ENG UNIT 1 PDF

Table of the Content Index Unit – 1 ⇝ Parts of Speech............................................................................... 3 1) Introduction to Parts of Speech...................................................................

Table of the Content Index Unit – 1 ⇝ Parts of Speech............................................................................... 3 1) Introduction to Parts of Speech............................................................................................. 3 2) Nouns..................................................................................................................................... 3 3) Pronouns................................................................................................................................ 7 4) Verbs..................................................................................................................................... 11 5) Adverbs................................................................................................................................. 15 6) Adjectives............................................................................................................................. 19 7) Prepositions.......................................................................................................................... 22 8) Conjunctions......................................................................................................................... 31 9) Interjections......................................................................................................................... 33 English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 1 Table of the Content English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 2 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Unit – 1 ⇝Parts of Speech Introduction to Parts of Speech Introduction The English Language has thousands of words, but all of them fall into just eight groups known as ‘Parts of Speech’. We can construct meaningful sentences using different types of words. These different types of words are called Parts of Speech. Parts of Speech indicate how words are related to each other. Nouns A noun is a word used as the name of a person, place, animal and bird, object or thing etc. The word noun means ‘Name’. Everything around us, whether examined or talked about must have a name. It can be the names of people, animals, places, things, qualities, actions, and measures of quantity. For example: Person Tailor Raj Manager Animal Tiger Dog Cow Place House Mumbai Apartment Object Chair Knife Computer Substance Copper Salt Water Quality Patience Courage Faith Action Warning Laughter Cooking Measures Week Inch Degrees English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 3 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Types of Nouns (1) Common noun (2) Proper noun (3) Abstract noun (4) Concrete / Material noun (5) Countable noun (6) Uncountable noun (7) Collective noun Let’s understand above given types in detail. (1) Common: A common noun is common name given to every person or thing and place. Here, the word ‘common’ means shared by all. Common noun refers to common things such as pen, doctor, fruit, t-shirt, vehicle, city, metal etc. For example:  I bought a book yesterday.  Sima is a school girl.  She has been studying abroad for years. (2) Proper: Proper nouns are the specific names of people, animal, institution, place etc. Proper noun begins with a capital letter. For example:  India is the country he lives in. (India – proper, country – common)  Rubina is a very beautiful girl. (Rubina – proper, girl – common)  Jaipuris known as a pink city. (Jaipur – proper, city – common) English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 4 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech (3) Abstract: An abstract noun refers to a quality, idea, emotion or state rather than an object, such as love, honesty, friendship, peace, advice, slavery, knowledge etc. The names of Arts & Science: grammar, music, chemistry, etc. are also abstract nouns. For example:  Love and friendship are equally important.  Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.  Your mind can know a million things. (4) Concrete/material: A concrete noun is the name of things which is made up of matter (which occupies the space). A concrete noun represents tangible things (can be touched physically). Name of all the matters and metals come under concrete noun. For example:  The person threw the rock in the yard.  My dog jumped in the air and caught the ball.  Have you tasted the soup? (5) Countable: A countable noun is name of an object and people etc. that we can count. A countable noun is something that can be numbered. For example:  There are five dogs in the street.  Jiya has six pairs of blue sandals.  Those books are in the cupboard. (6) Uncountable: An uncountable noun is the name of thing which cannot be counted. An uncountable noun is something that cannot be numbered. Mainly denotes abstract things and substance (milk, sugar, oil, gold, honesty etc.) because all these substances cannot be counted but can be measured. We will never ask for ten waters but we will ask for certain ml. or liters of water. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 5 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech So, all liquids and several food items (e.g., sugar, tea, water) are uncountable nouns as we can’t literally count them. Countable nouns have plural forms while uncountable nouns do not. (We say ‘books’ but cannot say ‘milks’) For examples:  Happiness is in the air.  The four elements are air, earth, fire and water.  Her knowledge is better than others. (7) Collective: A collective noun is the name of a group of person, animals or things. Such as jury, government, team, bunch, class, school etc. These nouns are singular in form, but represent multiple individuals or items acting as one unit. (Some Collective Nouns can also be plural) For example:  The coach is pleased with the team because they are doing well.  The Indian government has decided to join G20.  The audience began clapping and cheering. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 6 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Pronouns A pronoun is a word which is used in the place of a noun in order to avoid unnecessary repetition of a name. For example:  Jay is sick. Jay called a doctor. Jay`s mother is worried. Jay`s mother called Jay`s uncle. Jay`s uncle is a surgeon. (In this given example, we can see the repetition of Jay`s name, to avoid the repetition of the name, pronoun is used. See given below example)  Jay is a sick. He called a doctor. His mother is worried. She called his uncle who is a surgeon. Types of Pronouns (1) Personal Pronoun (2) Reflexive Pronoun (3) Indefinite Pronoun (4) Distributive Pronoun (5) Interrogative Pronoun (6) Reciprocal Pronoun (7) Relative Pronoun (8) Demonstrative Pronoun Let`s understand above given types in detail. (1) Personal: Personal pronouns are used in place of those specific nouns which are person, thing, or group. Personal pronouns help in avoiding the repetition of names of a person or thing. Given below table is of personal pronouns. Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Case Person Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural First Our, I We Me Us My, Mine Person Ours Second Your, Your, You You You You Person Yours yours English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 7 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Person Subjective Case Objective Case Possessive Case Third He, She, Him, Her, His, Her, Their, They Them Person It It Hers, Its Theirs For example:  Jay and Ravi are friends. They play basketball together.  I have more money than him.  We will be late if you don`t hurry up. (2) Reflexive: The words which replace object when the action done by the subject turns back (reflects) upon the subject itself are known as reflexive pronoun. The list of reflexive pronoun includes: myself, yourself, herself, themselves etc. A personal pronoun compounded with -self or -selves. For examples:  She cut down her hair herself yesterday.  I hurt myself while cooking.  The actors saved the local theater`s money by making costumes themselves. (3) Indefinite: An Indefinite pronoun is used to represent person or thing in a general way. Refers to unspecified objects, places and beings such as someone, anybody, nobody, nothing etc. For examples:  Some are born great and some achieve greatness.  I don’t know anything about it.  I want someone to move this. (4) Demonstrative: It is used to point out noun or pronoun. There are only four demonstrative pronouns – This, That, These and Those. This and That are singular, whereas These and Those are plural. This and These are used to refer when noun or pronoun is near to something. That and Those are used to refer when noun or pronoun is far from something. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 8 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech For example:  This is my mother’s sweet home.  Look at those over there; they are my favorite flowers.  These are beautiful flowers, but those are not beautiful as it should be. (5) Distributive: It refers to people or things one at a time. For this reason, they are always singular and followed by singular verb. Mainly there are three distributive pronouns: Each, Either and Neither. ‘Either’ and ‘Neither’ should be used only when speaking of two persons or things. When more than two are spoken ofany, no one, none should be used. For example:  Each of you has received the prize.  Neither of these answers is true.  Either of these T-shirts can fit me. (6) Relative: It is used to join two sentences together by replacing the noun. In English, relative pronouns are ‘WHO’, ‘WHOM’, ‘WHOSE’, ‘WHICH’, ‘WHAT’, and ‘THAT’. For example:  The one who is honest is trusted by all.  This is the boy whose father won the award.  The book which was lost was not mine. (7) Interrogative: The words "who," "whom," "whose," "which," and "what" are called interrogative pronouns when they are used to ask questions. We can usually identify an interrogative pronoun by the fact that they often appear at the beginning of a question. For examples:  Who will come to the party?  Whom did you tell?  Whose book is this? English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 9 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech (8) Reciprocal: It is used to express mutual action or mutual relation. In English, there are two reciprocal pronouns each other and one another. ‘Each other’ is used for two persons while ‘one another’ is used for more than two persons. For example:  We gave gifts to each other on our birthday.  The students congratulated one another after receiving certificates.  They have been working with one another for several years. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 10 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Verbs Introduction A Verb is an action word in a sentence that describes what a subject is doing. It shows actions (mental &physical), processes, conditions or state of being of people, animal or things. In other words, a Verb is a word which used to tell or declare something about some person or thing. Classification of Verbs (1) Main Verb: The category of words indicating some actions/possession/fact of the subject is known as main verbs. For Example:  Drive, eat, go, win, fall, work, feel, think etc. (He owns a car., I have got a laptop.) (2) Helping Verbs: Help the main verb to describe action. That action happened in the past or is happening in the present or will happen in the future. List of Auxiliary Verbs: Am Was Shall Has Does May Might Being Is Were Will Have Do Can Could Be Are Had Did Should Been Would Must Except this list there are other auxiliaries too that will be discussed in unit 5. For example:  The teacher teaches (Physical action)  She is thinking of doing a prank on him. (Mental action)  My brother is a chemist. (State of being) Types of Verbs (1) Finite Verb (2) Non – finite Verb English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 11 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Let’s understand above given two types of verbs in detail. (1) Finite verb: It changes its form based on the subject and tenses of the sentence. It is used as a main verb. For example:  The driver goes to garage regularly.  I go to Hyderabad often.  He is speaking the truth. As you can observe that if we change tense or subject in the above given examples then it also changes the verb of sentence accordingly. For example:  The drivers go to garage regularly.  The subject "drivers" is plural, so the verb changes from "goes" to "go".  I went to Hyderabad.  The tense changes to past, so the verb changes from "go" to "went".  They are speaking the truth.  The subject "they" is plural, so the verb changes from "is speaking" to "are speaking". (2) Non – finite Verb: It does not change its form based on the subject and tenses of a sentence. It is not used as a main verb in the sentence. Non – finite verb can be categorized into three types. (1) Infinitives (2) Gerund (3) Participle Let`s understand above given types in detail. (1) Infinitives: It is base form of the verb.  Infinitives can be divided into two types: (1) Full Infinitive: In this type ‘to’ is used with the base form of the verb. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 12 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech For example:  I want to buy a new car.  I like to watch movies alone.  His ambition is to fly. (2) Bare Infinitive: In this we use base form of the verb without ‘to’. For example:  You must take a break.  He can go with us if he likes to.  He made me cry.  Bare infinitives can also be used with modal auxiliary verbs like such will, would, shall, should, may, might, can, could, must etc. For example:  My sister could play the piano when she was five.  You must get up early in the morning.  I will make you apologies. (2) Gerund: It is -ing form of verb which functions as a noun in a sentence.  Gerund does not work as a verb in a sentence.  For example:  Teaching English is my passion.  Everyone in my family loves playing chess.  Walking is good for health.  Reading is my favourite pastime.  Her hobby is painting.  Running requires proper footwear.  She is used to swimming. (“Used to” means accustomed to. Hence, we used gerund in this case.)  Gerunds and infinitives are easily replaceable with each other.  For example:  I like to swim. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 13 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech I like swimming.  She started studying. She started to study.  I love to eat chocolates. I love eating chocolates. (3) Participle: It functions as an adjective in a sentence.  Participle is divided into two types: 1) Present Participle 2) Past Participle Let`s understand both the types in detail: (1) Present Participle  By adding ‘-ing’ form to the base form of verb, the present participle is formed.  For Example: Function as an adjective:  The boiling water burned his hand.  The falling leaves were beautiful.  The dancing couple looked happy.  A rolling stone gathers no moss.  The burning paper illuminated the darkness. (2) Past Participle  By using the 3rd form of the base verb, the past participle is formed. Past Participle can function as a verb and an adjective in the sentence.  For example: Function as Adjective.  His tattered coat needs mending.  A burnt child dreads the fire.  His finished manners produced a very favourable impression.  He wears a worried look. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 14 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Adverbs Introduction An Adverb is a word which modifies the meaning of a Verb, an Adjective and another Adverb. A word that modifies a verb by expressing manner, place, time and frequency. Specifically, adverbs provide a description of how, where, when, in what manner and to what extent something is done or happens. Adverbs normally help paint a fuller picture by describing how something happens. Uses of Adverbs (1) Adverbs modifying a Verb:  Rama runs quickly.  ‘Quickly’ shows how or in what manner Rama runs thus modifying the verb runs. (2) Adverbs modifying an Adjective:  This is a very sweet mango.  ‘Very’ shows how much or to what degree the mango is sweet; that is, very modifies the Adjective sweet. (3) Adverb modifying an Adverb:  Govind reads quite clearly.  ‘Quite’ shows how far or to what extent Govind reads clearly; that is, quite modifies the adverb clearly. Types of Adverbs (1) Adverb of Time (2) Adverb of Frequency/Number (3) Adverb of Manner (4) Adverb of Place Let’s understand above given types in detail. (1) Adverb of Time: Adverb of Time shows when the action happens using words such as: before, now, ago, daily, soon, lately, never, already, etc. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 15 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech For examples:  I will see you tomorrow.  Mahesh forgot his lunch yesterday.  I have to go now. While it’s almost always correct to have the adverb of time at the end of the sentence, you can place it at the start of the sentence to put a different emphasis on the time if it is important to the context.  Last year was the worst year of my life.  Tomorrow I will be on leave.  Yesterday my troubles seemed so far away. (2) Adverb of Frequency/Number: It describes how often an action happens. Always, usually (or normally), often, sometimes, rarely, never etc. They differ in the level of frequency, as you can see below. For example: He rarely comes here. He often makes mistakes. He frequently comes unprepared.  She checks her email quite frequently.  I have told you twice.  He is often late to meetings. (3) Adverbs of Manner: It explains how an action is carried out. Some examples of adverbs of manner include: Slowly, Rapidly, Awkwardly, Badly, Carefully, Sweetly, Kindly, Sadly, Easily, and quickly. For example: I was badly disappointed. Govind reads clearly. The child slept peacefully.  Govind reads carefully.  She sang exceptionally well. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 16 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech  His handwriting is painfully slow. (4) Adverbs of Place: It shows where an action happening or happens. Words such as – there, here, up, down, out, everywhere, within, away etc. Are considered as adverbs of place. For example: The little lamb followed Mary everywhere. He looked up. The horse galloped away.  My brother is out.  The car stopped quite nearby.  The restaurant is well-known locally. List of adverbs Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Time Frequency Manner Place Always Always Beautifully Above Already Constantly Boldly Abroad Annually Often Bravely Along Before Frequently Calmly Away Constantly Generally Carefully Back Daily Normally Cautiously Behind Early Usually Cheerfully Below Earlier Regularly Joyously Downstairs Eventually Sometimes Eagerly East Ever Occasionally Gladly Far Finally Infrequently Easily Here English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 17 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Adverbs of Time Frequency Manner Place First Rarely Elegantly Indoors Formerly Seldom Equally Inside Fortnightly Hardly ever Faithfully Nearby Generally Almost never Frankly Next door Hourly Never Honestly Off Immediately Ever Generously Out Infrequently Hourly Gently Outside Just Daily Justly Overseas Later Nightly Kindly Right Lately Weekly Neatly Somewhere Monthly Monthly Obediently There Not until Yearly Patiently Under Now Annually Openly Underground Normally Once Perfectly Up English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 18 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Adjectives Introduction Adjective is a word that tells us about the noun or adds something to the meaning of a noun. For example:  The sky became dark.  The sky was clear and beautiful. List of Adjectives: Quality Definite Indefinite Quantity Distributive Numeral Numeral Numeral Adaptable One All All Any Affectionate Two Another Any Both Articulate Three Any Both Each one Attentive Four Both Each Everyone Brave Five Certain Either Either one Calm Six Each Enough Neither one Charming Seven Enough Every Each of the Compassionate Eight Nine Few Few Every single Confident Ten Fewer Fewer Each and every Considerate Eleven Many Less Every single one Courageous Twelve More Little Anyone Courteous Thirteen Most Many Either of the Creative Fourteen Much More Neither of the Decisive Fifteen Neither Most Every Dependable Sixteen Other Much Either Determined Seventeen Plenty Neither Neither Diligent Eighteen Several No Diplomatic Nineteen Some None Dynamic Twenty Various One Empathetic Thirty Abundant Several Energetic Forty Ample Some Enthusiastic Fifty Countless Sufficient Fair Sixty Innumerable Various Flexible Seventy Manifold Whole Generous Eighty Multiple Genuine Ninety Numerous Hardworking Hundred Scant English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 19 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Honest Thousand Sundry Imaginative Million Various Independent Innovative Inspirational Intelligent Kind Knowledgeable Loyal Motivated Observant Optimistic Adjective shows quality or description: It answers the question ‘of what kind’.  The foolish old crow tried to sing.  She is the clever girl. Adjective shows quantity: It answers the question ‘How much’.  There is little time for preparation.  I ate some rice. Adjective shows definite numbers: It denotes exact number.  The hand has five fingers.  Sunday is the first day of the week. Adjective shows indefinite numbers: It denotes number in general.  She has few pictures.  I have some friends here. Adjective shows distribution of numbers: refers in general.  Each student is very friendly. (Each refers to all the student in the group individually)  Either girl can solve this problem. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 20  Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Difference between Adjective of Quantity and Indefinite Numeral Adjective. Adjective of Quantity Indefinite Numeral Adjective I ate some rice. Some boys are clever. He has lost all his wealth. All men must die. I have enough sugar. There are not enough spoons. You don`t have enough sense. There are no pictures in this book. Note: "Some" in the first sentence describes an indefinite amount of rice, which is uncountable. Whereas "Some" in the second sentence refers to an unspecified number of boys, which is a countable noun. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 21 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Prepositions Introduction Preposition is important part of language it shows the position of a noun or pronoun in a sentence. It is a word used with a noun or a pronoun to show the relation in space or time between two or more people, places or things. Basically, they help us understand where, when, or how something is, it makes our sentence clear and organized. Location: They tell us where something is.  The book is on the table. Movement: They indicate the direction of an action or movement.  She walked into the park. Time: They specify when something is happening.  The party is at 7 o'clock." Types of Prepositions (1) Preposition of Time (2) Preposition of Place (3) Preposition of Movement Let`s understand above given types in detail: (1) Prepositions of Time They are used to help indicate when something happened, happens or will happen. Basic examples of prepositions of time include: at, on, in, before and after etc.  I was born in 1982.  I was born on 4thJuly, 1982.  I was born exactly at 2am.  I was born two minutes before my twin brother.  I was born after the Great War ended. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 22 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech (1) Use of ‘In’  We use preposition of time ‘IN’ for years, months, seasons, centuries and time of day.  I first met Jignesh in 2016.  It’s always cold in January.  Easter falls in spring each year.  The Second World War occurred in the 20th century. (2) Use of ‘On’  For days, dates and specific holidays.  We go to school on Mondays, but not on Sundays.  Christmas is on 25th December.  Buy me a present on my birthday.  Easter Sunday is on a different date each year.  We're going for camping on the day of New year. (3) Use of ‘At’  For time and festivals.  Families often argue at Christmas time.  I work fast at night.  Her shift finished at 7pm.  The event takes place at sunrise.  The music festival kicks off at noon. (4) Use of ‘before’ and ‘after’  When something happened, happens or will happen, but specifically in relation to another thing,  Before I discovered this bar, I used to go straight to home after work.  We will not leave before 3pm.  David comes before Bryan in the line, but after Louise.  The store closes at 9 PM, so make sure to arrive before that. (Here, at is the preposition indicates the closing time of the store) English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 23 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech  We can go for a walk after lunch.  I'll send you the report after I review it. (5) Use of ‘during’, ‘about’, ‘around’, ‘until’ and ‘throughout’  Specify the timing or duration of an action, event, or period in relation to another action or time frame.  They provide help to convey when something occurred or will occur.  Examples of ‘during’:  During the storm, we stayed indoors to stay safe.  I read a book during my lunch break.  They met each other during their college time.  Examples of ‘about’:  How do you feel about this new project?  We'll talk more about the plan tomorrow.  It's all about teamwork in this company.  Examples of ‘around’:  The kids are playing around the playground.  We should meet around 7 PM for dinner.  He's been traveling around Europe for the past one month.  Examples of ‘until’:  The store is open until 9 PM.  You can borrow the car until next Friday.  I'll be on vacation until the end of the month.  Examples of ‘throughout’:  Music played throughout the entire event.  The concert will be staged throughout the month of May.  We saw beautiful landscapes throughout our road trip. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 24 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech (2) Prepositions of Place Preposition of place describes the place of peoples, animals or things, in relation to another person or thing. At–Used to say exactly where something or someone is. For example: I saw a cat at the window. The keys are on the table at the front door. He's currently studying at the university. In –Indicates location of object within confines a space. For example: You’ll find a mouse in the drawer. I found a surprise gift in my bag. They live in a beautiful house by the lake. On –Touching a surface or being supported by a surface. For Example: A dog lies on the mat The phone is on the charger. The plate is on the kitchen counter. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 25 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Above –Higher than something else, but not directly over it. For example: There’s a cat above the dog. The airplane is cruising above the clouds. The moon shines brightly above the city. Below–Lower than something else. For example: The dog lies below the cat. The basement is located below the main floor. The roots of the tree spread out below the soil. Under– Lower than (or covered by) something For example: There is a dog under the desk. He left his umbrella under the chair at the restaurant. (Here, ‘at’ & ‘under’ are preposition of place) The submarine is exploring the mysterious depths under the ocean. On top of –On the highest surface of something. For example: There was a cat on top of the table. She balanced the books on top of her head. The chef carefully arranged the garnish on top of the dish. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 26 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech In front of–Further forward than someone or something else. For example: The cat was in front of the fireplace. I parked my bicycle in front of the store. The runner crossed the finish line in front of the other competitors. Between –Something in the middle of two objects or things. For example: There is a mouse between the cats. She was torn between two job offers. (torn - split by being pulled) The town lies between the river and the forest. Next to –Beside someone or something else. For example: The dog came and sat next to the boy. I'll be working at the desk next to yours. The restaurant is next to the cinema, so we can eat before the movie. Near– At or to a short distance; nearby. For example: The ball is near the box. The hiking trail begins near the parking lot. The school is located near the town square. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 27 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Among – Surrounded by someone or something; in the middle of someone or something. For example: Red ball is among the boxes. The lost treasure was hidden among the rocks at the bottom of the cave. They found themselves walking among the tall trees in the dense forest. Far from –Something/someone not at short/near distance. For example: The ball is far from the box. Her new job is far from her old workplace. The remote village is far from any major city and lacks modern amenities. Behind - At the back (part) of something. For example: The cat sat behind the box. Sita closed the door behind her. She ran off and hide behind a tree. The boy is behind the door (3) Prepositions of Movement Prepositions of movement are quite easy to understand. They describe how something or someone moves from one place to another. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 28 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Through – refers to moving directly inside from one end of something out the other end. For example: The bullet went straight through him. The train passes through the tunnel. We hiked through the forest, following the marked details. Into – refers to entering or looking into something. For example: He drove the car into the garage. Darshit went into the room. She slipped a note into the envelope. The plane descended into the clouds. Around–refers to surrounding somebody/something; on each side of something. For example: The horse runs around the track all morning. They walked around the lake. He walked around the park for exercise. Across – refers to moving from one side to other of something. For example: They walked across the street. Kirti and Sangeeta are swimming across the lake. She walked across the busy street. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 29 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Along – refers to moving in a constant direction on a road, path, or any more or less horizontal surface. For example: We walked along the beach. There is a row of houses along the river. She rode her bike along the bike path, taking in the scenic views of the countryside. Over – refers to cross something and be on the other side/ in or to a position higher than but not touching somebody/something. For example: They held a large umbrella over her. The thief jumped over the wall and ran away. The cat jumped over the fence to explore the neighboring yard English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 30 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Conjunctions Introduction A conjunction joins two sentences together, and it also joins nouns, pronouns, verbs, adverbs and adjectives. Types of Conjunctions (1) Coordinating Conjunctions (2) Subordinating Conjunctions (3) Correlative Conjunctions Let`s understand coordinating conjunction only in detail. (1) Coordinating conjunctions Join words, phrases and clauses of equal importance and grammatical rank. Coordinating conjunctions are; For, And, Nor, But, Or, Yet, So. They are known as FANBOYS. Let us understand the meaning of each conjunction: (1) For – It explains a reason or purpose (just like "because"), typically with two sentences.  I am excited, for today is my birthday.  Let’s not fight about the past, for today is a new day.  My husband sent me tickets, for I want to go to Mumbai. (2) And – adds one thing to another. It can be used to join two nouns, two adjectives, two phrases.  I like to read, and I write in my journal every night.  You should invite Ramesh and Rakesh to the party.  The sun is slowly getting brighter and hotter and it will eventually enter the red giant phase. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 31 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech (3) Nor – It used to join two negative ideas and it also joins two negative sentences.  My friend doesn’t like to study, nor does he prepare notes in class.  She doesn't drink milk, nor does she eat butter.  He wasn't there on Monday, nor on Tuesday. (4) But – It shows contrast between two words, phrases or ideas of equal importance.  We would love to attend the birthday party, but we have other plans that day.  He is egoist but I like him.  They had very little money, but (they) always bought their children expensive presents. (5) Or– It presents an alternative/a choice.  What would you like to have, tea or coffee?  I will join any company or start a new business.  Do you want to go or not? (6) Yet–It introduces a contrasting idea that follows the preceding idea logically.  I always take a book to class, yet I never open it.  He scored less than 30 marks yet he has cleared the exam.  He speaks in your favor yet you don’t trust him. (7) So – It indicates an effect, result or consequence from an action in the earlier clause.  Our car did not start, so we called a mechanic.  She was hungry, so she ate the whole cake.  She studied hard, so she was able to win a scholarship. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 32 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Interjections Introduction Interjections are used to express some sudden feeling or emotion. They are not grammatically related to other words in a sentence. Interjection ends with ‘!’ exclamatory mark. It is a word, phrase, or sound used to convey an emotion such as surprise, excitement, happiness, or anger. (1) Hurray – To express joy  Hurray! We won the championship.  Hurray! It's my birthday today.  Hurray! The sun is finally shining after days of rain. (2) Alas – To express grief  Alas! The beloved old tree has fallen in the storm.  Alas! We missed the last train.  Alas! The news of his passing is heartbreaking. (3) What – To express surprise, or disbelief  What! You got engaged? Congratulations!  What! You passed the exam without studying?  What! They're coming to visit us today? (4) Bravo –To express praise  Bravo! That was an outstanding performance.  Bravo! Your speech was inspiring and well-delivered.  Bravo! The chef deserves compliments for this delicious meal. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 33 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech Most widely used interjections: hey, oops, ouch, oh, ah, ooh, eh, ugh, aw, yo, wow, sh, and yippee. (5) Hey– To get someone`s attention or to express surprise  Hey! I haven't seen you in ages.  Hey! Stop that! (6) Oops – To acknowledge a mistake or accident  Oops! I spilled my coffee all over the table.  Oops! I forgot your birthday! (7) Ouch – To express sudden pain  Ouch! I stubbed my toe on the chair.  Ouch! That hot pan burned my hand. (8) Oh – To express a range of emotions such as surprise, realization, or disappointment  Oh! I forgot to buy milk at the store.  Oh! That's a surprise! (9) Ah – To express understanding, realization, or satisfaction  Ah! This warm bath feels so relaxing.  Ah! I finally understand the solution. (10) Ooh – To express admiration, excitement, or awe  Ooh! Look at the fireworks, they're so pretty!  Ooh! This chocolate cake is heavenly. (11) Eh - To seek confirmation, express uncertainty, or prompt a response  Eh! The movie was okay, I guess.  Eh! It's a bit chilly outside. (12) Ugh – To express disgust, frustration, or annoyance  Ugh! I'm not feeling well today.  Ugh! This traffic is so frustrating. English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 34 Unit 1 – Parts of Speech (13) Aw – To express sympathy, disappointment, or affection  Aw! The puppy looks so cute when it sleeps.  Aw! Don't be sad. (14) Wow – To express astonishment, admiration, or excitement  Wow! That was an amazing performance.  Wow! This view is breathtaking. (15) Yippee – To express joy, excitement, or triumph  Yippee! I won the lottery  Yippee! We're going on vacation ********** English (2301HS102) B.Tech 2024(e) – Page 35