Emerging Technologies: Nanotechnology, Biotechnology, and More - PDF

Here is the conversion of the provided document into a markdown format. # Chapter 7: Other emerging technologies ## Introduction Dear students, in the previous chapter, you studied some emerging technologies like data science, artificial intelligence, the internet of things and augmented reality...

Here is the conversion of the provided document into a markdown format. # Chapter 7: Other emerging technologies ## Introduction Dear students, in the previous chapter, you studied some emerging technologies like data science, artificial intelligence, the internet of things and augmented reality and their ethical issues. In this chapter, you are going to discuss other emerging technologies like nanotechnology, biotechnology, block-chain technology, cloud and quantum computing, autonomic computing, computer vision, embedded systems, cybersecurity, and 3D printing. **After accomplishing this chapter, Students will be able to:** - Explain nanotechnology and it's application in different sectors. - Explain biotechnology and it's application in different sectors. - Explain block-chain technology and it's application. - Gain insights about the cloud, quantum and autonomic computing, their differences, and applications. - Explain how computer vision works and its application. - Identify and explain embedded systems and their pros and cons. - Describe cybersecurity, types of cybersecurity treat and it's benefits. - Distinguish the difference between additive manufacturing and 3D printing. ## 7.1 Nanotechnology **Activity 7.1** - Explain Nanoscale? Compare it with meters? Give examples in Nanoscale? - Nanotechnology is science, engineering, and technology conducted at the nanoscale, which is about 1 to 100 nanometers. Nanoscience and nanotechnology are the study and application of extremely small things and can be used across all the other science fields, such as chemistry, biology, physics, materials science, and engineering. ### 7.1.1 How it started **Activity 7.2** - What do you think the need to study materials in Nanoscale? The ideas and concepts behind nanoscience and nanotechnology started with a talk entitled "There's plenty of room at the bottom" by physicist Richard Feynman at an American Physical Society meeting at the California Institute of Technology (CalTech) on December 29, 1959, long before the term nanotechnology was used. In his talk, Feynman (see Figure 7.1) described a process in which scientists would be able to manipulate and control individual atoms and molecules. Over a decade later, in his explorations of ultraprecision machining, Professor Norio Taniguchi coined the term nanotechnology. It wasn't until 1981, with the development of the scanning tunneling microscope that could "see" individual atoms, that modern nanotechnology began. **Figure 7.1 Physicist Richard Feynman, the father of nanotechnology** The image features a man (Physicist Richard Feynman) holding a device and looking at it with a focused expression. ### 7.1.2 Fundamental concepts in nanoscience and nanotechnology It's hard to imagine just how small nanotechnology is. One nanometer is a billionth of a meter or $10^{-9}$ of meters. Here are a few illustrative examples: - There are 25,400,000 nanometers in an inch. - A sheet of newspaper is about 100,000 nanometers thick. - On a comparative scale, if a marble were a nanometer, then one meter would be the size of the Earth. Nanoscience and nanotechnology involve the ability to see and to control individual atoms and molecules. Everything on Earth is made up of atoms-the food we eat, the clothes we wear, the buildings and houses we live in, and our own bodies. But something as small as an atom is impossible to see with the naked eye. In fact, it's impossible to see with the microscopes typically used in high school science classes. The microscopes needed to see things at the nanoscale were invented relatively recently about 30 years ago. As small as a nanometer is, it's still large compared to the atomic scale. An atom has a diameter of about 0.1 nm. An atom's nucleus is much smaller about 0.00001 nm. Atoms are the building blocks for all matter in our universe. You and everything around you are made of atoms. Nature has perfected the science of manufacturing matter molecularly. For instance, our bodies are assembled in a specific manner from millions of living cells. Cells are nature's nanomachines. At the atomic scale, elements are at their most basic level. On the nanoscale, we can potentially put these atoms together to make almost anything. In a lecture called "Small Wonders: The World of Nanoscience," Nobel Prize winner Dr. Horst Störmer said that the nanoscale is more interesting than the atomic scale because the nanoscale is the first point where we can assemble something -- it's not until we start putting atoms together that we can make anything useful. People are interested in the nanoscale - because it is at this scale that the properties of materials can be very different from those at a larger scale. We define nanoscience as the study of phenomena and manipulation of materials at atomic, molecular and macromolecular scales, where properties differ significantly from those at a larger scale; and nanotechnologies as the design, characterization, production, and application of structures, devices, and systems by controlling shape and size at the nanometer scale. The properties of materials can be different at the nanoscale for two main reasons: - First, nanomaterials have a relatively larger surface area when compared to the same mass of material produced in a larger form. This can make materials more chemically reactive (in some cases materials that are inert in their larger form are reactive when produced in their nanoscale form), and affect their strength or electrical properties. - Second, quantum effects can begin to dominate the behavior of matter at the nanoscale particularly at the lower end affecting the optical, electrical and magnetic behavior of materials. Materials can be produced that are nanoscale in one dimension (for example, nanowires, nanorods, and nanotubes), in two dimensions (plate-like shapes like nanocoating, nanolayers, and graphene) or in all three dimensions (for example, nanoparticles) Today's scientists and engineers are finding a wide variety of ways to deliberately make materials at the nanoscale to take advantage of their enhanced properties such as higher strength, lighter weight, increased control of light spectrum, and greater chemical reactivity than their larger-scale counterparts. **Activity 7.3** As you discussed before, understanding the behavior of the material at Nanoscale advantageous. What do you think about the advantages of nanotechnology in medicine and agriculture? ### 7.1.3 Applications of nanotechnology: - **Medicine**: customized nanoparticles the size of molecules that can deliver drugs directly to diseased cells in your body. When it's perfected, this method should greatly reduce the damage treatment such as chemotherapy does to a patient's healthy cells. - **Electronics**: it has some answers for how we might increase the capabilities of electronics devices while we reduce their weight and power consumption. - **Food**: it has an impact on several aspects of food science, from how food is grown to how it is packaged. Companies are developing nanomaterials that will make a difference not only in the taste of food but also in food safety and the health benefits that food delivery. - **Agriculture**: nanotechnology can possibly change the whole agriculture part and nourishment industry anchor from generation to preservation, handling, bundling, transportation, and even waste treatment. - **Vehicle manufacturers**: much like aviation, lighter and stronger materials will be valuable for making vehicles that are both quicker and more secure. Burning motors will likewise profit from parts that are all the more hardwearing and higher temperature safe. ## 7.2 Biotechnology **Activity 7.4** - What do you think biotechnology is all about? Just begin by defining the two words bio and technology? - Do you think biotechnology is an old science? If your answer is yes, why? Give some concrete examples of ancient biotechnology products? It is the broad area of biology involving living systems and organisms to develop or make products, or "any technological application that uses biological systems, living organisms, or derivatives thereof, to make or modify products or processes for specific use". At its simplest, biotechnology is technology based on biology - biotechnology harnesses cellular and biomolecular processes to develop technologies and products that help improve our lives and the health of our planet. We have used the biological processes of microorganisms for more than 6,000 years to make useful food products, such as bread and cheese, and to preserve dairy products. Brewing and baking bread are examples of processes that fall within the concept of biotechnology (use of yeast (= living organism) to produce the desired product). Such traditional processes usually utilize the living organisms in their natural form (or further developed by breeding), while the more modern form of biotechnology will generally involve a more advanced modification of the biological system or organism. One example of modern biotechnology is genetic engineering. Genetic engineering is the process of transferring individual genes between organisms or modifying the genes in an organism to remove or add a desired trait or characteristic. Today, biotechnology covers many different disciplines (e.g. genetics, biochemistry, molecular biology, etc.). New technologies and products are developed every year within the areas of e.g. Medicine (development of new medicines and therapies), agriculture (development of genetically modified plants, biofuels, biological treatment) or industrial biotechnology (production of chemicals, paper, textiles, and food). ### 7.2.1 History When Edward Jenner invented vaccines and when Alexander Fleming discovered antibiotics, they were harnessing the power of biotechnology. And, of course, modern civilization would hardly be imaginable without the fermentation processes that gave us beer, wine, and cheese. When he coined the term in 1919, the agriculturalist Karl Ereky described 'biotechnology' as "all lines of work by which products are produced from raw materials with the aid of living things." In modern biotechnology, researchers modify DNA and proteins to shape the capabilities of living cells, plants, and animals into something useful for humans. Biotechnologists do this by sequencing or reading, the DNA found in nature, and then manipulating it in a test tube - or, more recently, inside of living cells. **Activity 7.5** Write down some biotechnology applications in agriculture, medicine environment? ### 7.2.2 Application of biotechnology - **Agriculture (Green Biotechnology)**: Biotechnology had contributed a lot to modify the genes of the organism known as **Genetically Modified Organisms** such as Crops, Animals, Plants, Fungi, Bacteria, etc. Genetically modified crops are formed by the manipulation of **DNA** to introduce a new trait into the crops. These manipulations are done to introduce traits such as pest resistance, insect resistance, weed resistance, etc. - **Medicine (Medicinal Biotechnology)**: This helps in the formation of genetically modified insulin known as humulin. This helps in the treatment of a large number of diabetes patients. It has also given rise to a technique known as gene therapy. Gene therapy is a technique to remove the genetic defect in an embryo or child. This technique involves the transfer of a normal gene that works over the non-functional gene. - **Aquaculture Fisheries**: It helps in improving the quality and quantity of fishes. Through biotechnology, fishes are induced to breed via gonadotropin-releasing hormone. - **Environment (Environmental biotechnology)**: is used in waste treatment and pollution prevention. Environmental biotechnology can more efficiently clean up many wastes than conventional methods and greatly reduce our dependence on methods for land-based disposal. Every organism ingests nutrients to live and produces by-products as a result. Different organisms need different types of nutrients. Some bacteria thrive on the chemical components of waste products. Environmental engineers use bioremediation, the broadest application of environmental biotechnology, in two basic ways. They introduce nutrients to stimulate the activity of bacteria already present in the soil at a waste site or add new bacteria to the soil. The bacteria digest the waste at the site and turn it into harmless byproducts. After the bacteria consume the waste materials, they die off or return to their normal population levels in the environment. ## 7.3 Blockchain technology **Activity 7.6** - What do you think blockchain is all about? Just begin by defining the two words block and chain? - Do you know anything about bitcoin? If your answer is yes, is it related to blockchain? - Do you think blockchain is an old science? Can you guess who coined the term blockchain? Originally blockchain is a growing list of records, called blocks, that are linked using cryptography. Each block contains a cryptography hash of the previous block, a timestamp, and transaction data (generally represented as a Merkle tree). A blockchain is, in the simplest of terms, a time-stamped series of immutable records of data that is managed by a cluster of computers not owned by any single entity. Each of these blocks of data (i.e. block) is secured and bound to each other using cryptographic principles (i.e. chain). "Blocks" on the blockchain are made up of digital pieces of information. Specifically, they have three parts: 1. Blocks store information about transactions like the date, time, and dollar amount of your most recent purchase from Amazon. (NOTE: This Amazon example is for illustrative purchases; Amazon retail does not work on a blockchain principle) 2. Blocks store information about who is participating in transactions. A block for your splurge purchase from Amazon would record your name along with Amazon.com, Inc. Instead of using your actual name, your purchase is recorded without any identifying information using a unique "digital signature," sort of like a username. 3. Blocks store information that distinguishes them from other blocks. Much like you and I have names to distinguish us from one another, each block stores a unique code called a "hash" that allows us to tell it apart from every other block. Let's say you made your splurge purchase on Amazon, but while it's in transit, you decide you just can't resist and need a second one. Even though the details of your new transaction would look nearly identical to your earlier purchase, we can still tell the blocks apart because of their unique codes. When a block stores new data it is added to the blockchain. Blockchain, as its name suggests, consists of multiple blocks strung together. In order for a block to be added to the blockchain, however, four things must happen: 1. A transaction must occur. Let's continue with the example of your impulsive Amazon purchase discussed in the introduction part of blockchain technology. After hastily clicking through multiple checkout prompt, you go against your better judgment and make a purchase. 2. That transaction must be verified. After making that purchase, your transaction must be verified. With other public records of information, like the Securities Exchange Commission, Wikipedia, or your local library, there's someone in charge of vetting new data entries. With blockchain, however, that job is left up to a network of computers. These networks often consist of thousands (or in the case of Bitcoin, about five million) computers spread across the globe. When you make your purchase from Amazon, that network of computers rushes to check that your transaction happened in the way you said it did. That is, they confirm the details of the purchase, including the transaction's time, dollar amount, and participants. (More on how this happens in a second.) 3. That transaction must be stored in a block. After your transaction has been verified as accurate, it gets the green light. The transaction's dollar amount, your digital signature, and Amazon's digital signature are all stored in a block. There, the transaction will likely join hundreds, or thousands, of others like it. 4. That block must be given a hash. Not unlike an angel earning its wings, once all of a block's transactions have been verified, it must be given a unique, identifying code called a hash. The block is also given the hash of the most recent block added to the blockchain. Once hashed, the block can be added to the blockchain. By design, a blockchain is resistant to modification of the data. It is "an open, distributed ledger that can record transactions between two parties efficiently and in a verifiable and permanent way". For use as a distributed ledger, a blockchain is typically managed by a peer-to-peer network collectively adhering to a protocol for inter-node communication and validating new blocks. Once recorded, the data in any given block cannot be altered retroactively without the alteration of all subsequent blocks, which requires the consensus of the network majority. Although blockchain records are not unalterable, blockchains may be considered secure by design and exemplify a distributed computing system. The blockchain network has no central authority; it is the very definition of a democratized system. Since it is a shared and immutable ledger, the information in it is open for anyone and everyone to see. Hence, anything that is built on the blockchain is by its very nature transparent and everyone involved is accountable for their actions. ### 7.3.1 History The first work on a cryptographically secured chain of blocks was described in 1991 by Stuart Haber and W. Scott Stornetta. They wanted to implement a system where document timestamps could not be tampered with. In 1992, Bayer, Haber, and Stornetta incorporated Merkle trees to the design, which improved its efficiency by allowing several document certificates to be collected into one block. The first blockchain was conceptualized by a person (or group of people) known as Satoshi Nakamoto in 2008. Nakamoto improved the design in an important way using the Hash cash like the method to add blocks to the chain without requiring them to be signed by a trusted party. The design was implemented the following year by Nakamoto as a core component of the cryptocurrency bitcoin, where it serves as the public ledger for all transactions on the network. In August 2014, the bitcoin blockchain file size, containing records of all transactions that have occurred on the network, reached 20 GB (Gigabyte). In January 2015, the size had grown to almost 30 GB, and from January 2016 to January 2017, the bitcoin blockchain grew from 50 GB to 100 GB in size. The words block and chain were used separately in Satoshi Nakamoto's original paper but were eventually popularized as a single word, blockchain, by 2016. ### 7.3.2 Blockchain Explained **Activity 7.7** - From your previous discussion, what is a transaction in blockchain? Does a transaction have a cost in blockchain? Why? - Can you give a concrete example of blockchain? A blockchain carries no transaction cost. (An infrastructure cost yes, but no transaction cost.) The blockchain is a simple yet ingenious way of passing information from A to B in a fully automated and safe manner. One party to a transaction initiates the process by creating a block. This block is verified by thousands, perhaps millions of computers distributed around the net. The verified block is added to a chain, which is stored across the net, creating not just a unique record, but a unique record with a unique history. Falsifying a single record would mean falsifying the entire chain in millions of instances. That is virtually impossible. Bitcoin uses this model for monetary transactions, but it can be deployed in many other ways. Think of a railway company. We buy tickets on an app or the web. The credit card company takes a cut for processing the transaction. With blockchain, not only can the railway operator save on credit card processing fees, it can move the entire ticketing process to the blockchain. The two parties in the transaction are the railway company and the passenger. The ticket is a block, which will be added to a ticket blockchain. Just as a monetary transaction on the blockchain is a unique, independently verifiable and unfalsifiable record (like Bitcoin), so can your ticket be. Incidentally, the final ticket blockchain is also a record of all transactions for, say, a certain train route, or even the entire train network, comprising every ticket ever sold, every journey ever taken. But the key here is this: it's free. Not only can the blockchain transfer and store money, but it can also replace all processes and business models that rely on charging a small fee for a transaction or any other transaction between two parties. Blockchain may make selling recorded music profitable again for artists by cutting out music companies and distributors like Apple or Spotify. The music you buy could even be encoded in the blockchain itself, making it a cloud archive for any song purchased. Because the amounts charged can be so small, subscription and streaming services will become irrelevant. ### 7.3.3 The Three Pillars of Blockchain Technology **Activity 7.8** - What are the most important principles in blockchains? Is it possible for the blockchain to be centralized? If your answer is no, Why? The three main properties of Blockchain Technology are: #### 1. Decentralization - In a decentralized system (see Figure 7.2), the information is not stored by one single entity. In fact, everyone in the network owns the information. - In a decentralized network (see Figure 7.2), if you wanted to interact with your friend then you can do so directly without going through a third party. That was the main ideology behind Bitcoins. You and only you alone are in charge of your money. You can send your money to anyone you want without having to go through a bank. **Figure 7.2 comparisons of a centralized and decentralized network** The image shows a comparison between a centralized and a decentralized network. In a centralized network, there is a core authority that dictates to other participants, whereas in a decentralized network, there is no core authority. **Activity 7.9** - Can you give a concrete example of centralized and decentralized systems? - Do you know about BitTorrent? What is it? For what purpose do you use it? - Is BitTorrent centralized or decentralized? Why? #### 2. Transparency **Activity 7.10** - What do you think about transparency in blockchain? Is transparency in governance related to transparency in blockchain? One of the most interesting and misunderstood concepts in blockchain technology is "transparency." Some people say that blockchain gives you privacy while some say that it is transparent. Why do you think that happens? A person's identity is hidden via complex cryptography and represented only by their public address. So, if you were to look up a person's transaction history, you will not see "Bob sent 1 BTC" instead you will see "1MF1bhsFLkBzzz9vpFYEmvwT2TbyCt7NZJ sent 1 BTC". So, while the person's real identity is secure, you will still see all the transactions that were done by their public address. This level of transparency has never existed before within a financial system. It adds that extra, and much needed, level of accountability which is required by some of these biggest institutions. #### 3. Immutability Immutability, in the context of the blockchain, means that once something has been entered into the blockchain, it cannot be tampered with. **Activity 7.11** - Do you think immutability is valuable for financial institutions? If your answer is yes, Why? The reason why the blockchain gets this property is that of the cryptographic hash function. In simple terms, hashing means taking an input string of any length and giving out an output of a fixed length. In the context of cryptocurrencies like bitcoin, the transactions are taken as input and run through a hashing algorithm (Bitcoin uses SHA-256) which gives an output of a fixed length. Let's see how the hashing process works. We are going to put in certain inputs. For this exercise, we are going to use the SHA-256 (Secure Hashing Algorithm 256). | INPUT | HASH | | :-------------------------------------------------------------------------- | :--------------------------------------------------------------------------- | | Hi | 3639EFCD08ABB273B1619E82E78C29A7DF02C1051B1820E99FC395DCAA3326B8 | | Welcome to blockgeeks. Glad to have you here. | 53A53FC9E2A03F9B6E66D84BA701574CD9CF5F01FB498C41731881BCDC68A7C8 | As you can see, in the case of SHA-256, no matter how big or small your input is, the output will always have a fixed 256-bits length. This becomes critical when you are dealing with a huge amount of data and transactions. So basically, instead of remembering the input data which could be huge, you can just remember the hash and keep track. ### 7.3.4 How Blockchain Works Picture a spreadsheet that is duplicated thousands of times across a network of computers. Then imagine that this network is designed to regularly update this spreadsheet and you have a basic understanding of the blockchain. Information held on a blockchain exists as a shared and continually reconciled database. This is a way of using the network that has obvious benefits. The blockchain database isn't stored in any single location, meaning the records it keeps are truly public and easily verifiable. No centralized version of this information exists for a hacker to corrupt. Hosted by millions of computers simultaneously, its data is accessible to anyone on the internet. To go in deeper with the Google spreadsheet analogy, read the following scenario: "The traditional way of sharing documents with collaboration is to send a Microsoft Word document to another recipient and ask them to make revisions to it. The problem with that scenario is that you need to wait until receiving a return copy before you can see or make other changes because you are locked out of editing it until the other person is done with it. That's how databases work today. Two owners can't be messing with the same record at once. That's how banks maintain money balances and transfers; they briefly lock access (or decrease the balance) while they make a transfer, then update the other side, then re-open access (or update again). With Google Docs (or Google Sheets), both parties have access to the same document at the same time, and the single version of that document is always visible to both of them. It is like a shared ledger, but it is a shared document. The distributed part comes into play when sharing involves a number of people. Imagine the number of legal documents that should be used that way. Instead of passing them to each other, losing track of versions, and not being in sync with the other version, why can't all business documents become shared instead of transferred back and forth? So many types of legal contracts would be ideal for that kind of workflow. You don't need a blockchain to share documents, but the shared documents analogy is a powerful one." **Activity 7.12** From the previous scenario, can you differentiate Microsoft word sharing, google docs sharing and blockchain sharing? Which one is more related to BitTorrent sharing? The reason why the blockchain has gained so much admiration is that: - It is not owned by a single entity, hence it is decentralized - The data is cryptographically stored inside - The blockchain is immutable, so no one can tamper with the data that is inside the blockchain - The blockchain is transparent so one can track the data if they want to ### 7.3.5 Why do people use the peer-to-peer network? **Activity 7.13** What is peer to peer means? Does it have a relationship with BitTorrent? One of the main uses of the peer-to-peer network is file sharing, also called torrenting. If you are to use a client-server model for downloading, then it is usually extremely slow and entirely dependent on the health of the server. Plus, as we said, it is prone to censorship. However, in a peer-to-peer system, there is no central authority, and hence if even one of the peers in the network goes out of the race, you still have more peers to download from. Plus, it is not subject to the idealistic standards of a central system. **Comparison between Traditional Centralized Downloading and Decentralized Peer-to-Peer Downloading (see Figure 7.3)** The image shows a comparison of Traditional Centralized Downloading and Decentralized Peer-to-Peer Downloading. The traditional method involves one central web server and the speed is slow, and decentralized peer-to-peer method is fast. **Activity 7.14** List some applications of blockchain in business, file storage, in supply chain auditing? **7.3.6 Application of blockchain** - **A. The sharing economy** \ With companies like Uber and Airbnb flourishing, the sharing economy is already a proven success. Currently, however, users who want to hail a ride-sharing service have to rely on an intermediary like Uber. By enabling peer-to-peer payments, the blockchain opens the door to direct interaction between parties a truly decentralized sharing economy results. - **B. Crowdfunding** Crowdfunding initiatives like Kickstarter and GoFundMe are doing the advance work for the emerging peer-to-peer economy. The popularity of these sites suggests people want to have a direct say in product development. Blockchains take this interest to the next level, potentially creating crowd-sourced venture capital funds. In 2016, one such experiment, the Ethereum-based DAO (Decentralized Autonomous Organization), raised an astonishing $200 million USD in just over two months. Participants purchased "DAO tokens" allowing them to vote on smart contract venture capital investments (voting power was proportionate to the number of DAO they were holding). - **C. Governance**\ By making the results fully transparent and publicly accessible, distributed database technology could bring full transparency to elections or any other kind of poll taking. Ethereum-based smart contracts help to automate the process. The app, Boardroom, enables organizational decision-making to happen on the blockchain. In practice, this means company governance becomes fully transparent and verifiable when managing digital assets, equity or information. - **D. Supply chain auditing**\ Consumers increasingly want to know that the ethical claims companies make about their products are real. Distributed ledgers provide an easy way to certify that the backstories of the things we buy are genuine. Transparency comes with blockchain-based timestamping of a date and location on ethical diamonds, for instance that corresponds to a product number. The UK-based Provenance offers supply chain auditing for a range of consumer goods. Making use of the Ethereum blockchain, a Provenance pilot project ensures that fish sold in Sushi restaurants in Japan have been sustainably harvested by its suppliers in Indonesia. - **E. File storage**\ Decentralizing file storage on the internet brings clear benefits. Distributing data throughout the network protects files from getting hacked or lost. Interplanetary File System (IPFS) makes it easy to conceptualize how a distributed web might operate. Similar to the way a BitTorrent moves data around the internet, IPFS gets rid of the need for centralized client-server relationships (i.e., the current web). An internet made up of completely decentralized websites has the potential to speed up file transfer and streaming times. Such an improvement is not only convenient. It's a necessary upgrade to the web's currently overloaded content-delivery systems. ## 7.4 Cloud and quantum computing ### 7.4. 1 Cloud computing **Activity 7.15** What do you think cloud computing is? Is it related to the term cloud? Cloud computing is a means of networking remote servers that are hosted on the Internet. Rather than storing and processing data on a local server, or a PC's hard drive, one of the following three types of cloud infrastructure is used. The first type is a public cloud. Here a third-party provider manages the servers, applications, and storage much like a public utility. Anyone can subscribe to the provider's cloud service, which is usually operated through their own data center. A business or organization would typically use a private cloud. This might be hosted on their on-site data center, although some companies host through a third-party provider instead. Either way, the computing infrastructure exists as a private network accessible over the Internet. The third option is a hybrid cloud. Here private clouds are connected to public clouds, allowing data and applications to be shared between them. Private clouds existing alone can be very limiting, and a hybrid offers a business more flexibility. Often a hybrid cloud includes multiple service providers. Hybrids can offer more computing capacity for a business application when the need for its spikes. This sudden expansion into the public cloud is known as cloud bursting. Hybrids also enable applications to keep sensitive client data in a private cloud but connect to end-user software in a public cloud. Cloud computing services can focus on infrastructure, web development or a cloud-based app. These are often regarded as a stack; all are on-demand, pay-as-you-go. Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS) gives you management of the whole deal: servers, web development tools, applications. Platform as a Service (PaaS) offers a complete web development environment, without the worry of the hardware that runs it. Finally, Software as a Service (SaaS) allows access to cloud-based apps, usually through a web browser interface. SaaS is the top of the stack. Cloud computing has been around since 2000. Yet it's only in the last 10 years that major players like IBM, Amazon, and Google have offered commercially viable, high-capacity networks. ### 7.4.2 Advantages of cloud computing **Activity 7.16** List some applications of cloud computing in business, file storage? Well, much like with any utility -a business benefits from economy of scale, which means cheap computing power. Because a cloud provider's hardware and software are shared, there's no need for the initial costly capital investment. And it goes much further than that. Businesses save on the electricity required 24/7 to power and cool that computing infrastructure. In effect, energy costs are shared. It gets better. Cloud providers have vast resources of computing power at their fingertips. They can allocate these whenever required with just a few mouse clicks. Cloud providers source on a global scale, so they can deliver the precise bandwidth, storage and power business needs when it needs it. The cloud allows you and multiple users to access your data from any location. Smartphone, laptop, desktop, wherever you are, you can access the data you need at any time. With cloud computing a business processes its data more efficiently, increasing productivity. Maintenance is much cheaper, often free, so reliability is rarely a worry. Cloud computing allows CEOs to focus on running their business. ### 7.4.3 Quantum computing Quantum computers truly do represent the next generation of computing. Unlike classic computers, they derive their computing power by harnessing the power of quantum physics. Because of the rather nebulous science behind it, a practical, working quantum computer still remains a flight of fancy. Give clients access to a quantum computer over the internet, and you have quantum cloud computing. Currently, the only organization which provides a quantum computer in the cloud is IBM. They allow free access to anyone who wishes to use their 5-qubit machine. Earlier this year they installed a 17-qubit machine. So far over 40,000 users have taken advantage of their online service to run experiments. Not to be outdone, Google provided the fastest quantum computer with 53qubits and speed of 200 seconds computation while the supercomputer took 10000 years. So, what is qubit and how many do you need? Qubit is short for a sequence of quantum bits. With a classic computer, data is stored in tiny transistors that hold a single bit of information, either the binary value of 1 or 0. With a quantum computer, the data is stored in qubits. Thanks to the mechanics of quantum physics, where subatomic particles obey their own laws, a qubit can exist in two states at the same time. This phenomenon is called superposition. So, a qubit can have a value of 1, 0, or some value between. Two qubits can hold even more values. Before long, you are building yourself an exponentially more powerful computer the more qubits you add. Quantum computer theory was first rooted in the 1980s and only now are the first rudimentary machines being constructed. Quantum computers are big machines, reminiscent of the old mainframe computers of the 1960s. One serious logistical problem is the need for deep-freezing of the superconducting circuits. Only at sub-zero temperatures can the qubits maintain a constant, predictable superposition. Heating up qubits can result in calculation errors. ### 7.4.4 Advantages of quantum computing Getting a quantum computer to function usefully is an exciting prospect for scientists. Their gargantuan computing power would allow them to crunch very long numbers. They would be able to make complex calculations that would only overwhelm classic computers. Accessing a cloud-based quantum computer combines the benefits of both technologies exponentially. Quantum computing could help in the discovery of new drugs, by unlocking the complex structure of chemical molecules. Other uses include financial trading, risk management, and supply chain optimization. With its ability to handle more complex numbers, data could be transferred over the internet with much safer encryption. # 7.5 Autonomic computing (AC) **Activity 7.17** What is autonomous? What is computing? What do you think about autonomous computing? Autonomic computing (AC) is an approach to address the complexity and evolution problems in software systems. It is a self-managing computing model named after, and patterned on, the human body's autonomic nervous system. An autonomic computing system would control the functioning of computer applications and systems without input from the user, in the same way, that the autonomic nervous system regulates body systems without conscious input from the individual. The goal of autonomic computing is to create systems that run themselves, capable of high-level functioning while keeping the system's complexity invisible to the user. It refers to the self-managing characteristics of distributed resources, adapting to unpredictable changes while hiding intrinsic complexity to operators and users. Initiated by IBM in 2001, this initiative ultimately aimed to develop computer systems capable of self-management, to overcome the rapidly growing complexity of computing system management, and to reduce the barrier that complexity poses to further growth. ### 7.5.1 Characteristics of Autonomic Systems An autonomic system can self-configure at runtime to meet changing operating environments, self-tune to optimize its performance