El Bakkali's Course Pack for Public Speaking PDF

Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Session I /25th Sept. What is Public Speaking? Professor A. El Bakkali Outline Basic Elements of Public Speaking Types of public speaking Introduction Body Conclusion Public Speaking Basics Basic Elements of the Public Speaking Process Related elements to good public speaking action Basic Elements of Public Speaking What is public speaking? https://www.myenglishpages.com/ Public speaking is an important skill in both education and business. Public speaking refers to the process of delivering a speech in front of an audience. It has a long history and was traditionally viewed as part of the art of persuasion. It probably started in ancient Egypt, but the first written documents about public speaking go back to the Greeks and Romans. Today, public speaking has evolved considerably thanks to the introduction of technologies such as videoconferencing, multimedia presentations, and other nontraditional forms.” "The action or practice of addressing public gatherings; the making of speeches” The Oxford English Dictionary Types of public speaking Some broad categories are: informative persuasive ceremonial along with debate, broadcasting, religious talks, etc. Every speech is made up of basic elements of public speaking. Understanding and including each of those elements can make a bad speech good, or a good speech great. Here are three of the most basic elements and the considerations that each one should address. Introduction Most people don't pay enough attention to the introduction of a speech. The introduction is one of the most important parts of the speech because if you lose your audience at the beginning, getting them back can be next to impossible. Here are some things that you should have in your introduction Key Elements Attention Arguably the most important part of the introduction, you must get your audience's attention. A joke, a quote, a startling statistic, any number of things can serve the purpose well. Purpose: Why are you speaking to them? What will make listening worth their time? You might present your purpose implicitly rather than explicitly, but you must present it somehow. Credibility: Many speakers neglect this part of an introduction, but depending on your topic, it could be very important. Why are you qualified to talk about the things you are talking about? Don't be arrogant, but be certain that your audience trusts and believes in you and your knowledge Orientation: Is there any essential background your audience needs to know before you get to the essence of your speech? Body This is the main content portion of your speech. Exactly what you need to include will depend on the purpose of your speech, but here are a few essential elements. Organization. Your audience needs to be able to follow you. Be certain that you have some sort of pattern. Transitions. Don't just jump from point to point, but smoothly move from one issue to the next. Transitions are the 'bridges' of your speech. Without them, your audience will get disoriented and you might leave them behind. Development. Your points should build on each other, combining into one grand whole. Go from simple to more complex, ending with the most powerful. Climax. At some point, your speech should come to a head. Everything should come together, your audience's emotions should be peaked right alongside you, and you should largely fulfill your purpose in giving the speech. Developing a climax is, in my opinion, the hardest part of speech writing (and the most powerful of the basic elements of public speaking). Conclusion Here, you should wrap up any loose ends. This is the final part of your speech, and also the part your audience is most likely to remember. Be certain to include: A final closing example. Drive your point home with one more powerful demonstration. Call to action. What should your audience do now? If you weren't trying to persuade them to do something, what is the most important point that they should take away from your speech? Why it mattered. Briefly recap what you said, reminding your audience why it mattered. Public Speaking Basics The First Principle of Public Speaking. Understand that "a person is only as effective as his communication." Public Speaking Techniques. A number of techniques, including utilizing humor, gestures, and repeated phrases, can enhance a speaker's effectiveness. Guidelines for public speaking. There are a few rules that one would do well to keep in mind. (Remember, though, that none of these rules are hard-and-fast, but rather are just guidelines.) Basic Elements of the Public Speaking Process SOURCE (or speaker) originates the message. MESSAGE verbal and nonverbal messages are an integral part of the communication process RECEIVER (listener, or audience) CHANNEL is the air that carries the sound waves from the mouth of the source to the ear of the receiver FEEDBACK can be verbal or nonverbal...head nod, smile... NOISE is the interference with, or obstacles to, communication SITUATION the time, place and occasion in which the message sending and receiving occurs Key Elements in Public Speaking Public speaking and dress. What you wear is important. Your dress forms part of the overall impression you give to your audience. Ethics in public speaking. Preparing and delivering your speech. Considering a couple of practical items, what can make a speech go smoothly are mainly the three most outstanding elements: Speaker audience speech. You may wish to consider a couple of ethical issues Yourself: your ability to speak, your knowledge about the topic Your audience. Think about who your audience is and talk to them. what you really and exactly want them to do. Your message: What do you really want people to know about your topic, issue or event? It sounds simple, but you have to get your message clear before trying to publicise it. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. https://www.myenglishpages.com/english/communication-lesson-what-is-public-speakig.php Video: 4 Tips To IMPROVE Your Public Speaking - How to CAPTIVATE an Audience https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=962eYqe--Yc&t=604s Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Session II /2nd Oct. A GOOD SPEAKER? Professor A. El Bakkali A GOOD SPEAKER? Be Yourself Practice, not memorization Speak in a natural voice Voice Modulations Keep it Short and Sweet Connect with your Audience Paint a Picture Through Storytelling Repetition Don’t Just Practice, Practice, Practice Conclusion Introduction Public speaking can be terrifying, but when you care about your career progression you need to find a way to get your voice out. Public speaking is how you can share your ideas with a large number of people, stand out from the corporate crowd, and get visibility in your field. Here are scientifically proven characteristics of effective public speakers that you should emulate to become an influential and inspiring leader. Confidence According to a study published by the University of Wolverhampton, “A highly confident speaker is viewed as being more accurate, competent, credible, intelligent, knowledgeable, likable, and believable than the less confident uncertain speaker.” When it comes to public speaking, confidence is key (not the only key mind you). When speaking in public, it’s only natural to be nervous. There are two main antidotes for anxiety Excitement/ Authenticity Excitement – If you’re truly excited about your subject, that feeling will shine through any nervousness you may have while you are giving your presentation. Studies show that people who label their anxiety as excitement end up feeling more comfortable speaking. Authenticity – Be yourself. If you have to deviate a little from your meticulously written presentation, do so! Although you should practice your speech as often as possible, you don’t want to memorize it! Memorizing a speech can cause you to fumble over a section if you don’t say it just right. Passion In order to really communicate to people through speech, you need to have passion for your subject. Without passion, your speech is meaningless. You need to exude a level of sincerity in your emotion when communicating to your audience if you want them to be moved by your presentation. There’s no need to attempt to ‘practice’ sincerity by practicing your speech with a raised voice and waving arms. Simply focus on how you feel about your topic and those that you are communicating with. Be Yourself You don’t have to be someone else on stage, all you have to do is just be yourself. Sometimes, no matter how much you believe in your message or how well you’ve rehearsed, if you don’t act like yourself in front of the group, your audience may view your speech as insincere or calculated. If a political candidate doesn’t seem authentic, it’s not likely they’ll win an election. If a company’s social marketing strategy appears inauthentic, its sales will not go up. If you create a page on a dating website but what you write is not authentic, the people reading are likely to pick up on this inauthenticity and never contact you. Speaking is the same way. Practice, not memorization In order to ‘be yourself’ in a presentation, you shouldn’t memorize your speech in absolutes. Practice your speech as often as possible, but be willing to change up the wording. This makes it easier to change it up during the actual presentation if things aren’t going exactly as planned. Memorization can set up a barrier between you and your audience. Voice Speak in a natural voice – any connection you’ve made with your audience could be broken by tones that seem ‘fake’ or ‘too perfect’. In general, you should try to speak in a conversational tone. If you say a few “ahhs” and “umms” that’s ok, don’t sweat it. Voice Modulations If you want to be more engaging as a speaker, then avoid talking in a tone that seems too well rehearsed, but you still want to take the speed and inflection of your delivery into account when you practice your speech. To practice proper cadence, record yourself giving your speech and listen to it later. You’ll be able to tell exactly when and where you start to sound inauthentic. You can still use effective voice modulations while employing your natural voice. Keep it Short and Sweet If you’re only given 20 minutes to give a speech, don’t force yourself to fill the entire time allotted. Say what you need to say and use any remaining time for questions or to let your audience out a little early. The main purpose of delivering a speech is to attempt to get your point across, and that might not require a whole hour. You want to make sure that your presentation is easily digestible for those listening to you. If you can complete your speech in 15 minutes, do so, and leave any remaining time open for questions and comments. Connect with your Audience A speech is just like a conversation, which means you need to communicate your message to someone else. In this sense, there is no difference between talking to one person or a thousand. While you’re speaking people are likely on their phones, tablets, or laptops, reading emails, surfing the web, researching who you are, or maybe taking notes on your speech. It’s your job to make them put their devices down and pay attention to what you have to say. You can’t ask them to turn off their phones, but you can make them set their phones down by creating an atmosphere that excites and engages the listeners. The best ways to connect with your audience are: Tell stories Be aware of your target audience Know the energy in the room Be Willing to poke fun at yourself Work on your non-verbal body language Paint a Picture Through Storytelling One of the best ways to really engage your audience is by becoming a good storyteller. Storytelling is a powerful tool used by the best speakers. By employing context in your speech for your audience to connect with, you’re creating an easy-to-listen atmosphere in which you are not simply shoving information at them in the hopes that they’ll retain that information. When writing your speech, think about what you need to say in order to establish a context that your audience will understand and be able to engage with. Repetition Repetition can help ensure your audience takes the main points away from your presentation. It promotes clarity and helps to encourage acceptance of an idea. In order to employ repetition in your presentations, determine what you want your audience to take away from your speech. Say it. Say it again. And then say it a third time just in case anyone missed it the first couple of times. Don’t Just Practice, Practice, Practice Have you ever heard someone say that they want to seem authentic on stage, so they didn’t practice their speech? Although it may seem contradictory, the more you practice a presentation, the more spontaneous it will actually sound! Of course, you have to practice it the right way though. Conclusion In summary, the best way to give an inspiring presentation is by having a message that you believe in that the audience can connect to. The connection between you and the audience is what allows them to truly listen to your message and be inspired. It takes a lot of practice and experience to become a powerful public speaker, and by emulating the mentioned characteristics of effective public speakers you can become more inspiring and more influential. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: Public Speaking 7 dos and donts https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=i5mYphUoOCs English Studies Semester III: Fall 2023/2024 Public Speaking and Debating Selecting the Topic of Speech Session III Pr. El Bakkali 9-10-’23 Selecting the Topic of Speech Introduction Categories of potential topics Brainstorm you topics Reference search General purpose Specific purpose Evaluation Oranization Supporting Conclusion Introduction The first step in speechmaking is choosing a topic. Usually the speech topic is determined by the occasion, the audience and the speaker’s qualifications. In a public speaking class, students usually have a great freedom in selecting topics. This allows students to talk about matters of their interest. Categories of potential topics 1- Subjects you know about: people speak best about subjects with which they are most familiar. When thinking about a topic, draw on your own knowledge and experience. Everyone knows things or has done things that can be used in speech. 2- Subjects you want to know more about: You may choose a subject about which you already have some knowledge or expertise but not enough to prepare a speech without doing additional research. You may even select a topic that you want to explore for the first time. In persuasive speeches, you may think of a subject about which you hold strong opinions and beliefs, or in which you are closely involved. Brainstorm you topics first, make a quick inventory of your experiences, interests, hobbies, skills, beliefs, etc. Then try a technique called clustering; you take a sheet of paper and divide it into columns like: people, place, things, events … and write down the first five or six items that come to your mind. Reference search After clustering, most people come up with a topic rather quickly. So what they need to do is further look for references to help deepen their knowledge about the topic. General purpose Determine your general purpose: Along with choosing a topic, you need to determine the general purpose of your speech. Usually, it will fall into one of two overlapping categories: to inform or to persuade. If you want to inform, you will act like a teacher or lecturer. Your goal is to convey information clearly, accurately and interestingly. Your aim is to enhance the knowledge and understanding of your listeners, to give them information they did not have before. When your general goal is to persuade, you act like a lawyer or partisan. You want to change or structure the attitudes or actions or your audience. You don’t only provide information, your primary goal is to win over your listeners to your point of view and make them believe something as a result of your speech. Specific purpose Determine your specific purpose: once you have chosen a topic and a general purpose, you must narrow your choices to determine the specific purpose of your speech. the latter should be stated in a single sentence that indicates precisely what you hope to accomplish with your speech. Tips for writing the specific purposes: 1- Write the purpose statement as full infinitive phrase, not a fragment. 2- Express your purpose as a statement, not a question. 3- Avoid figurative language in your statement of purpose 4- Limit your purpose to one distinct idea 5- Make sure your specific purpose is not too general or vague. Evaluation Sometimes, your specific purpose is easily defined, at other times it is very hard. So here are some questions to help you in your purpose statement. Does my purpose meet the assignment? Can I accomplish my purpose in the time allotted? Is the purpose relevant to my audience? Is the purpose too trivial for my audience? Is the purpose too technical for my audience? The central idea: It is a concise statement of what you expect to say. It is also called the thesis statement or the topic (subject) sentence or even the major thought. If you are asked about the gist of your speech, your answer will be the central idea summarized in a very short sentence. This can also be thought of as the residual message: anything you want your audience to remember from your speech. Organisation Clear organization is vital to speechmaking. Listeners demand coherence. They get only chance to grasp a speaker’s ideas, and they have little patience for speakers who ramble aimlessly from one idea to another. A well organized speech will enhance your credibility and make easier for the audience to understand your message. The process of planning the body of a speech begins when you determine the main points. You should choose them carefully, phrase them precisely, and organize them strategically. Because listeners cannot keep track of a multitude of main points, most speeches should contain no more than two to five. Each should focus on single idea, should be worded clearly, and should receive enough emphasis to be clear and convincing. Organisation 2 You can organize main points in various ways, depending on your topic, purpose and audience. Chronological order follows a time pattern, whereas spatial order follows a directional pattern. In causal order, main points are organized according to their cause- effect relationships. Topical order results when you divide your main topic into sub- topics. Problem solution order breaks the body of the speech into two main parts (the first part shows the problem, while the second shows the solution). Supporting Supporting your speech with material is an important addition. Materials are a good backup to your main points; however, you should make sure that the material used is directly relevant to the main point they support. The three major kinds of supporting materials are examples, statistics and testimony. Conclusion Last but not least, there should be some transitional use between the different parts of your speech. These are also called connectives or linking phrases/words. These serve to join one idea with the next and indicate the relationship between them. connectives could dealt with in four types: transitions, internal previews, internal summaries and signpost. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: Finding Speech Topics https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=fvlPYQMjFic&t=18s Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Session IV /16th Sept. Audience Analysis Professor A. El Bakkali Audience Analysis Audience-Centeredness The Psychology of Audience Demographic Audience Analysis Situational Audience Analysis Adapting to the Audience Reading Your Audience Audience-Centeredness Good public speakers are audience-centered. Public Speakers know that the primary purpose of speechmaking is to gain a desired response from listeners. Being audience-centered does not involve compromising your beliefs to get a favorable response. Nor does it mean using devious, unethical tactics to achieve your goal. You can remain true to yourself and speak while adapting your message to your audience’s goals, values, and attitudes. To be audience-centered, you need to keep several questions in when you work on your speeches: To whom am I speaking? What do I want them to know, believe, or do due to my speech? What is the most effective way of composing and presenting my speech to accomplish that aim? The Psychology of Audience What do you do when you listen to a speech? Input/ output Sometimes you pay close attention, at other times you let your thoughts wander. People may be committed to attending a speech, but no one can make them listen. The speaker must make the audience choose to pay attention. Even when people do pay attention, they don’t process a speaker’s message exactly as the speaker intends. Auditory perception is always selective. Every speech contains two messages one sent by the speaker and the one received by the listener. What do people want to hear? “Why is this speech important to me?” They want to hear about things that are meaningful to them. People are egocentric. They pay closest attention to messages that affect their values, beliefs, and well-being. “There is nothing that people are so interested in as themselves, their problems, and the way to solve them. That fact is... the primary starting point of all successful public speaking.” What do these principles mean to you as a speaker? First, they mean your listeners will hear and judge what you say based on what they already know and believe. Second, they mean you must relate your message to your readers how it pertains to them, and explain why they should care about it as much as you do. Demographic Audience Analysis One of the ways speakers analyze audiences is by looking at demographic traits such as age; gender; religion; sexual orientation; group membership; racial-ethnic, cultural background; This is called demographic audience analysis. It consists of two steps: (1) identifying the general demographic features of your audience (2) gauging the importance of those features to a particular speaking situation. When analyzing demographic information about your audience, avoid stereotyping. Stereotyping involves creating an oversimplified image of a particular group of people, usually by assuming that all members of the group are alike. Situational Audience Analysis Size: No matter what size group you are addressing, bear in mind one principle: the larger the audience, the more formal your presentation must be. Audience size may also affect your language, choice of appeals, and visual aids. Physical Setting: When you face any speaking situation, it is important to know in advance if there will be any difficulties with the physical setting. Speeches outside the classroom can present unpleasant surprises unless you do your homework beforehand. Disposition Toward The Speaker: The more competent listeners believe a speaker to be, the more likely they are to accept what he or she says. Likewise, the more listeners believe the speaker has their best interests at heart, the more likely they are to respond positively to the speaker’s message. Disposition Toward The Topic: there are three major things to consider in this phase: the audience’s interest in the topic, their knowledge about it, and their attitude towards it. Disposition Toward The Occasion: Most important, the occasion would dictate the topic itself, the length of the speech, and even the tone of the speech. Adapting to the Audience How well you use what you know in preparing and presenting the speech Audience Adaptation Before The Speech: you must keep your audience in mind at every stage of speech preparation. This involves more than simply remembering who your listeners will be. It means two things: (1) assessing how your audience is likely to respond to what you say in your speech, (2) Adjust what you say to make it as clear, appropriate, and convincing as possible. Audience Adaptation During The Speech: No matter how hard you prepare ahead of time, things may not go exactly as planned on the day of your speech. For speeches in the classroom, you may link that the projector for your visual aids is not available or that another student has the same topic as you. For speeches outside the classroom, you might learn that the audience will be much larger (or smaller) than you had anticipated, or that the amount of time available for your speech has been out... Reading Your Audience Reading your audience implies that your audience sends out messages. The more nervous or ill at ease you are during a presentation, the less likely you are to pick up on the cues offered by the audience. These could be summed up in the following: Audible Responses: laughs, groans, or sighs directly following a comment. Some people instinctively believe that silence is the hardest type of feedback to read, but many types of audience silences are quite revealing. If the audience makes an unexpected noise, like laughter, note what made the reaction occur and use it to your benefit in another speech. Movement: actual movement is a more accurate indicator of what the audience is experiencing. People leaving during your presentation is a clear sign, as are people coming into the room to hear you. An attentive audience is quiet when it should be, laughing when appropriate, murmuring when its members are confused or excited, and tearful when the presentation becomes emotional. Reading Your Audience Positive Measure of Support: If you are fortunate enough to be in a position in which someone in the audience makes a remark reflecting a highly favorable reaction to your presentation, by all means, play it up. Stirring And Shuffling Papers: In addition to movement cues, general stirring in the room, shuffling of papers, and other sounds of “organizing” indicate that people are ready for you to end. Resistant Audiences: when dealing with resistant audiences or resistant individuals take control of the room. If the stage or podium is far from audience seating, move to the floor so that you are close to the participants. Physical proximity can reduce resistance. Dealing With Hecklers: Hecklers may not have anything in mind other than to get a laugh and draw attention to themselves for doing so. Most audience members, including hecklers, appreciate a quick wit or a smart inclusion in discussion. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: How to Analyze an Audience for Public Speaking https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hYLo4xcBy6c Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Speech information Session V /23rd Sept. Professor A. El Bakkali Speech information SOURCES OF INFORMATION Internet Library Corporate Publications Interviews Personal Experience General Knowledge TYPES OF DATA Stories Quotes Statistics Facts Introduction The data you use to support ideas is critical to your success: Its accuracy, the credibility of your source, its relevance, and the way you present the data All these contribute to the credibility of the speech. When we question the accuracy of a politician’s talk, a CEO’s report, or a teacher’s lecture, we start to question their credibility. You have an ethical obligation to yourself and the audience to be accurate and fair in your presentation. Source Evaluation Information. Data. Opinions. Facts. The amount of information available today is overwhelming. How do you choose what to include and what to ignore? When you find something you’re not sure you want to mention, ask yourself these questions: How does this support my purpose? Is it from a credible source? Will including this material help lead logically to my conclusion? Two hints help you begin to gather information from various sources: 1. Start with the most current sources, and work back in time. This shows you the current thinking on the ideas you’re researching and prevents you from pursuing dead ends. 2. Research general information on your topic, and work to the specific. The general information gives you good background to prepare your specific points. Data Finding lots of data is not as difficult as finding valid data. The worlds of information and opinion merge on the Internet. You’ll need to vet the sources before quoting them as fact. You can find data from many sources, including personal experience, the Internet, libraries, newspapers, magazines, databases, members of an organization, corporate publications, blogs, and many more. The key is not to find the most information available but to find the best information available. Most important sources of information Internet: Where would we be without Google? The search engine has become so popular : “I googled it” is how most people say they find much of their information. There are other good search engines as well, and I recommend that you use more than one when gathering information, since they return results in slightly different ways. Library: When you visit the library, your best resources are the research librarians. They don’t know the answer to every question. They do know how to help you find almost any answer. Don’t be afraid to ask questions, and be open to ideas. Corporate Publications: Materials provided by organizations may include annual reports, marketing materials, and internal communication. You can surf or call, asking to have information sent, or you might ask someone who works for a company to share information. Most important sources of information- 2 Interviews: Your ability to ask well-prepared questions can benefit you throughout your career. Informational interviewing is an excellent way to get first-hand information. The person may not tell you the truth or might not show up. Or you may think the information the person tells you applies to a larger population when, in reality, it is simply the opinion of one person Personal Experience: Some of the most dynamic presentations are based on personal experience. Real-life illustrations are compelling when audience members identify with them and can envision themselves in a similar situation. Be careful if you repeat a story that you have heard someone tell. The material may be associated with the original speaker, or it could be grossly inaccurate. General Knowledge: General information includes common knowledge in your organization and lessons you have learned from your life experience. It even refers to ideas that we just “know” are valid, as long as they are accurate! Ask your friends in your network for ideas that can lead you to some new sources TYPES OF DATA Information comes in many forms and can be either “hard” and measurable or “soft” and anecdotal. Stories: Sharing a personal experience—whether it’s yours or someone else’s—is a powerful way to connect with other people. Use an example or story to explain or clarify a point. Remember that an example is not proof of something. Rather, examples and stories add human interest to your presentation. Effective stories are easy to visualize. They evoke emotion. Quotes: Quotes also add human interest and drama to your presentation. Quoting someone well known or considered a credible source can give you credibility. Quoting someone who is not well respected or whose character is questionable is a bad idea unless the person’s lack of credibility makes your point! TYPES OF DATA Statistics: It seems that there’s a statistic for everything. You name the topic, and you can find (or create) a statistic. Effective use of statistics can clarify, support, and add powerful impact to your points. Improper use can make your presentation boring and unbelievable. Most of us know that statistics can be construed to “prove” almost any point, valid or not. Facts: Facts are also an important source of data. A fact is something that is true and can be objectively proven. Here are samples of facts: (American painter Andrew Wyeth was born on July 12, 1917, and died on January 16, 2009. Key West, Florida, is the southernmost city in the forty-eight contiguous states in the United States. Bill Clinton served as president of the United States from 1993 to 2001.) Conclusion Remember that facts can change over time. For instance, companies that lead their industry today may be overtaken by a competitor tomorrow. You can deal with this by qualifying your statement. For example, you might say, “According to Fortune magazine’s 2009 list of ‘World’s Most Admired Companies,’ ARAMARK ranked number one in its industry as evaluated by peers and analysts.” Attaching a date and source to your information tells the audience at what point in time the information was true according to the quoted source. Obviously, you need to present accurate facts. If they aren’t accurate, you will have no credibility with your audience. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: Public Speaking Credibility https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Ymoz4FxbZ5E Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 PERSUASIVE SPEECH Session VI /30th Oct. Professor A. El Bakkali PERSUASIVE SPEECH Introduction Persuasion? Types of proposition The persuasive message Conclusion Introduction PERSUASION is the process of motivating someone, through communication, to change a particular belief, attitude, or behavior. Persuasion? Persuasion is not Coercive: Persuasion is not the same thing as coercion. If you hold a gun to someone’s head and say, “Do this, or I’ll shoot,” you would be acting coercively. Besides being illegal, this approach would be ineffective. As soon as the authorities come and take you away, the person will stop following your demands. Persuasion, on the other hand, makes a listener want to think or act differently. Persuasion? Persuasion is Usually Incremental (additional): The realistic speaker establishes goals and expectations that reflect this characteristic of persuasion. Communication scientists explain this characteristic of persuasion through social judgment theory. This theory tells us that when members of an audience hear a persuasive appeal, they compare it to opinions they already hold. The preexisting opinion is called an anchor, but around this anchor, there exist what are called latitudes of acceptance, latitudes of rejection, and latitudes of non-commitment. Persuasion? 2 Persuasion Is Interactive: persuasion is not something you do to audience members but rather that it is something you do with them. This mutual activity is best seen in an argument between two people, in which an openness to opposing arguments is essential to resolution. Persuasion Can Be Ethical: Even when they understand the difference between persuasion and coercion, some people are still uncomfortable with the idea of persuasive speaking. They see it as the work of high-pressure hucksters: salespeople with their feet stuck in the door, unscrupulous politicians. Ethical persuasion plays a necessary and worthwhile role in everyone’s life. Types of proposition Thesis statement (referred to as a “proposition” in persuasion) Propositions of Fact Some persuasive messages focus on propositions of fact: issues in which there are two or more sides with conflicting evidence, where listeners are required to choose the truth for themselves. Propositions of value go beyond issues of truth or falsity and explore the worth of an idea, person, or object. In order to deal with most propositions of value, you will have to explore certain propositions of fact. For example, you won’t be able to debate whether the experimental use of animals in research is immoral—a proposition of value—until you have dealt with propositions of fact such as how many animals are used in experiments and whether experts believe they actually suffer. Propositions of policy go one step beyond questions of fact or value; they recommend a specific course of action (a “policy”). Looking at persuasion according to the type of proposition is a convenient way to generate topics for a persuasive speech because each type of proposition suggests different topics. Selected topics could also be handled differently depending on how they are approached. The persuasive message Set a Clear, Persuasive Purpose Remember that your objective in a persuasive speech is to move the audience to a specific, attainable attitude or behavior. A clear, specific purpose statement will help you stay on track throughout all the stages of preparation of your persuasive speech. Because the main purpose of your speech is to have an effect on your audience, you have a continual test that you can use for every idea, every piece of evidence, and every organizational structure that you think of using. The question you ask is, “Will this help me to get the audience members to think/feel/behave in the manner I have described in my purpose statement?” If the answer is “yes,” you forge ahead. Structure the Message Carefully If your objective is to convince, you concentrate on the first two components: Establishing the problem and describing the solution. If your objective is to actuate, you add the third component, describing the desired audience reaction. There are, of course, other structures for persuasive speeches. This one can be used as a basic model, however, because it is easily applied to most persuasive topics. The persuasive message 2 Describe the Problem In order to convince an audience that something needs to be changed, you have to show members that a problem exists. After all, if your listeners don’t recognize the problem, they won’t find your arguments for a solution very important. An effective description of the problem will answer two questions, either directly or indirectly. What Is the Nature of the Problem? Your audience members might not recognize that the topic you are discussing is a problem at all, so your first task is to convince them that there is something wrong with the present state of affairs. How Does the Problem Affect Your Audience? It’s not enough to prove that a problem exists. Your next challenge is to show your listeners that the problem affects them in some way. Describe the Solution Your next step in persuading your audience members is to convince them that there is an answer to the problem you have just introduced. To describe your solution, you should answer two questions: The persuasive message 3 Will the Solution Work? A skeptical audience might agree with the desirability of your solution but still not believe that it has a chance of succeeding. What Advantages Will Result from Your Solution? You need to describe in specific terms how your solution will lead to the desired changes. This is the step where you will paint a vivid picture of the benefits of your proposal. Describe the Desired Audience Response When you want to go beyond simply a strategy to convince your audience members and use a strategy to actuate them to follow your solution, you need to describe exactly what you want them to do. This action step, like the previous ones, should answer two questions. What Can the Audience Do to Put Your Solution into Action? Make the behavior you are asking your audience members to adopt as clear and simple as possible for them. What Are the Direct Rewards of This Response? Your solution might be important to society, but your audience members will be most likely to adopt it if you can show that they will get a personal payoff. Conclusion Preparing an effective persuasive speech isn’t easy, but it can be made easier by observing a few simple rules. These include the following: Set a clear, persuasive purpose; structure the message carefully; use solid evidence; and avoid fallacies. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: How to Organize a Persuasive Speech or Presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jnfoFN7TBhw Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 DEBATING Session VII /13th Nov. Professor A. El Bakkali DEBATING- Fallacies Introduction A fallacy Ad Hominem Attacking an argument EITHER-OR APPEAL TO AUTHORITY Populum fallacy Debating A discussion between people in which they express different opinions about something which may fall in fallacies A fallacy A fallacy is an error in logic. Although the original meaning of the term implied purposeful deception, most logical fallacies are not recognized as such by those who use them. Scholars have devoted lives and volumes to the description of various types of logical fallacies. Some of the most common ones to keep in mind when building your persuasive argument: Ad Hominem Attack on the Person Instead of the Argument (Ad Hominem) In an ad hominem fallacy, the speaker attacks the integrity of a person to weaken the argument. At its most crude level, an ad hominem argument is easy to detect. It takes critical thinking to catch more subtle ad hominem arguments Attacking an argument The fallacy that unfairly attacks an argument by extending it to such extreme lengths looks ridiculous This extension of reasoning doesn’t make any sense: Developing one area doesn’t necessarily mean that other areas have to be developed. EITHER-OR EITHER-OR An either-or fallacy sets up false alternatives, suggesting that if the inferior one must be rejected, then the other must be accepted This reasoning overlooks the possibility that there may be other ways to control public opinion. APPEAL TO AUTHORITY APPEAL TO AUTHORITY (ARGUMENTUM AD VERECUNDIAM) An argumentum ad verecundiam fallacy involves relying on the testimony of someone who is not an authority in the case being argued. Relying on experts is not a fallacy, of course. A movie star might be just the right person to offer advice on how to seem more glamorous, and a professional athlete could be the best person to comment on what it takes to succeed in organized sports. But an ad verecundiam fallacy occurs when the movie star promotes a political candidate or the athlete tells us why we should buy a certain kind of automobile. When considering endorsements and claims, it’s smart to ask yourself whether the source is qualified to make them. Populum fallacy The argumentum ad populum fallacy is based on the often dubious notion that, just because many people favor an idea, you should, too. Sometimes, of course, the mass appeal of an idea can be a sign of its merit. If most of your friends have enjoyed a film or a new book, there is probably a good chance that you will, too. But in other cases, widespread acceptance of an idea is no guarantee of its validity. In the face of almost universal belief to the contrary, Galileo reasoned accurately that the earth is not the center of the universe, and he suffered for his convictions. The lesson here is simple to comprehend but often difficult to follow: When faced with an idea, don’t just follow the crowd. Consider the facts carefully and make up your mind. References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July 2019 (pp. 1963- 1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: Reading Logical Fallacies https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IawIjqOJBU8 Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Overcoming Fear Session VIII /20th Nov. Professor A. El Bakkali Overcoming Fear of Public Speaking Overcoming Fear of Public Speaking Introduction The Hidden Psychology The Feeling of Rejection The biggest myths about the fear of PS Ways to turn the fear into excitement The successful speech Introduction According to some research results and scientific surveys, the fear of public speaking (Glossophobia) ranks among the top dreads, surpassing the fear of heights, the fear of spiders, and even the fear of death itself. «At a funeral, the average person would rather be in the casket rather than giving the eulogy » Jerry Scinfeld What makes the fear of public speaking so strong and debilitating? Why do 75% of people suffer from speech anxiety? How can we overcome the fear of public speaking? What can we do to transform fear into enthusiasm? The Hidden Psychology Being in the spotlight often trigger the whole range of physical reaction that we would experince in the face of the real life threatening danger. Pounding heart. Dry mouth. Shaky hands. Quivering voice. Cold sweaty palms. Stomach cramps. The Feeling of Rejection The feeling of rejection is one of the most painful emotions that can be sustained even longer than fear. Thinking of being rejected by a large group makes the speaker terrified and feel very unconfortable mainly because of the unexpected audience reaction We are afraid that our nervousness will interfere with our ability to perform and will end up embarrassing ourselves Accepting our fear helps us take proactive steps in addressing stage fright and letting the adrenaline rush for us not against us. The biggest myths about the fear of PS Myth 1 Great public speakers are an inborn talent. No. Most successful public speakers have trained themselves to perform through persistence, preparation, and practice Myth 2 Fear of public speaking is negative and undesirable. No. Although some speakers believe that stage fright is a sign of their inadequacy, this proves incorrect. Instead, scientists show that fear improves awareness and concentration, sharpens thinking and boosts energy. Ways to turn the fear into excitement Deep breathing Shifting focus onwards (message other than our state) Visualizing (rehearsal and imagining the settings) Focusing on facts (your assets) not fear Building your speech on clarity, not complexity The successful speech « The success of your presentation will be judged not by the knowledge you send but by what the listener receives » By means of effective Storytelling Body language Tone of voice Pauses Visual cues References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. Video: 7 tips to overcome your fear of public speaking https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mL5WNcLz8t4 Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Session IX /27th Nov. The Power of the Ps Professor A. El Bakkali The Power of the Ps of a Successful Speech The Power of the Ps of a Successful Speech Preparation Steps Strategies Tips Practice Common Tips Possible Solutions Perform Preparation Steps to prepare for your public- speaking event Know your audience.... Familiarize yourself with the environment.... Outline the main points.... Have someone review your speech.... Practice on your own.... Incorporate your hands.... Use a mirror.... Record yourself practicing. Tips to prepare for your public- speaking event 1. Rehearse in front of someone 2. Make use of the stage 3. Anticipate questions and prepare answers 4. Prepare your technology 5. Set a practice limit Strategies to Prepare for Speaking Engagements 1. Practice makes perfect. 2. Practice with an audience. 3. Hook your audience’s attention. 4. Your body language is critical. 5. Don’t get stuck; move around. 6. Set your goal. 7. Get to know your audience. 8. Begin with an interesting question or story. 9. Find others going through the same issues 10.Get feedback. Practice Here are Important Tips for Public Speaking 1. Nervousness Is Normal.... 2. Know Your Audience.... 3. Organize Your Material Most Effectively to Attain Your Purpose.... 4. Watch for Feedback and Adapt to It.... 5. Let Your Personality Come Through.... 6. Use Humor, Tell Stories, and Use Effective Language.... 7. Don't Read Unless You Have to. Here are Important Tips for Public Speaking/Solutions 1. Use of filler words/ Work on your transitions/ Pauses instead Looking at the slides rather than the audience/Practice without any slides Excessive hand/body movements/Practice doing a specific movement (walk during transition Talking too fast / mumbling/Long pauses can help recapture the audience’s attention Talking too quietly / not projecting voice/ Speak as if someone is in the back of the room Monotone voice/Vary pitch, tone, and intonation to find the right level of variation Perform Perform- 1 1. Plan and prepare thoroughly. Your entire presentation or speech should move towards a well- defined purpose. a.Outline for yourself what your intended outcome is for the audience. b.Your intro is like a news headline; it must make the audience sit up. c.Layout the key points that support your message. This will form the body of your presentation. d.Have a firm conclusion and leave the audience with a clear call to action. 2- Overcome Fear & Anxiety Here Are Important Tips for Public Speaking 4. Be Aware of and use Positive Body Language 5. Create Effective Visuals It’s essential to invest time in preparing and perfecting your slides. Here are 3 points to remember when creating your slides: a.Use plentiful high-definition photos and graphs: A picture paints a thousand words. b.Limit the text: The presentation shouldn’t be a lengthy report. c.Avoid stock templates and overused images: Make your slides unique. Here Are Important Tips for Public Speaking 1. 6. Practice, practice, practice! Public speaking is a precious skill to learn. If you wish to become an influencer in your domain and have the opportunity to engage your audience, you will have to practice your skills. Try these methods: a.Record yourself for later self-assessment. b.Practice with an audience, even if it’s not your target audience. c.Experiment with different voice tones, body language, and gestures. d.Try to recreate the speech setting as much as possible by practicing in a similar environment to where you’ll speak. e.Practice to perfect the timing of your speech. Correct timing is paramount. f. Ask for candid feedback from others. References https://www.indeed.com/career-advice/career-development/how-to-prepare-for-public-speaking https://www.entrepreneur.com/article/282524 https://www.linkedin.com/pulse/3-ps-public-speaking-veronica-harth https://speakerhubhq.medium.com/6-ways-to-improve-your-public-speaking-performance-dfbbaf63bcec https://mitcommlab.mit.edu/be/commkit/public-speaking-how-to-practice/ Video: How to Practice a Speech or Presentation https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=d812a7qG9Kw Public Speaking and Debating Semester III: Spring 2023/2024 Evolution of Public Speaking Session X /6th Dec. Professor A. El Bakkali Evolution of Public Speaking The Outburst of Public Speaking Parts of Persuasion The Canons of Rhethoric Modern elements of Public Speaking The three Styles of Speech The Outburst of Public Speaking The Outburst of Public Speaking -2 Parts of Persuasion Parts of Persuasion- 2 The Canons of Rhethoric Modern Elements of Public Speaking Modern elements of Public Speaking- 2 The Three Styles of Speech References Carnagey, D. (2021). The art of public speaking. Strelbytskyy Multimedia Publishing. Davidson, J. (2003). The complete guide to public speaking. Breathing Space Institute. Lucas, S., & Stob, P. (2004). The art of public speaking (p. 382). New York: McGraw-Hill. Menzel, K. E., & Carrell, L. J. (1994). The relationship between preparation and performance in public speaking. Communication Education, 43(1), 17-26. Miller, E. (2019). Debating and public speaking training for pre-service teachers: Experiences and advantages. In EDULEARN19 Proceedings 11th International Conference on Education and New Learning Technologies: Palma, Spain. 1-3 July, 2019 (pp. 1963-1967). IATED Academy. Nikitina, A. (2011). Successful public speaking. Bookboon. SIDI MOHAMED BEN ABDELLAH UNIVERSITY (USMBA), FEZ FACULTY OF LETTERS DHAR LMEHRAZ (FLDM) DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE Autumn Session First Sitting : 2022/2023 Fundamental BA Programme Filiere: English Studies Semester III Module UK &USA Culture and Society Madani/El Student’s CNE/Exam Tutors: Bakkali/ Name Number Bennis Make sure you have 4 printed pages. Write all answers on this sheet. Read the instructions carefully. Please number the question answered SECTION I: READ THROUGH THE GIVEN QUESTIONS AND RESPOND AS BEST YOU CAN TO 5 OF THEM. 1. What is the difference between culture and society with respect to their definition and characteristics? 2. What are the main periods of British history? Specify exactly the time of the rise of the English Nation? 3. Explain how the American society is based on the heterogeneity of its people. 4. Discuss some of the UK Etiquette and Customs which characterize British people. 5. Explain how the US Post-Secondary Education is one the best of its kind in the world. 6. Explain how the Anglo-Saxons and the Normans shaped British identity and language. 7. Discuss the significance of the salad bowl metaphor in American multiculturalism. 8. Discuss the concept of federalism in American politics. 9. State and explain briefly the three parts of US constitution? 10. Describe the process of the election of the President in USA? ===================================================================================== [ …]…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [ …]…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. 1 ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [ …]…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [ …]…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… [ …]…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………. ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… 2 SECTION II: In a well-structured, short and concise essay/in the space below, write on one of the following Topics: 1. Discuss three main American values/beliefs which have constructed the American identity. 2. Review Explain the basic principles of higher education in the USA. 3. The US constitution is built on six basic principles that are deeply ingrained in the minds and the landscape of US government. State these principles and provide a short explanation of them. …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……….…………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………………… 3 …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………….………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………….…………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………….…………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….……… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ………………………………………………………………………………………………………….………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… …………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………… ……………………………………………………………………………………………………………Good luck 4

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