The principal appeared at 10 a.m. Fred appeared tired. miiiiiijx become The haircut becomes (suits) her. My room becomes messy. miiijx feel Did you feel the cloth? I feel nervous. miiiijx grow Farmers grow crops. The days grow longer. miiiiijx look We looked the place over. He looked unhappy. miiiijx smell I smelled smoke. The air smelled salty. miiiiiijx sound Who sounded the alarm? Her voice sounded hoarse. 14 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  miiiiiijx taste I tasted the soup. The soup tasted delicious. miiiiiijx turn She turned the page. The weather turned cold. How Can a Linking Verb Be Recognized? If a verb can be replaced with some form of the verb be, it is a linking verb. Question 1: Is feels a linking verb in the following sentence? Jordan feels angry. Answer: We can replace feels with is (a form of the verb be). Jordan is angry. Therefore, feels, in the above sentence, is a linking verb. Question 2: Is feels a linking verb in the following sentence? The patient feels pain. Answer: In this sentence, we cannot replace feels with is. Therefore, feels here is not a linking verb. It is an action verb. Summary: An action verb expresses action, either physical or mental. A linking verb connects the subject with a word in the predicate that describes or identifies the subject. EXERCISE 2. Is the verb in the sentence an action verb or a linking verb? Write your answer in the space provided. Samples: Nancy broke her arm. action Joe looks tired. linking 1. Today, I feel better. 2. This blouse looks new. 3. I smelled the fish. 4. Mei tasted the melon. 5. Her cookies tasted delicious. VERBS 15  6. Your voice sounded hoarse. 7. She looked through the whole book. 8. We were exhausted. 9. Courtney looked amazed by the whole event. 10. Did you feel the energy in that room? Helping Verbs and Verb Phrases What Is a Helping Verb? Sometimes a verb consists of more than one word: The letters have been mailed. verb In have been mailed, mailed is the main verb; have and been are helping verbs. The letters have been mailed. H.V. H.V. M.V. Helping verbs are verbs that come before and “help” the main verb. A main verb may have as many as three helping verbs. ONE HELPING VERB: Anne has mailed the letters. H.V. M.V. TWO HELPING VERBS: The letters have been mailed. H.V. H.V. M.V. THREE HELPING VERBS: They should have been mailed earlier. H.V. H.V. H.V. M.V. What Is a Verb Phrase? When a verb consists of one or more helping verbs plus a main verb, it is called a verb phrase. 16 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  HELPING VERB(S) + MAIN VERB = VERB PHRASE has + mailed = has mailed have been + mailed = have been mailed should have been + mailed = should have been mailed Which Verbs Can Be Used as Helping Verbs? Below is a list of verbs commonly used as helping verbs (note that be, which we stud- ied earlier as a linking verb, page 14, can also be a helping verb): be, am, are, is, can, could was, were, being, been have, has, had will, would do, does, did shall, should may, might must EXERCISE 1. Indicate the verb phrase, helping verb or verbs, and main verb in each of the following sentences. Sample: Leaves have been falling all week. V. PHR. have been falling H.V. have been M.V. falling 1. The Eagles could have V. PHR. protested the decision. H.V. M.V. 2. You should have seen the mess! V. PHR. H.V. M.V. 3. I must have left my wallet at home. V. PHR. H.V. M.V. 4. Justin has been acting strange V. PHR. lately. H.V. M.V. VERBS 17  5. They have played basketball for V. PHR. two seasons. H.V. M.V. Word Order in Questions In questions, we usually put the subject after the first helping verb. Are tickets being collected? H.V. S. (The subject tickets comes after the first helping verb Are.) EXERCISE 2. Change the following statements to questions. Sample: The tire has been repaired. Has the tire been repaired? 1. The argument has been settled. 2. Lauren will buy the refreshments. 3. It has been pouring rain all day. 4. We should have waited a bit longer. 5. Our team could have done better. Reminder: Did you end each of your questions above with a question mark? Composition Hint Shorten your verb phrases whenever possible. Avoid wordiness—the use of un- necessary words. Aim for conciseness—brief, uncluttered expression. WORDY: If you do not run for president, she may run. CONCISE: If you do not run for president, she may. (The main verb run is understood.) WORDY: Jim refused to apologize. He should have apologized. CONCISE: Jim refused to apologize. He should have. (The main verb apologized is understood.) 18 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  WORDY: They are not being blamed, but I am being blamed. CONCISE: They are not being blamed, but I am. (The helping verb being and the main verb blamed are understood.) EXERCISE 3. Make each of the following sentences more concise by shortening a verb phrase. Sample: I could have waited, and perhaps I should have waited. I could have waited, and perhaps I should have. 1. She does not have to go, but I have to go. 2. They were supposed to be paid; they were not paid. 3. If Sharon does not complain, no one else will complain. 4. My word is being questioned, but your word is not being questioned. 5. We did not quit, though we should have quit. Verbs in Contractions A contraction is a combination of two words with one or more letters omitted. Suppose a friend asks whether you would rather eat lunch at twelve or one. The time does not matter to you. What would you say to your friend? 1. It does not matter. 2. It doesn’t matter. VERBS 19  You would probably say: It doesn’t matter. In informal conversation, we tend to use contractions. For example, we combine does with not, forming the contraction doesn’t. Note that not, the second word in the contraction, loses the letter o, and in place of that o we have an apostrophe: doesn’t. In contractions consisting of a verb plus not, not loses an o. VERB + NOT = CONTRACTION LETTER(S) OMITTED is + not = isn’t o are + not = aren’t o would + not = wouldn’t o In one case, not loses an n and an o: can + not = can’t no Finally, learn this irregular (unusual) contraction: will + not = won’t EXERCISE 1. Write the contraction. Sample: have + not = haven’t 1. has + not = 2. must + not = 3. can + not = 4. should + not = 5. will + not = Contractions are entirely natural and correct in informal English (friendly notes, everyday conversation). However, they are not ordinarily used in formal English (business letters, letters of application, term papers, reports). 20 PA R T S O F S P E E C H EXERCISE 2. Change each of the following contractions to formal English. Samples: didn’t did not I’ve I have 1. hasn’t 6. can’t 2. isn’t 7. weren’t 3. won’t 8. you’d 4. I’ll 9. wasn’t 5. shouldn’t 10. it’s The contraction ain’t is considered nonstandard. This means that ain’t should not be used in either formal or informal English situations. Avoid it. INSTEAD OF USE I ain’t ready. I’m not ready. or I am not ready. Ain’t I next? Am I not next? They ain’t come back. They haven’t come back. or They have not come back. VERBS 21  Lesson 4 Nouns Nouns are words that name persons, animals, places, or things. Question 1: How many nouns are there in the following sentence? An old fisherman who had no luck hooked a huge fish that pulled his boat far out to sea. Answer: Five. 1. fisherman (a person) 2. luck (a thing) 3. fish (an animal) 4. boat (a thing) 5. sea (a place) Nouns name things we can see and touch, like boat, as well as things we cannot see or touch, like luck. Question 2: How many nouns does the following sentence contain? Divers fish for pearls in the Gulf of Mexico. Answer: Three. 1. Divers (persons) 2. pearls (things) 3. Gulf of Mexico (a place) Note that fish, which was a noun in the earlier sentence, is not one here because it does not name anything. Here, fish is a verb (a word that expresses action). Question 3: May a noun consist of more than one word? Answer: Yes. Gulf of Mexico is one noun. Nouns of more than one word are called compound nouns. Here are more examples of compound nouns: living room Atlantic Ocean Grand Central Parkway Mr. Applebaum sister-in-law 22 PA R T S O F S P E E C H EXERCISE 1. Look at the italicized word. If it is used as a noun, write N. in the space provided. If it is used as a verb, write V. Sample: a. We always lock the door. V. b. Can you open the lock? N. 1. a. I ate three slices of pizza. b. This machine slices bread. 2. a. Many birds fly south for the winter. b. A fly buzzed past my ear. 3. a. You have a great smile. b. Smile for the camera. 4. a. Oatmeal cooks in a few minutes. b. Good cooks make delicious meals. 5. a. Please hand me that book. b. Your hand is bleeding. EXERCISE 2. List all the nouns in the following sentences. Samples: The driver stopped at the post office to mail a package. driver, post office, package My soul has grown deep like the rivers. (Langston Hughes) soul, rivers 1. Fog forced the airport to close. 2. The fleet has left the Indian Ocean. 3. Mrs. Thorpe has invited two sisters and a brother-in-law to her son’s graduation. NOUNS 23  4. Mr. Jones of the Manor Farm had locked the hen-houses for the night, but was too drunk to remember to shut the popholes. (George Orwell) 5. In March, the weather is unsettled, blackbirds return, and trees begin to send out new leaves. 6. Jamie was in the driveway washing her car with a hose and a few sponges. 7. George went back through the swinging-door into the kitchen and untied Nick and the cook. (Ernest Hemingway) 8. New York City has a larger population than San Francisco. 9. Have some more beans and rice. 10. Did the team show any signs of improvement in the second quarter? Common and Proper Nouns Compare the following sentences: 1. We are approaching a lake. 2. We are approaching Lake Michigan. In sentence 1, we call lake a common noun. In sentence 2, we call Lake Michigan a proper noun. What Is a Proper Noun? A proper noun refers to one particular person, animal, place, or thing—like Lake Michigan in sentence 2. A proper noun is always capitalized. 24 PA R T S O F S P E E C H What Is a Common Noun? A common noun refers to no particular person, animal, place, or thing, but to any one at all—like lake in sentence 1. A common noun is not capitalized. Here are some more examples of common and proper nouns. COMMON NOUNS PROPER NOUNS (not capitalized) (always capitalized) day (any day) Monday month (any month) April bridge (any bridge) Golden Gate Bridge ocean (any ocean) Pacific Ocean event (any event) Olympics magazine (any magazine) Newsweek institution (any institution) Congress language (any language) Spanish boy (any boy) Jim girl (any girl) Brittany EXERCISE 1. List the common and proper nouns in the following sentences. Sample: Bourbon Street is a lively street in New Orleans. The Brooklyn Bridge is the oldest bridge over the East River. COMMON NOUNS: street PROPER NOUNS: Bourbon Street, New Orleans 1. George Washington and Abraham Lincoln were born in February. COMMON NOUNS: PROPER NOUNS: 2. Call Adam from the airport as soon as the plane lands in Dallas. COMMON NOUNS: PROPER NOUNS: NOUNS 25  3. Traffic is heavy in both directions on Interstate 99 and the roads feeding into it. COMMON NOUNS: PROPER NOUNS: 4. Considerable attention has been given by the press to the pollution of our lakes and rivers. COMMON NOUNS: PROPER NOUNS: 5. Rice University and Baylor College of Medicine are both in Houston. COMMON NOUNS: PROPER NOUNS: EXERCISE 2. Rewrite each sentence, changing the italicized common noun to a proper noun. Sample: An ocean is a vast body of water. The Pacific Ocean is a vast body of water. 1. A girl was named captain. 2. We will meet outside the restaurant. 3. I saw an accident on the street. 4. Tomorrow is a holiday. 5. A boy asked a question. 6. When are you returning to the city? 7. My father was reading the newspaper. 26 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  8. Does the park have tennis courts? 9. We are four miles from the river. 10. I was talking to a neighbor. Plural Nouns Nouns have a singular form and a plural form. The singular is the form that means only one: boy, girl, soda, hamburger, etc. The plural is the form that means more than one: boys, girls, sodas, hamburgers, etc. EXERCISE 1. Write the form indicated. Samples: the plural of window windows the singular of kittens kitten 1. the singular of chairs 2. the plural of passenger 3. the singular of gloves 4. the plural of bandage 5. the plural of tree NOUNS 27  Here are the singular and plural forms of a few more nouns. SINGULAR PLURAL (only one) (more than one) 1. hat hats 2. box boxes 3. leaf leaves 4. foot feet From the above examples, you can see that there is no single rule for forming the plural of nouns; there are several. If you memorize the rules and do the exercises carefully, you will be well on your way to spelling plurals correctly. Rule 1. For most nouns: Add s to the singular to form the plural. SINGULAR PLURAL ear + s = ears chair + s = chairs table + s = tables face + s = faces Question: Can I form the plural of words like class or dish by just adding s? Answer: No, because [classs] and [dishs] would be hard to pronounce. We must do something else. This brings us to Rule 2. Rule 2. For nouns ending in s, sh, ch, or x: Add es to form the plural. NOUNS ENDING IN s: class + es = classes dress + es = dresses NOUNS ENDING IN sh: dish + es = dishes wish + es = wishes NOUNS ENDING IN ch: bench + es = benches lunch + es = lunches NOUNS ENDING IN x: box + es = boxes tax + es = taxes Exceptions: The following nouns add neither s nor es, but form their plurals in an ir- regular way: man men woman women child children 28 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  foot feet tooth teeth louse lice mouse mice goose geese ox oxen EXERCISE 2. Write the plural of the following nouns. Samples: hand hands wish wishes foot feet 1. apple 9. woman 2. price 10. annex 3. ox 11. eyelash 4. fee 12. mouse 5. wax 13. goose 6. child 14. radish 7. glass 15. genius 8. louse EXERCISE 3. Make the following nouns singular. Sample: grandchildren grandchild 1. lamps 2. gentlemen 3. addresses 4. flowers 5. circuses NOUNS 29 Rule 3. For most nouns ending in f: Add s to form the plural. belief + s = beliefs grief + s = griefs roof + s = roofs Exceptions: The following nouns ending in f change f to v and add es: leaf leaves loaf loaves half halves self selves shelf shelves thief thieves wolf wolves But not in a name: Mr. Wolf The Wolfs Rule 4. For three nouns ending in fe—knife, life, and wife: Change f to v and add s to form the plural. knife knives life lives wife wives EXERCISE 4. Write the plural of the following nouns. 1. thief 2. riff 3. loaf 4. grief 5. roof 6. proof 7. half 30 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  8. cliff 9. self 10. elf EXERCISE 5. Make the following nouns singular. Sample: knives knife 1. leaves 2. staffs 3. lives 4. selves 5. churches Plural of Nouns Ending in y To form the plural of a noun ending in y—like way or lady—first ask: Is the letter before y a vowel or a consonant? Remember that the vowels are a, e, i, o, and u. All of the other letters of the alphabet are consonants. Now follow Rule 5 or 6. Rule 5. If the letter before y is a vowel, add s to form the plural. SINGULAR PLURAL way + s = ways key + s = keys toy + s = toys Rule 6. If the letter before y is a consonant, change the y to i and add es. SINGULAR PLURAL lady ladies enemy enemies spy spies NOUNS 31 EXERCISE 6. Make the following nouns plural. Samples: journey journeys factory factories 1. valley 2. baby 3. party 4. highway 5. company 6. joy 7. bakery 8. monkey 9. pharmacy 10. chimney EXERCISE 7. Make the following nouns singular. Samples: pennies penny turkeys turkey 1. holidays 2. juries 3. attorneys 4. ferries 5. bluejays 32 PA R T S O F S P E E C H Plural of Nouns Ending in o Rule 7. If a noun ends in a vowel plus o, add s to form the plural. ENDING SINGULAR PLURAL VOWEL e + o stereo + s = stereos VOWEL i + o radio + s = radios Rule 8. If a noun ends in a consonant plus o, add s in most cases. auto + s = autos two + s = twos alto + s = altos piano + s = pianos Exceptions: Add es to the following nouns: potato + es = potatoes tomato + es = tomatoes echo + es = echoes veto + es = vetoes EXERCISE 8. Make the following nouns plural. Sample: patio patios 1. studio 2. rodeo 3. potato 4. portfolio 5. tomato 6. ratio 7. veto 8. trio NOUNS 33  9. echo 10. piano Possessive Nouns A possessive noun is a noun that shows possession or ownership. A possessive noun always contains an apostrophe [ ’ ]. Here are some examples of possessive nouns: 1. student’s money The possessive noun student’s shows that the money belongs to the student. 2. students’ money The possessive noun students’ shows that the money belongs to the students. 3. children’s money The possessive noun children’s shows that the money belongs to the children. Note that a possessive noun can help us express ourselves in fewer words. For exam- ple, we can say the children’s money (two words) instead of the money belonging to the children (five words). Question: Why does the apostrophe come before the s in examples 1 and 3, above, but after the s in example 2? Answer: Over the centuries, English has developed three rules for using the apostrophe to show possession. Rule 1. If the possessor is a SINGULAR NOUN, add an APOSTROPHE AND s. the eyes of the baby becomes the baby’s eyes the whiskers of the cat becomes the cat’s whiskers the novels by Dickens becomes Dickens’s novels EXERCISE 1. Express each of the following phrases in fewer words. Sample: the name of the visitor the visitor’s name 1. the bark of the dog 34 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  2. the books belonging to Justin 3. the car that Jessica owns 4. the house where Joe lives 5. the letter Ian wrote Rule 2. If the possessor is a PLURAL NOUN ENDING IN s, add ONLY AN APOSTROPHE. the lab experiments performed by the girls becomes the girls’ lab experiments the coats owned by the students becomes the students’ coats the nests of birds becomes the birds’ nests EXERCISE 2. Express in fewer words. 1. the mailboxes of neighbors 2. tools used by carpenters 3. the uniforms nurses wear 4. the reasons the senators gave 5. the money belonging to the depositors Rule 3. If the possessor is a PLURAL NOUN NOT ENDING IN s, first write the plural; then add an APOSTROPHE AND s. shoes worn by men becomes men’s shoes suits for women becomes women’s suits the faces of people becomes people’s faces EXERCISE 3. Express in fewer words. 1. the names of the grandchildren 2. the luggage belonging to the Englishmen 3. the salaries the men earned 4. the protests of the townspeople 5. the reasons given by the women NOUNS 35 EXERCISE 4. Write the correct possessive form of the noun in parentheses. Sample: My brother’s name is Jack. (brother) 1. I borrowed my biology notes. ( friend) 2. My names are Lee, Emily, and Sarah. (sisters) 3. Where did you put umbrella? (Ellen) 4. There is a sale on slacks. (women) 5. A dictator has little regard for wishes. (people) 6. The names are Madame Vigny and Madame Strauss. (Frenchwomen) 7. Are you sister? (Dennis) 8. I borrowed my snow shovel. (neighbor) 9. Have the passes been distributed? (visitors) 10. The British advance was slowed by the resistance. (Minutemen) Composition Hint When you write a paragraph, or even a sentence, see if you can reduce the num- ber of words you have used. Sometimes, a possessive noun can help. For example, INSTEAD OF: the car that my brother has (6 words), WRITE: my brother’s car (3 words). possessive noun EXERCISE 5. Rewrite the following paragraph, using possessive nouns wherever possible. You should be able to reduce the number of words in the paragraph from 69 to 56. 36 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  The dog that Anja owns is huge but gentle. He tries to get the attention of her friends to show that he likes them. The parents of Anja, too, are fond of the dog. At first some neighbors were frightened by the size of the dog. They feared for the safety of their children. Now they no longer worry. By the way, the name of the dog is Tiny. NOUNS 37  Lesson 5 Compound Subjects A compound subject consists of two or more subjects of the same verb connected by and or or. 1. Erin and Sean joined our group. compound subject verb Erin is a subject of the verb joined. Sean is also a subject of the verb joined. These two subjects of the same verb, connected by and, give us the compound subject Erin and Sean. 2. Nickels, dimes, or quarters may be deposited. compound subject verb Nickels is a subject of the verb may be deposited. So, too, are dimes and quarters. These three subjects of the same verb, connected by or, give us the compound subject Nickels, dimes, or quarters. Composition Hint Compound subjects let us express ourselves in fewer words and without repeti- tion. If there were no compound subjects, we would have to say: Nickels may be deposited. Dimes may be deposited. Quarters may be deposited. EXERCISE 1. Enter the compound subject in the space at the right. Samples: Rain or snow is predicted. Rain or snow Did Terry and Mallika agree with you? Terry and Mallika 1. Vermont and New Hampshire are next to each other. 38 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  2. Are onions, lettuce, and carrots on your shopping list? 3. Paula, Emilio, or I will help with the decorations. 4. Cycling and rollerblading are my favorite sports. 5. Saturday and Sunday, fog and mist made travel difficult. EXERCISE 2. Express the following in fewer words by using a compound subject. Samples: Your battery may be causing the trouble. Your battery or bulb may be Your bulb may be causing the trouble. causing the trouble. Dresses are on sale. Dresses, sweaters, and jackets are Sweaters are on sale. on sale. Jackets are on sale. Note: When there are more than two subjects in a compound subject, put a comma after each one, except the last: Dresses, slacks, and jackets... 1. The House passed the bill. The Senate passed the bill. 2. Carmela may be the next class president. Razi may be the next class president. 3. Prices have gone up. Wages have gone up. Taxes have gone up. 4. A table will be needed. Four chairs will be needed. 5. The classrooms should be repainted. The science labs should be repainted. COMPOUND SUBJECTS 39  6. Lisa will be there. Jennifer will be there. Marie will be there. 7. CDs are better than tapes. DVDs are better than tapes. 8. Marlo could have scored the winning run. Alex could have scored the winning run. 9. A sensible diet is good for us. Exercise is good for us. 10. Notebooks are in the backpack. Pens are in the backpack. EXERCISE 3. Complete each sentence below by adding a compound subject. Samples: Friday and Saturday are the busiest shopping days of the week. Did Jennifer or Rajani tell you about my accident? 1. are the coldest months of the year. 2. will probably be chosen captain. 3. In yesterday’s game, did most of the scoring. 4. had birthdays recently. 5. broadcast the latest weather reports. 40 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Lesson 6 Compound Verbs A compound verb consists of two or more verbs of the same subject connected by and, or, or but. The runner stumbled and fell. S. compound verb The verb stumbled tells what the subject runner did. The verb fell, too, tells what the subject runner did. These two verbs of the same subject, connected by and, give us the compound verb stumbled and fell. Here are more examples of compound verbs: The wind moaned, whistled, and howled all night. S. compound verb At night I often read or watch television. S. compound verb The old car runs but uses a lot of oil. S. compound verb Question: May a sentence have both a compound subject and a compound verb? Answer: Yes. Here is an example: Cindy and Luke sang and danced. compound subject compound verb Composition Hint A common error in writing is unnecessary repetition of the subject. I parked the car. I shut off the engine. I put the key in my pocket. (Three I’s.) With a compound verb, we can avoid such repetition. I parked the car, shut off the engine, and put the key in my pocket. (One I.) COMPOUND VERBS 41 EXERCISE 1. Eliminate repetition of the subject by using a compound verb. Samples: She jogs. She jogs, swims, and plays She swims. tennis. She plays tennis. We tried. We tried but did not succeed. We did not succeed. Note: When a compound verb consists of more than two parts, put a comma after each part, except the last: jogs, swims, and plays... 1. Fire endangers life. Fire destroys property. 2. I went in. I took one look. I left. 3. A teacher explains the subject. A teacher tests students. 4. They have money. They do not know how to spend it. 5. Should we leave? Should we wait a little bit longer? 6. We closed the windows. We turned off the lights. We locked the door. 7. A good book holds your interest. A good book teaches you something. 8. He ordered a grilled cheese sandwich. He left it untouched. 9. The lungs provide the blood with oxygen. The lungs remove carbon dioxide. 42 PA R T S O F S P E E C H 10. She borrowed my notes. She did not return them. Read the following passage. (Sentences have been numbered.) 1James and Benjamin Franklin were brothers. 2They lived and worked in Boston in colonial America. 3James, the older, operated a printing shop. 4He employed Benjamin and taught him the printing trade. 5Often, how- ever, they quarreled and came to blows. 6Finally, in 1723, Benjamin ran away. 7Benjamin arrived in Philadelphia, tired and hungry. 8He saw a boy eat- ing bread and struck up a conversation. 9The boy gave Benjamin directions to a baker’s shop. 10Benjamin went there, ordered three pennies’ worth of bread, and received three enormous loaves. 11Their size astounded him. 12Evidently, bread was much cheaper in Philadelphia than in Boston. 13Eating one loaf, Benjamin walked the streets of Philadelphia with an- other loaf under each arm. 14He must have looked ridiculous. 15Deborah Read saw him and laughed. 16Seven years later, Deborah and Benjamin would become man and wife. EXERCISE 2. Below, write the subject and the verb of each sentence in the passage you have just read. Caution: Some of the subjects are compound, and some of the verbs are compound. The subject and the verb of the first two sentences have been filled in for you as samples. SUBJECT VERB 1. James and Benjamin Franklin were 2. They lived and worked 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. COMPOUND VERBS 43  SUBJECT VERB 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 44 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Lesson 7 Nouns as Direct Objects How is the noun Amy used in these two sentences? 1. Amy is our top scorer. 2. The crowd cheered Amy. In the first sentence, the noun Amy is the subject of the verb is. In the second sentence, the noun Amy is the direct object of the verb cheered. What Is a Direct Object? A direct object is a word in the predicate that receives the action of the verb. In sentence 2, above, the noun Amy is the word in the predicate that receives the action of the verb cheered. Therefore, the noun Amy is the direct object of the verb cheered. Note: There can be no direct object without an action verb. Compare the noun Amy in the following sentences: 1. Our top scorer is Amy. 2. The crowd cheered Amy. Sentence 1 cannot have a direct object because it has no action verb; is does not ex- press action. Amy, in sentence 1, is not a direct object. On the other hand, sentence 2 can have a direct object because it has an action verb; cheered expresses action. Amy, in sentence 2, receives the action of the verb cheered and is a direct object of that verb. The crowd cheered Amy. S. V. D.O. Question: Are there other verbs, besides is, that do not express action? Answer: Yes. Here are some of them: am will be may be have been are shall be might be has been was would be can be had been were should be could be will have been NOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECTS 45 All of the listed verbs, including is, are forms of a single verb—the verb be. Remember the following about am, is, are, will be, and all other forms of the verb be: 1. They do not express action. 2. They cannot have a direct object. EXERCISE 1. In which sentence, a or b, is the italicized noun a direct object? Write the letters D.O. on the proper line. Sample: a. Paul and Donna are my cousins. a. b. I called my cousins. b. D.O. 1. a. Stephen Crane was a reporter. a. b. The publisher dismissed the reporter. b. 2. a. Ginette plays two stringed instruments. a. b. The violin, guitar, and cello are stringed instruments. b. 3. a. Mercedes has been president since April. a. b. The members are blaming the president. b. 4. a. For years Dr. Kroll had been our dentist. a. b. We have found a new dentist. b. 5. a. Mr. Reed is Jean’s teacher. a. b. The district has hired a new art teacher. b. Easy Procedure for Finding the Direct Object To find the direct object, ask the question WHAT? or WHOM? right after the action verb. Question 1: What is the direct object in the following sentence? Caroline drives a Ford. Procedure: Caroline drives a WHAT? Answer: Ford is the direct object. Question 2: What is the direct object in the following? I watched the artist at work. Procedure: I watched WHOM at work? Answer: Artist is the direct object. 46 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Note that a direct object may be compound: It may consist of more than one word. The following sentence has a compound direct object: Heavy rain flooded the streets and highways. S. V. compound direct object EXERCISE 2. In each sentence below, find the verb (V.), the subject (S.), and the di- rect object (D.O.). Samples: Water loosens the soil. V. loosens S. Water D.O. soil The team has already left. V. has left S. team D.O. none 1. The speaker’s question surprised V. and amused the audience. S. D.O. 2. Have some yogurt and fruit. V. S. D.O. 3. Are the snow and ice melting? V. S. D.O. 4. The World Wide Web and television V. provide information and entertainment. S. D.O. 5. Jonathan returned the books to the library. V. S. D.O. NOUNS AS DIRECT OBJECTS 47  Lesson 8 Nouns as Indirect Objects How is the noun Amy used in the following sentence? The crowd gave Amy a cheer. S. V. ? D.O. Amy is the indirect object of the verb gave. What Is an Indirect Object? An indirect object is a word in the predicate that tells FOR WHOM or TO WHOM something was done, or is being done, or will be done. Note that there are two nouns after the action verb gave: Amy and cheer. The noun cheer is the direct object of gave because it answers the question WHAT? (The crowd gave WHAT?) The noun Amy tells FOR WHOM the crowd gave a cheer. Therefore, Amy is the indirect object of the verb gave. The crowd gave Amy a cheer. S. V. I.O. D.O. The above sentence shows that an action verb can have both a direct object and an indirect object in the same sentence. Question: Which comes first in a sentence, the direct object or the indirect object? Answer: The indirect object always comes before the direct object. Note these further examples: A friend sent Marilyn a card. I.O. D.O. (Marilyn is the indirect object because it tells TO WHOM a friend sent a card.) 48 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Carlos is buying Mrs. Lopez a gift. I.O. D.O. (Mrs. Lopez is the indirect object because it tells FOR WHOM Carlos is buying a gift.) The firm pays its officers a salary. I.O. D.O. (Officers is the indirect object because it tells TO WHOM the firm pays a salary.) EXERCISE 1. For each sentence, indicate the verb (V.), the subject (S.), the indirect object (I.O.), if any, and the direct object (D.O.), if any. Samples: Sunburn itches. V. itches S. Sunburn I.O. none D.O. none Ms. Jones will tell the court the truth. V. will tell S. Ms. Jones I.O. court D.O. truth 1. The store owner offered the V. customer a discount. S. I.O. D.O. 2. Did the judge grant the suspect bail? V. S. I.O. D.O. 3. The city will build the Giants a V. new stadium. S. I.O. D.O. NOUNS AS INDIRECT OBJECTS 49  4. Brendan has made his parents V. a promise. S. I.O. D.O. 5. A passerby slipped and fell. V. S. I.O. D.O. EXERCISE 2. Rewrite the sentence, changing the italicized expression to an indirect object. Sample: Did you give the assignment to Nick? Did you give Nick the assignment? 1. Rob gave flowers to Mia. 2. Have you ever done a favor for John? 3. Liang is lending his science notes to Kristin. 4. Rosita is making a blouse for her sister. 5. Give the tickets to the usher. 6. Who baked a cake for Jennifer? 7. Please cut a slice of melon for Catherine. 8. Washington is giving emergency aid to the flooded regions. 50 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  9. I wrote a letter to Yasmin. 10. The cashier handed the change to the customer. NOUNS AS INDIRECT OBJECTS 51  Lesson 9 Pronouns and Antecedents A pronoun is a word that takes the place of a noun. Question 1: How many pronouns are there in the following sentence? Paul Steinbrenner promised Rosalie Amato that he would vote for her. Answer: Two. He is a pronoun taking the place of Paul Steinbrenner. Her is a pronoun taking the place of Rosalie Amato. Question 2: What is an antecedent? Answer: An antecedent is the noun that a pronoun stands for. In the sentence above, the antecedent of the pronoun he is the noun Paul Steinbrenner; the antecedent of the pronoun her is the noun Rosalie Amato. Question 3: Why are pronouns important? Answer: Pronouns make language more smooth and efficient because they let us express ourselves without repetition and in fewer words. If there were no pronouns, we would have to say: Paul Steinbrenner promised Rosalie Amato that Paul Steinbrenner would vote for Rosalie Amato. EXERCISE 1. In the blank space, use a pronoun in place of the italicized antecedent. Samples: Joyce has a new bicycle but has not used it. The gloves are Karen’s. The muffler is not hers. 52 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  1. Let the soup cool before tasting ______________. 2. There is Jeff. Speak to ______________. 3. The magazine is Tom’s, but the newspaper is not ______________. 4. Chelsea has nothing to write with. Lend ______________ a pen. 5. Gina knows that ______________ is the next speaker. 6. Alex and Tony arrived, but there were no seats for ______________. 7. Joely did not come because ______________ has a cold. 8. If the tenth grade girls win today, ______________ have a chance for the championship. 9. Has anyone seen Mike’s notebook? Is that one ______________? 10. The stationery was Ellen’s, and the handwriting was ______________, too. EXERCISE 2. Find the pronoun (PRON.) and its antecedent (ANTECED.), and write them in the spaces at the right. Samples: Sandra said she does not agree. PRON. she ANTECED. Sandra The Declaration of Independence is an PRON. It important historical document. It was ANTECED. Declaration of Independence issued on July 4, 1776. 1. The challenger knows that he PRON. cannot win. ANTECED. 2. Friday was stormy. It was a PRON. miserable day. ANTECED. 3. Ask Eric and Anna if they can come. PRON. ANTECED. 4. Not one motel had a vacancy; each PRON. was booked to capacity. ANTECED. PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS 53  5. “We want a hit!” yelled the fans. PRON. ANTECED. 6. Jess complained: “Sam has not PRON. invited me.” ANTECED. 7. Mr. Walsh told the clerk: “I always PRON. pay cash.” ANTECED. 8. The committee asks: “Help us make PRON. this town a better place to live in.” ANTECED. Composition Hint To avoid repeating a noun you have just mentioned, use a pronoun. INSTEAD OF: I know Texas well because Texas is my home state. WRITE: I know Texas well because it is my home state. The pronoun it enables you to avoid repeating the noun Texas. EXERCISE 3. What pronoun can you use to avoid repeating the italicized word or words? Write your answer in the space provided. Sample: We did not invite Grace, though Grace would have liked to come. she 1. The ball landed right in your hands, but you could not hold on to the ball. 2. The jacket is Fahim’s and the sweater is Fahim’s, too. 3. Julie and Audrey are our friends. We have nothing against Julie and Audrey. 4. They looked for chocolate chip cookie dough ice cream, but chocolate chip cookie dough ice cream was not on the menu. 5. Ask the bus driver. The bus driver will be only too glad to help you. 54 PA R T S O F S P E E C H Personal Pronouns The personal pronouns are I, you, he, she, it, we, they. They are called personal pronouns because, except for it, they all refer to persons. These pronouns are among the most troublesome words in our language. Question: Why are the personal pronouns troublesome? Answer: Most of these pronouns change in form, depending on the way they are used in a sentence. On the other hand, the nouns that these pronouns stand for do not change. For example, take the noun George. We can use George as either a subject, a direct ob- ject, or an indirect object. George can be a SUBJECT: George complained. S. V. George can be a DIRECT OBJECT: The noise bothered George. S. V. D.O. George can be an INDIRECT OBJECT: The noise gave George a headache. S. V. I.O. D.O. Obviously, the noun George does not change in form, whether used as a subject, a di- rect object, or an indirect object. But most pronouns change in form, depending on their use. For example, he can be used as a subject, but not as a direct object or an indirect object. He can be a SUBJECT: He complained. S. V. For a DIRECT OBJECT, we must use him: The noise bothered him. S. V. D.O. Also, for an INDIRECT OBJECT we must use him: The noise gave him a headache. S. V. I.O. D.O. The Different Forms of the Personal Pronouns If we need a pronoun as a SUBJECT, we can use one of the following: I you he she it we they PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS 55  If we need a pronoun as a DIRECT OBJECT or an INDIRECT OBJECT, we can use one of the following: me you him her it us them If we need a pronoun TO SHOW POSSESSION, we can use one of the following: my, your, his her, its our, their, mine yours hers ours theirs Note: Only you and it have the same form for subject, direct object, and indirect object. EXERCISE 1. Supply the missing pronoun. Samples: Brianna likes music. She plays the guitar. It was Jim. I recognized him. This book must be Pedro’s. It is definitely his. 1. Isabella and I are neighbors. _______________ live on the same street. 2. Melanie and Abe are our friends. We like _______________. 3. Ellen and I will come when you call _______________. 4. Mr. and Mrs. Stern have just made the last mortgage payment. Now the house is all _______________. 5. I admit I am to blame. The fault is _______________. Pronouns in Combinations Pronouns and nouns may be combined to form compound subjects, compound indirect objects, and compound direct objects. Corey and I attended. (COMPOUND SUBJECT) compound S. Peter showed Corey and me the pictures. (COMPOUND INDIRECT OBJECT) compound I.O. The instructor chose Corey and me. (COMPOUND DIRECT OBJECT) compound D.O. 56 PA R T S O F S P E E C H Composition Hint Make your writing more interesting and effective by removing unnecessary words. Note how compound subjects, compound indirect objects, and compound di- rect objects can help. INSTEAD OF: My friends liked the movie. I liked the movie. WRITE: My friends and I liked the movie. compound S. INSTEAD OF: You gave Kelly the wrong directions. You gave us the wrong directions. WRITE: You gave Kelly and us the wrong directions. compound I.O. INSTEAD OF: She invited her cousin. She invited me. WRITE: She invited her cousin and me. compound D.O. EXERCISE 2. Rewrite each pair of sentences as one sentence, taking out the unnec- essary words. Your new sentence should contain a compound subject, compound indirect object, or compound direct object. Sample: Andrea asked several questions. I asked several questions. Andrea and I asked several questions. 1. My friend joined the swimming team. I joined the swimming team. 2. Diane met my cousin at the game. Diane met me at the game. 3. Shawn will go to the meeting. She will go to the meeting. 4. The state university offered Bill a scholarship. The state university offered Tori a scholarship. PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS 57  5. Our opponents have had a good season. We have had a good season. 6. They have known the Russos a long time. They have known us a long time. 7. My sister saw the latest Lord of the Rings movie. He saw the latest Lord of the Rings movie. 8. Evan gave Jack the wrong phone number. Evan gave me the wrong phone number. 9. Caitlin heard the crash down the hall. I heard the crash down the hall. 10. Lindsay gave Ted her best smile. Lindsay gave us her best smile. Pronouns in Contractions As we noted in Lesson 3, page 19, A contraction is a combination of two words with one or more letters omitted. An apostrophe [ ’ ] takes the place of the omitted letters. PRONOUN + VERB = CONTRACTION LETTER(S) OMITTED you + are = you’re a she + will = she’ll wi I + would = I’d woul Note that the first word in a contraction does not lose any letters—only the second one does. In the following contraction, the pronoun us loses a letter because it is the second word. let + us = let’s Contractions are commonly used in conversation and in friendly letters and notes. Study the following contractions: 58 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  it + is = it’s I + am = I’m they + will = they’ll we + are = we’re you + have = you’ve he + would = he’d EXERCISE 1. A contraction stands for two words. Write the two words for each ital- icized contraction below. Sample: He’ll go. = He will 1. You’d laugh! = 2. They’ve left. = 3. Let’s stop. = 4. They’re clever. = 5. It’s a pity. = EXERCISE 2. Write each of the following as a contraction. Sample: they will = they’ll 1. let us = 6. you would = 2. you have = 7. we have = 3. they are = 8. I am = 4. we will = 9. they would = 5. it is = 10. you are = Caution: Do not confuse a contraction with a possessive pronoun. A contraction always has an apostrophe: you’ll (you will); it’s (it is), etc. A possessive pronoun never has an apostrophe: yours, his, hers, its, ours, theirs PRONOUNS AND ANTECEDENTS 59  CONTRACTIONS POSSESSIVE PRONOUNS (Use an apostrophe to (Do not use an apostrophe.) replace omitted letters.) It’s (It is) raining. Its fur is soft. You’re (You are) wrong. Your friend is here. They’re (They are) here. Their parents came. EXERCISE 3. Write the choice that makes the sentence correct. Samples: The employees want (they’re, their) pay. their Note that they’re would not fit because it means they are. You know (they’re, their) not happy. they’re Note that they’re (they are) fits in with the rest of the sentence. 1. Do they have (they’re, their) uniforms? 2. By now (they’re, their) really tired. 3. Are these (you’re, your) notes? 4. (It’s, Its) too late. 5. Is the laptop computer (her’s, hers)? 6. This is my book. Where is (yours, your’s)? 7. The cat hurt (its, it’s) tail. 8. Shall we go to your house after school or (our’s, ours)? 9. (Your, You’re) always complaining. 10. (Lets, Let’s) go! 60 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  Lesson 10 Review of Verbs, Nouns, and Pronouns To learn what part of speech a word is, ask yourself: How is the word used in its sen- tence? For example, in sentence 1 below, paper is a noun; it names a thing. In sentence 2, pa- per is a verb; it expresses action. 1. I need more paper. N. 2. The room will look better if we paper the walls. V. EXERCISE 1. Like many words in English, each of the following can be a noun or a verb, depending on how it is used in a sentence. For each word, write two sentences— one using the word as a noun and the other using the word as a verb. Sample: bridge/bridge We are about ready to cross the longest bridge in the state. Gillian bridges the gap in age by taking an interest in her little sister’s dolls. 1. hound/hound 2. monitor/monitor 3. train/train REVIEW OF VERBS, NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS 61  4. effect/effect 5. hedge/hedge As you do these exercises, remember that verbs can be more than one word. Question: Is the verb in the following sentence mailed or have been mailed? The letters have been mailed. Answer: have been mailed. Note: Whenever you are asked for the verb of a sentence containing a verb phrase, give the whole verb phrase. EXERCISE 2. Name the verb in each of the following sentences. Sample: They must have lost their way. must have lost 1. Anything can happen. 2. You might have tried harder. 3. Is the trash being removed? 4. They should have been invited. 5. Jack should have been given another chance. 6. Elizabeth reads a book in a day. 7. Are we here yet? 8. Colleen is studying physics. Nouns can be tricky, too. They change form depending on how they are used—as sin- gular, plural, or possessive nouns. On the next page is a summary of the rules for forming plurals of nouns. 62 PA R T S O F S P E E C H  When to add S: A. To most nouns: book—books. (See Rule 1, page 28.) A–X. Exceptions to A: man—men foot—feet mouse—mice woman—women tooth—teeth goose—geese child—children louse—lice ox—oxen (See Rule 2 Exceptions, page 28.) B. To most nouns ending in f: belief—beliefs. (See Rule 3, page 30.) B–X. Exceptions to B: leaf—leaves shelf—shelves loaf—loaves thief—thieves half—halves wolf—wolves self—selves C. To nouns ending in a vowel + y: way—ways. (See Rule 5, page 31.) D. To nouns ending in a vowel + o: radio—radios. (See Rule 7, page 33.) E. To most nouns ending in a consonant + o: auto—autos. (See Rule 8, page 33.) When to add es: E–X. Exceptions to E: potato + es = potatoes echo + es = echoes tomato + es = tomatoes veto + es = vetoes F. To nouns ending in s: class + es = classes sh: wish + es = wishes ch: bench + es = benches or x: box + es = boxes (See Rule 2, page 28.) When to change y to i and add es: G. When a noun ends in a consonant + y: lady—ladies. (See Rule 6, page 31.) When to change f to v and add s: H. In the following three nouns ending in fe and their compounds: knife—knives life—lives wife—wives penknife—penknives housewife—housewives (See Rule 4, page 30.) REVIEW OF VERBS, NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS 63 EXERCISE 3. For each singular noun below, write (a) the plural and (b) the letter of the rule for forming that plural. Take your rule letters from the preceding four boxes. Samples: SINGULAR PLURAL RULE LETTER notebook notebooks A penknife penknives H tax taxes F baby babies G ox oxen A–X 1. pencil 2. leaf 3. child 4. tomato 5. louse 6. piano 7. sheriff 8. torch 9. echo 10. party 11. landlady 12. woman 13. jackknife 14. alloy 15. dash 16. stepchild 17. rodeo 64 PA R T S O F S P E E C H 18. life 19. pie 20. monkey EXERCISE 4. As we have learned, a noun may have as many as four forms. (1) (2) (3) (4) POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL student students student’s students’ On each line below, only one form of a noun is given. Write the other three forms of that noun. POSSESSIVE POSSESSIVE SINGULAR PLURAL SINGULAR PLURAL 1. girl _______________ _______________ _______________ 2. _______________ children _______________ _______________ 3. _______________ teachers _______________ _______________ 4. _______________ _______________ nurse’s _______________ 5. _______________ _______________ _______________ women’s Read the following. (Sentences have been numbered.) 1J. R. R. Tolkien creates a complex fictional world, Middle Earth, in his trilogy of books, The Lord of the Rings. 2He called the first book The Fellowship of the Ring. 3In this book, Sauron is the Dark Lord of Mordor who derived his power from the One Ring. 4He wished to enslave Middle Earth by using the One Ring but lost it before he could accom- plish his goal. 5Through odd twists of circumstances, the ring comes to a hobbit called Frodo Baggins. 6He and some friends form the Fellowship and begin a journey to take the ring to the Cracks of Doom in the moun- tain Oroduin, inside Sauron’s realm. 7It is the only place where it can be destroyed. 8Frodo and friends have many adventures. 9They are chased by Ringwraiths, they pass through the Misty Mountains, and they proceed to Lorien, where Lady Galadriel lives. 10Here she tests them and gives them gifts. 11Eventually, Frodo decides his quest must lead him to Mordor, and he leaves secretly to continue it alone. continued REVIEW OF VERBS, NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS 65  12Though tales of fantasy, the Lord of the Rings books do echo truths about the real world we live in. 13They will bring you hours of great read- ing. EXERCISE 5. Write the antecedents of the pronouns listed below. Sample: He (sentence 2) J. R. R. Tolkien 1. He (sentence 4) 2. it (sentence 4) 3. It (sentence 7) 4. it (sentence 7) 5. They (sentence 9) 6. she (sentence 10) 7. them (sentence 10) 8. him (sentence 11) 9. it (sentence 11) 10. They (sentence 13) Note: In sentence 7, the two occurrences of it, with different antecedents, might make for confusing reading. It is better to change one it back to what it refers to. For example, change the second it to the ring. EXERCISE 6. Write: 1. the subject of the verb comes in sentence 5: ____________________ 2. the direct object of the verb gives in sentence 10: ____________________ 3. the indirect object of the verb gives in sentence 10: ____________________ 4. the subject of the verb do echo in sentence 12: ____________________ 5. the direct object of the verb will bring in sentence 13: ____________________ 6. the indirect object of the verb will bring in sentence 13: ____________________ 66 PA R T S O F S P E E C H EXERCISE 7. List 10 proper nouns and 10 common nouns from the passage. PROPER COMMON 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Recall that in less formal writing and conversation, contractions may be used. EXERCISE 8. Which contraction beginning with a pronoun can replace the italicized words? Write your answer in the space provided. Samples: You are wasting time. You’re Ask her where the teams are playing. they’re 1. We would be glad to go along. 2. Do you know if he is home? 3. My friends and I will help you. 4. You have no time to lose. 5. Terry will be there. REVIEW OF VERBS, NOUNS, AND PRONOUNS 67  Lesson 11 Adjectives What is the difference between sweater and that white turtleneck sweater? Sweater means any sweater at all. That, white, and turtleneck modify (change) the meaning of sweater from any sweater to one particular sweater. These words are adjectives. What Is an Adjective? An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun. Here are some more examples: xhim 1. Light rain fell. The adjective Light modifies the noun rain. ADJ. N. himx 2. Joan wore red shoes. The adjective red modifies the noun shoes. ADJ. N. miiijx 3. He was angry. The adjective angry modifies the pronoun He. PRON. ADJ. Adjectives give information by answering such questions as What kind? Which one? How many? Whose? WHAT KIND? blue sky, rainy day, early riser WHICH ONE? this book, first job, second floor HOW MANY? four girls, many reasons, few failures WHOSE? my brother, your face, his wallet Question: How many adjectives are there in the following? Two husky, rough-coated dogs trotted out as we approached the farm-