Elections and Electoral Systems PDF

Introduction Elections are the core of representative democracy. It’s the main mechanism for citizens to express their views about politics. Elections are held, because not all people can directly participate in the process of decision making. = a link between people and their representatives. Elect...

Introduction Elections are the core of representative democracy. It’s the main mechanism for citizens to express their views about politics. Elections are held, because not all people can directly participate in the process of decision making. = a link between people and their representatives. Elections provide for legitimacy by achieving representation and accountability. Elections have also the purpose of forming a government ELECTIONS AND ELECTORAL SYSTEMS Electoral systems impact upon: - party systems, - government formation - intraparty dynamics - degree of representativity, etc ELECTORAL REGULATIONS ARE THE RULES ON THE FOLLOWING DIMENSIONS: Extent of franchise (=people who can vote): only small difference between modern democracies (mainly age limit). Voluntary or compulsory voting: Almost universally voluntary (exceptions: Austria and Belgium). Access-requirements to ballots: More demanding in candidate-oriented systems than in party-oriented systems. Terms (mandat): o President have always a fixed term. o Parliaments have a constitutionally determined maximum period Semi or no alternation in representative elections because a few parties are nearly always stay in power (maybe not at the federal level but...). ELECTORAL SYSTEMS: The electoral system is a set of rules about the conversion of votes into seats. At the most basic level, electoral systems translate the votes cast in a general election into seats won by parties and candidates. Majoritarian systems: voters select from two or more candidates running for a single seat constituency, and the candidate receiving the majority of votes is the winner. PR systems: Voters choose from among party lists and parties receiving a sufficient proportion of votes are awarded seats based on their share of the votes. Types of electoral systems Plurality/Majority: 1. Single-Member Plurality (SMP) Often called “First Past the Post” (FPTP) One member elected per district. The candidate with the most votes wins Voters select one candidate on the ballot. FPTP is very simple and is applied in single member districts and is largely candidate centred voting. Primarily found in the UK and countries that have been historically linked with Great Britain. It is the most votes that wins an election not the majority of the votes. E.g. The Labour Party of the UK won 35.3% of the vote in 2005, with a majority of over 150 seats, while the Conservatives managed 32.3% of the vote Exemple: USA, UK, India, Canada, Bangladesh, Botswana, Ghana, Jamaica, Kenya, Nigeria, among others. ) Two-Round System (TRS) ▪ Similar to FPTP; Candidates require absolute majority ▪ First round of FPTP voting. If someone gets a majority, s/he wins ▪ If not, some candidates may be eliminated, and a second vote takes place Block Vote (BV) ▪ Multi-member districts ▪ Voters get as many votes as there are candidates—can use all, some or none ▪ “X” number of candidates with highest vote totals elected Alternative vote (AV) ▪ Single-member districts ▪ Voters rank candidate preferences ▪ If candidate secures an absolute majority of first choice votes, s/he is elected ▪ If not, candidate with the lowest votes is eliminated, and votes reallocated Proportional Representation Keywords:  Proportionality: X% votes = X% seats  Fair translation of votes into seats List Proportional Representation (List PR) Keywords:  Multi-member districts  Parties create candidate lists  Voters select a party  Seats allocated based on percentage of votes  “Open” or “closed” lists  Thresholds are significant Single Transferable Vote (STV) Keywords:  Multi-member districts  Preferential ballot: rank candidates  Necessary threshold for election   Surplus votes redistributed  Vote counts continue until all seats are filled Mixed Systems ▪Mixed Member Proportional (MMP) : Combines the geographical representation of single-member districts with additional adjustment or compensatory seats allocated in terms of proportional representation. ▪Parallel Systems : Similarly combines single-member districts with PR, but there is no direct relations between the two votes. Majoritarian systems: pros + ▪Its simplicity and tendency to produce winners that are representatives of a specific geographic areas. ▪It is a very simple ballot count. ▪It provides two clear cut choices for the voter. ▪Single Party governments mean that cabinets are not usually restrained by weaker coalition minority party. ▪FPTP gives rise to respectable opposition to legislature to act as a ‘critical checking role’ and presents itself as an alternative. ▪Single Party governments mean that political parties have to be broad in their appeal. ▪Excludes anti-systemic or extremist parties from representation in the legislature because of geographical spread of voters. ▪Promotes a link between constituents(électeurs) and their representatives in parliament as cities, towns and councils have their own parliamentary representatives. Majoritarian systems: cons - ▪Excludes parties and minorities from ‘fair’ representation-could it be that it is democracy failing? ▪Can exclude women. Evidence suggests that women are less likely to be elected to the legislature under plurality/majority systems than under PR ones. ▪Can encourage the development of political parties based on clan, ethnicity or region. ▪There are a large number of wasted votes which do not go towards the elected party. ▪FPTP can be insensitive(insensible) to swings in public opinion. ▪It is dependent on drawing constituency boundaries and thus gerrymandering can occur. ▪There is a ‘winning/seat bonus’ with FPTP which can be a disproportionate votes to seats ratio. Criteria Pros Cons Its simplicity and tendency to produce winners that are Excludes parties and minorities from “ Simplicity representatives of a specific geographic area. representation, risking democratic fail Promotes a link between constituents ( électeurs) and their Can exclude women; evidence shows Representation representatives as cities, towns, and councils have their own less likely to be elected under plurality representatives. systems. Large number of wasted votes that do Choice Provides two clear-cut choices for voters. contribute to elected representation. Government Single-party governments mean cabinets are not restrained by Can encourage political parties based Stability weaker coalition minority parties, ensuring stability. ethnicity, or region, risking polarization Opposition FPTP gives rise to respectable opposition to act as a “critical Insensitive to swings in public opinion Strength checking role”in the legislature. responsiveness to societal changes. Excludes anti-systemic or extremist parties from representation Dependent on drawing constituency b Fairness due to the geographical spread of voters. allowing gerrymandering to occur. There is a “winning/seat bonus” with FPTP, which ensures The votes-to-seats ratio can be dispro Proportionality governing efficiency for single parties. undermining fairness. Political parties must be broad in their appeal to attract Women and minorities are less likely Diversity widespread support. representation compared to PR system Criteria Pros Cons Votes translated into seats avoids “unfair” that can arise in Coalition governments lead to fragmented ex Fairness FPTP systems. that can cloud policymaking. Avoids the ‘winning bonus’ by directly translating Factional splits can arise, causing instability Proportionality votes into seats. legislature. Encourages parties to formulate policy lists that clarify Governing coalitions may lack common grou Policy Clarity ideology and policy. strong policies. Low thresholds mean almost every vote is counted and PR systems can provide a platform for extrem Inclusivity represented, facilitating minority parties’ access. antisystemic parties. Campaign Encourages parties to campaign beyond their districts as PR can give a disproportionate amount of po Strategies every vote counts. minority parties. Accountability is lost in coalition governments Stability Provides policy stability with visible power sharing. lose the ability to throw out specific parties. Votes are not wasted, making PR a “purer form of PR systems can be complex, making them d Simplicity democracy” voters and electoral administrations to implem  Part II election: The effects of electoral systems Impact on election results Duverger and its three laws: ▪ Plurality → Bi-partisan competition (UK) ▪ Majoritarian Two Turns system → two blocs Multi-partism (France) ▪ Proportional –> multi-party system (Belgium Lavau: ▪ The electoral system is a minor variable ▪ The electoral system is the result of social and political conditions, and not the reverse E.g. France pre and post 1957 PR vs Two rounds majoritarian ▪ 22 PMs between 1947 and 1959 (average: 6 months) before two round system as PR ▪ 22 PMs between 1959 and 2018 (average: 2 years 9 months) -> after began two round system  Electoral system change brings far more stability - Elections 1951:” Republican front”, a coalition of 7 parties between 95 and 22 seats - Elections 1968: UDR (Gaullists): single party government with 293 seats out of 487 The electoral system as a determining factor A) Mechanical effect ▪Mathematical impact of the electoral rules on Degree of proportionality Number of parties B) Psychological effect ▪ Changing the behaviour of parties / candidates and voters according to electoral rules C) Effect on the quality of democracy and representation Mechanical effect Electoral Formula: - PR > Maj > FPTP Magnitude of constituencies/district: For PR, the higher the magnitude, the higher the proportionality Thresholds: ▪ The higher the threshold, the lower the proportionality The psychological effect On parties and candidates ▪ Fewer competitors when maj ▪ More alliances when PR ▪ More catch-all parties when maj and more ideological parties (niche parties) when PR ▪ Lower partisan cohesion when proportional with several candidates of the same party (open lists) On voters ▪ Maj: strategic vs. Sincere vote ▪ PR: Strategic vote when thresholds are present The effects of the structure of the ballot Impact on election campaigns ▪More contacts with citizens if candidate-centred Impact on citizen-elected relations ▪More linkage if candidate-centred Impact on partisan discipline ▪ Less party-discipline if candidate-centred Effect of the voting system on the quality of democracy ▪Quick government formation ▪More stable government  32.9 months for Maj vs. 21.2 months for PR ▪Higher participation rates: PR 82.12% vs. Maj 77.6% vs. Plur 73.6% ▪Greater representation of women for PR compared to maj Egsample : France Criteria Details Form of Semi-presidential system: Government - Double popular legitimacy of the President and Parliament. - Separation of powers between President and Government. - The President appoints and dismisses the Government. - Parliament controls government actions. - Reserved areas for the President, otherwise follows parliamentary principles. Effects of Cohabitation: - No cohabitation: Semi-presidential regime with predominant presidential features; President as the most important actor. Cohabitation: Semi-presidential regime with predominantly parliamentary features; Government holds more power, potential clashes between branches. Legislative Bicameralism: Two chambers (National Assembly and Senate). Power - National Assembly: 577 representatives directly elected in single- member constituencies. - Senate: Senators indirectly elected by an electoral college composed of local authority representatives; term of 6 years, half renewed every 3 years. - Slightly asymmetrical powers: - National Assembly: Holds all legislative powers. Senate: Legislative powers except motion of no confidence to the government. Electoral Majoritarian System (Two-turn system): System - Division into 577 single-member constituencies. - Effects: - High disproportionality (except for PR in European elections). - Clear governmental majority is not always guaranteed. - Psychological Effects: - Dispersion of candidates and voters in the first round. Rassemblement/polarization in the second round. Nederlands Case Criteria Details - Parliament is the central institution of political life. - Parliament is the only body with direct popular legitimacy. - Parliament is in charge of the legislative function. Form of Government - The government is in charge of the executive function. - Parliament controls the executive. - The government is politically responsible to the Parliament. - The heart of the political game is party cooperation. A Consensual System - Several cleavages in society. - Each party defends specific interests and groups. Bicameralism: Eerste Kamer / Tweede Kamer. - Eerste Kamer: 75 members elected through provincial councils. Legislative Power - Tweede Kamer: 150 members elected directly. - Asymmetric bicameralism. - Dual executive: constitutional monarchy. - Coalition government: Executive Power - Alternation. - Great coalition. - Unique case: Minority government in 2010. - Proportional representation. - Single constituency. Electoral System - Voting for candidates in closed lists. - Threshold: 0.66%. Germany Case: Form of Government Criteria Details  - Parliament is the central institution of the country. - Parliament is the only body with direct popular legitimacy. Form of - Parliament is in charge of the legislative function. Government - The government is in charge of the executive function. - Parliament controls the executive. - The government is politically responsible to the Parliament. Bicameralism: - Bundestag: Elected representatives with a mixed electoral system. Legislative Power - Bundesrat: 69 seats. Role in constitutional revision and the legislative process; represents the Länders. - Two chambers with asymmetrical competences and powers. Mixed Member Proportional System: - Two votes: - The first vote allows the electorate to vote for a direct candidate (majoritarian). - The second vote is more important and allows the electorate to vote for a party. - Division into 299 constituencies for the majoritarian vote. Electoral System - 5% electoral threshold. - Effects: - Multi-party alliances. - Reduced number of parties represented in the parliament. - Varying number of seats. India Case: Form of Government Criteria Details  - India is a federal state and a parliamentary democracy. - The President is the Head of State (currently Droupadi Murmu) with ceremonial roles. Form of - The Prime Minister (currently Narendra Modi, BJP) is the Head of Government and exercises Government executive powers. - Strong separation of powers with cooperative federalism. Bicameral Parliament: - Lok Sabha (House of the People): Directly elected; 543 members + 2 Anglo-Indian representatives (nominated). Legislative - Rajya Sabha (Council of States): Indirectly elected by state legislatures; 245 members. Power - Powers: Both Houses must approve legislation. - Scrutinizes executive actions and controls finances (Lok Sabha has greater power). - Can impeach the President (though rare). First-Past-The-Post (FPTP): - General elections every five years. - Electoral Units: 543 single-member constituencies for Lok Sabha elections. Electoral System - Plurality Rule: Candidate with the most votes wins. - No proportional representation at the national level. - State-level legislatures and Rajya Sabha elections use different methods (single transferable vote or indirectelections). Indian - Government tenure varies based on coalition composition and electoral outcomes. Governments - Coalition governments have been a key feature in recent decades.