Effective Police Supervision 9th Edition PDF

EFFECTIVE POLICE SUPERVISION Effective Police Supervision, Ninth Edition, is a time-tested text providing complete coverage of the organizational dynamics surrounding leadership of teams in an effective police department. This revised edition provides readers with the tools to excel and advance wit...

EFFECTIVE POLICE SUPERVISION Effective Police Supervision, Ninth Edition, is a time-tested text providing complete coverage of the organizational dynamics surrounding leadership of teams in an effective police department. This revised edition provides readers with the tools to excel and advance with up-to-date and timely schol- arly research and legal case law on supervision. Special attention is given to recruitment, selection, and retention of police, commonly believed to be the most challenging internal issue facing agencies today. Supervisory tactics are evaluated in terms of how they work not only in the United States but in the United Kingdom and Canada as well, and chapters are enhanced with boxed features that help the reader connect ideas with realistic situations. Combining behavioral theory and updated case studies, Effective Police Supervision is the preferred textbook for college-level classes on police supervision and is an essential resource for preparation for promotional exams and career development for law enforcement officers and supervi- sors. Information has been included to respond to current issues facing law enforcement with Covid-19 and managing protests. Larry S. Miller is professor and chair of the Department of Criminal Jus- tice and Criminology at East Tennessee State University (ETSU). A former law enforcement officer and police supervisor, Miller has authored or co- authored over ten textbooks in criminal justice. He received his Ph.D. in public safety from the University of Tennessee in 1981. Miller joined the faculty in the Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology in 1984 and teaches police in America, criminal investigation, crime scene investigation, and statistics in criminal justice. Harry W. More was professor emeritus at San Jose State University, and a past president of the Academy of Criminal Justice Sciences and the Western Society of Criminology. He taught at Washington State University; Indiana University of Pennsylvania, where he founded and chaired the criminology program; and San Jose State University, where he chaired the Department of Administration of Justice. Outside of the university setting, he was employed by the U.S. Secret Service, worked in juvenile probation, and taught in- service management personnel in California, Ohio, and Oregon. At the time of his death, he was the president of the Law Enforcement Consulting Group and had written numerous articles and authored or edited more than 40 texts. Michael C. Braswell is professor emeritus of the Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology of East Tennessee State University (ETSU). Braswell received his Bachelor of Arts in psychology from Mercer University in 1969, a Master of Arts in psychology from the State University of West Georgia in 1970, his Ed.S. in rehabilitation/correctional counseling from the University of Georgia in 1973, and his doctorate in counseling psychology from the University of Southern Mississippi in 1975. He joined the Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology at ETSU in 1977, where he taught classes on ethics and justice, human relations and criminal justice, and film studies in crime and justice. EFFECTIVE POLICE SUPERVISION NINTH EDITION LARRY S. MILLER HARRY W. MORE MICHAEL C. BRASWELL Ninth edition published 2021 by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 and by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon, OX14 4RN Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2021 Taylor & Francis The right of Larry S. Miller, Harry W. More & Michael C. Braswell to be identified as authors of this work has been asserted by them in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. First edition published by Anderson 1990 Eighth edition published by Routledge 2017 Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: More, Harry W., author. | Miller, Larry, 1953 August 26– author. | Braswell, Michael C., author. Title: Effective police supervision / Larry S. Miller, Harry W. More & Michael C. Braswell. Description: 9th edition. | New York, NY: Routledge, | Harry W. Moore appears as the first named author on earlier editions. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2020031893 (print) | LCCN 2020031894 (ebook) | ISBN 9780367207618 (hardback) | ISBN 9780367207656 (paperback) | ISBN 9780429263477 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Police—Supervision of. Classification: LCC HV7936.S8 M67 2021 (print) | LCC HV7936.S8 (ebook) | DDC 363.2/2—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031893 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2020031894 ISBN: 978-0-367-20761-8 (hbk) ISBN: 978-0-367-20765-6 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-26347-7 (ebk) Typeset in Garamond, Helvetica Neue, Optima and Stone Serif by codeMantra Access the Support Material: www.routledge.com/9780367207656 CONTENTS CHAPTER 1—Supervision—The Management Task 1 CHAPTER 2—Community-Oriented Policing and Problem Solving—Improving Neighborhood Quality of Life 45 CHAPTER 3—Interpersonal Communications—Striving for Effectiveness 81 CHAPTER 4—Motivation—A Prerequisite for Success 119 CHAPTER 5—Leadership—The Integrative Variable 153 CHAPTER 6—Team Building—Maximizing the Group Process 183 CHAPTER 7—Change—Coping with Organizational Life 223 CHAPTER 8—Performance Appraisal—The Key to Police Personnel Development 253 CHAPTER 9—Training, Coaching, Counseling, and Mentoring— Helping Officers Grow and Develop 293 CHAPTER 10—Discipline—An Essential Element of Police Supervision 335 CHAPTER 11—Internal Discipline—A System of Accountability 369 CHAPTER 12—Supervising the Difficult Employee—Special Considerations 407 CHAPTER 13—Supervising Minorities—Respecting Individual and Cultural Differences 441 CHAPTER 14—Tactical Operations—Critical Incident Deployment 481 CHAPTER 15—Labor Relations—Problem-Solving through Constructive Conflict 505 CHAPTER 16—Homeland Security and Terrorism—A Changing Role 545 Index 567 CHAPTER 1 Supervision—The Management Task KEY TERMS affective skills loyalty responding to management conceptual skills management expectations self-appraisal dynamic organization of the supervisor subordinate expectations Hu-TACK officer behavior supervisory skill areas human skills participation tactical skills integrity performance transition knowledge-based skills positive attitude CASE STUDY From Patrol Officer to Supervisor The Sierra Police Department serves a community in the Southwestern United States that has a population of 136,665 people. There are 78,241 residents in the county area surrounding the community, with the city of Sierra being the county seat. The sheriff’s office has 228 sworn personnel. Most of them work in the jail or for the court system. Forty-three officers are assigned to field operations. For a middle-aged 20-year police veteran, Chief Ralph Kruger was in good shape. He may have lost his hair, but not his sense of humor and keen observational skills. He looked over at the City Manager, Tom Hill, and took a sip of coffee. “I just got back from ‘Louise’s Coffee Shop.’ She cooks up one of the best ‘blue plate specials’ I have ever seen for a town this size.” The City Manager smiled. “I never can pass up her coconut pie. We still have a decent downtown business-wise—three restaurants, an Ace Hardware store, and a cou- ple of clothing stores. That said, the future looks like more strip malls than downtown businesses. Of course, that’s not too surprising. Our property taxes are low.” Chief Kruger nodded. “Basically we’re a bedroom community for commuters to the big cities to our north and south.” continued 2 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK “Maybe so,” Tom replied. “Still, the major four-lane connecting us with the larger urban areas has been key to our stability and development. Our city park and recre- ational facilities along with the seasonal festivals we started promoting have also been key. Public transportation’s not too shabby for a town our size either and the regional airport is only a half-hour drive from downtown. The four-lane is primarily what has brought us the families and new businesses.” The Police Chief shrugged. “That’s not all it brought us. Drugs, especially with the lower price of big-city heroin, are on the rise as well as related crimes involving bur- glary. Auto theft is also increasing. Can’t quite figure that one out.” The City Manager leaned back in his chair. “You haven’t been here that long, Ralph, but in the fifties and sixties, Sierra was known as the chop-shop capital of the State. There used to be a diner on the edge of town where you could park your two wheel drive truck outside and tape $150 onto the bottom of booth 6. The next evening your truck would be there with four wheel drive. Times have changed, but there’s still some chop-shop shops doing a thriving business out in the county. That’s why our auto insurance rates are so high.” Tom checked his cell phone. “I just read a report last week that shows our popula- tion is 42 percent Caucasian, 31 percent Hispanic, 23 percent African/American, 2 per- cent American Indian, and 1 percent other. Quite a mix... and with the City Council members elected at large and the Mayor basically a ribbon-cutter, I have my hands full.” Kruger grinned. “I wonder who the other one percent are? I’m not sure I want to know.” The City Manager scratched his head. “I’m not sure I want to know who they are either. I have enough problems with what I already know. Last year’s crime index indicates that our city exceeded other cities of comparable size. I believe we had a dozen murders....” Chief Kruger picked up a document off his desk. “Got it right here... 13 mur- ders, all but three gang-related... 37 rapes, 211 robberies, 345 aggravated assaults, 622 burglaries, 1,678 larceny thefts, and 571 auto thefts. Overall crime has trended down a bit with the exception of gang homicides. Two-thirds of burglary arrests were nonresidents who focused on residential communities rather than commercial targets. My investigating officers tell me a lot of the residents seem indifferent or lackadaisical about protecting their property, too often leaving windows and doors unlocked.” Tom Hill straightened his tie. “Many of our residents commute to the city for work and feel they live in safe neighborhoods. Last I heard, there were only three neighbor- hood watch programs, primarily in subdivisions where mostly retired folks live.” “If that’s what they think, they have a false sense of security,” the Chief replied, propping his feet on his desk. “Ed Jones who owns Jones Security Systems did tell me his installations were on the upswing... probably the result of all the new automation technology combined with an increase in the fear of crime and terrorism. Ed did say all the cheap home security devices flooding the market through television ads and online is hurting his business and making folks think they can buy home security on the cheap.” continued  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 3 “At least, Ed Turner finally retired,” the City Manager mused. “He was a nice enough fellow, but 21 years was about 10 years too long. He took a laissez-faire approach to management. He liked to say he was ‘old school’ and didn’t need all the new-fangled ideas and fads to run a good department.” Chief Kruger drummed his fingers on his desktop and gazed out the window. “I know that all too well. When I took the job, I moved slow the first six months because I knew the old heads would be resistant to change... and some of them were. In fact, Simmons and Smith ended up taking retirement rather than get with the pro- gram. Community policing, information and data driven policing, and other innovative ‘best practices’ are the future of policing whether veterans like it or not. “All in all, the fact that of our 158 sworn and 16 auxiliary officers, we are in the process of making a decent transition. The mix is a bit complicated: 7 percent female, 10 percent African/American, and 26 percent Hispanic. Of course, with the three major divisions—investigations, patrol, and administrative services, patrol has the majority of sworn officers. They conduct the preliminary investigation before turning things over to the investigative division to follow-up.” The City Manager rose from his chair. “Got to get back to the grind. By the way, speaking of the community, I’ve been hearing some good things about one of your Sergeants. I think her name is Dawson... Wilma Dawson.” “Name’s Willa Dawson,” the Chief replied. “Yeah, she’s one of the bright spots. I’ve got some plans for her.” ******* Sergeant Willa Dawson is 29, married, and lives in the county south of the city. She has been married to Harry for five years, and they have one child, a little girl. She has com- pleted a four-year degree in criminal justice, with a minor in Spanish. She is currently a part-time graduate student working on her master’s degree in management at a nearby branch campus of a state university. After serving in the patrol division for five years on the midnight shift, Willa took the sergeant’s examination. After completing the assessment center, she was in the top three candidates after the results of the written examination were posted. On the basis of the result of her total score, she ranked first on the promotion list. Wearing the coveted sergeant’s stripes, Willa Dawson knocked on the door of Chief Kruger’s office. “Come in!” Ralph Kruger bellowed. “Have a seat.” Pouring her a cup of coffee, he smiled. “Those sergeant’s stripes look good on you.” “Thank you,” Willa replied. “Don’t thank me. You earned it. You’re the first female officer to be promoted to sergeant, but you won’t be the last. Red Turner was a decent man and Chief, but he was a little too much into the ‘good ol’ boy’ school of policing for my taste.” Chief Kruger leaned back in his chair and sipped his coffee. “Did you celebrate your promotion?” continued 4 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK “Harry, Tommy, and I spent the weekend in a cabin at Traylor State Park.” “Good for you,” the Chief replied with a smile. “The good news is you made ser- geant. The better news is that I have a special assignment for you to consider. In fact, I want to move you to the day shift and consider heading up a special unit where you will supervise four officers in an operation to do something about the increase in burglary and auto-theft crimes, especially in high-frequency areas. I don’t know where the investigation will lead... may even involve some of the recent gang activity. Who knows for sure? What it will involve is community policing and gathering and assess- ing information and data. Jim Bell in the Records Department will be your go-to guy for evaluating crime reports, interviews and such. Your direct supervisor will be Lieu- tenant Bart for anything else you need. Plus this will give you a chance to put those research and statistics skills to work that you learned in College. So what do you think, Sergeant?” Willa placed her coffee cup on the saucer. “I think I’m interested, Chief.” Chief Kruger grinned. “That’s what I was hoping to hear. Questions?” Willa thought for a moment. “Will I be able to have a say in who the four officers are on my team? You may recall under Chief Turner there was some resistance to me from several of the older officers. It’s not anything I can’t handle, but...” “It won’t be a problem,” the Chief interrupted. “You will hand pick your team from 12 candidates—seven veteran patrol officers, a community relations officer, and four officers who have also served as detectives. All of them have at least two years of college.” “What about training?” the new sergeant queried. “Good question,” Chief Kruger replied. “You and your team will attend a three-day workshop on research design and problem solving taught by Professor Whitehead over at State U. He will also serve as a resource consultant to you and your team.” “Didn’t Whitehead just move from somewhere up North?” Willa continued. “I heard he used to be a probation officer.” Chief Kruger laughed. “Don’t hold that against him. Maybe he’s just tired of those cold winters. Anyway, he knows his stuff. You’ll like him.” “One final question, Chief—what’s the timeline?” Kruger folded his hands together. “I want a full evaluation and data/information assessment on my desk in six weeks and an action plan in eight.” Sergeant Dawson rose from her chair. “I appreciate the opportunity, Chief. It sounds interesting, but I need to talk with Harry before making a final decision. Can you give me a couple of days to think about it?” “No problem,” the Chief replied, standing up. “Again, congratulations. Give Harry my best.” What Would You Do? Sergeant Dawson accepted the assignment. If you were her, what would be the first thing you would do after the initial planning meeting with your new team? Why? What information would you want from Professor Whitehead, the resource consultant? What continued  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 5 information would you want from the Records Department and other city departments? How would you integrate the investigators into the team? Explain how you might utilize conceptual and human relations skills when address- ing the challenges and potential problems you and your team faced. How would you use tactical skills? Finally, how would you try to develop an effective and comprehen- sive strategy that incorporates all you have learned about supervision? The changeable nature of our police agencies demands a viable and doable response to the dynamism of public and managerial transforma- tion. In a law enforcement organization, the first-line supervisor is the cru- cial managerial point where policy is transmitted into action. All levels of police administration from the top-down must acknowledge the challenge of making the first-line supervisory position a key managerial part of the agency. Crime, disorder, and the desire of members of the community to reside in neighborhoods that truly represent the best aspects of our demo- cratic society call for an enduring mandate to serve the public and enhance the quality of life. This requires accepting the dynamics of continuing and constant change and developing an organizational capability to take action that fulfills the mandate of every professional law enforcement agency. The position of first-line supervisor must evolve into a position where decisions are made in the best interests of the organization and community members through the attainment of goals and objectives. Supervisors must be given the training and skills needed to create a working milieu that energizes each member and allows for a multiskilled response. A common denomi- nator present in police departments that do extremely well, throughout the United States, is the creation of a work environment that fosters the devel- opment of good supervisors. In exemplary agencies, the first-line supervisor is not apart from, but is a viable component of, management, and is directly responsible for augmenting the positive attributes of working life. Human resources are at a premium in every part of a police organization, and the task of a supervisor is to assist employees to become productive members of the organization. It is a truism that an effectively performing supervisor makes things happen through the efforts of those supervised. Moreover, departmental and personal goals become achievable through the interaction between an emphatic supervisor and subordinates. As a result, the commu- nity is better served, and officers find themselves working in a viable orga- nization that emphasizes the enhancement of the working quality of life. An agency committed to excellence is one that challenges each member of the organization to grow daily and contribute to the realization of departmental objectives/goals. Police work is without question an intricate undertaking. Current demands and the consequences of responding to them in new and innovative ways 6 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK intensify the critical role played by the police in American society. It involves the use of an enormous amount of discretion, the use of criminal and civil law, and the needs of citizens to sort out a myriad of problems. Today’s police supervisor deals with problems and challenges totally unheard of several years ago, and it is anticipated that the complexity of enforcement will occur at a rapid pace. This is evident in the fact that law enforcement in recent years has used the concepts and processes of intelligence-led polic- ing and predictive policing in its efforts to improve the quality of life in com- munities and facilitate crime reduction, disruption, and prevention (Ratcliffe, 2008; National Institute of Justice, 2012). External forces have a strong influence on every aspect of a contemporary police agency. The rapid proliferation of computer systems, telecommunica- tions networks, and other related technologies presents concomitant wide- spread vulnerabilities, compelling law enforcement to respond with highly trained and qualified officers (Stambaugh et al., 2000). The new millennium requires police personnel to be better prepared than ever before. Line offi- cers and first-line supervisors of the future must be primed to confront and deal with a variety of diverse issues. For example, officers are increasingly expressing a desire to become more involved in the decision-making pro- cess and in the creation of operational procedures. At the same time, some recruits into the police service have a lesser degree of commitment, and they set goals for themselves that, in some instances, transcend their com- mitment to the organization; however, with appropriate supervision, this can be changed. Additionally, police departments have become increasingly urbane and more reflective of the ethnic composition of the community. Diver- sity is apparent when one realizes that three states and the nation’s capital have seen nonwhites gain majority status. This is illustrated by the State of California where white non-Hispanics make up 39 percent of the pop- ulation (U.S. Census Bureau, 2017). The United States population is one- third nonwhite; this group accounted for 83 percent of national population growth from 2000 to 2008. Now nearly one-quarter of American children have at least one immigrant parent (Frey, 2010). Demography has become increasingly significant as new minorities alter almost every aspect of our life, ranging from geographical regions to exurbs (Frey, 2008). This diversity plays an increasingly important part, not only in enforcement activities but in the internal aspects of a department in terms of recruitment, selection, and operational implementation. It also involves the need for supervisors to respond to officers who retain vestiges of another culture with differing values and norms as they become members of the department. Population distribution and change during a ten-year period are of special interest, as the ten most populous states contain 54 percent of the United States popula- tion, with one-quarter living in three states: California, Texas, and New York (Mackun & Wilson, 2011).  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 7 There are also intensifying demands for police services, along with the public’s dissatisfaction with them, especially with regard to the use of deadly force, and, more recently, the racial profiling. Race and policing continue to be lightning rod, and bias-free policing is a goal for which everyone is striv- ing for. Currently, officers are prohibited from discriminating on the basis of race, ethnicity, national origin, religion, gender, disability, or sexual orien- tation ( Jerome, 2006). Racial profiling has become the object of increasing concern, and civil rights activists have urged for the collection of data on subjects stopped for traffic infractions. Almost every state has taken some steps to address the problem of racial profiling; it has become a political issue, with extensive legislation introduced in the halls of Congress. In the past, large numbers of local law enforcement agencies did not have a written policy regarding the progressive use of force, but this has changed dramatically, as the police have responded to public and political pressure. Today, nearly all larger law enforcement agencies have a written policy pertaining to the use of deadly force (Reaves & Hickman, 2004). It is anticipated that these policies will become more conditional over the years, and the search will continue to find less-than-lethal alternatives. Policies should focus on prevention and ensure that the use of force is used only to protect the officer and the public (Webb, 2011). Other less-lethal weapons have become increasingly popular; more than 15,000 law enforcement and military agencies have adopted conducted energy devices (CEDs) such as TASERs, and the use of pepper spray has provided a way to reduce injuries (Alpert et al., 2011). A Bureau of Justice (2018) report indicated that 84 per- cent of those who were threatened with the use of force by police believed it was excessive. That same report found that in 2002, over 26,550 complaints of police brutality were lodged against police in America. That amounts to almost seven complaints for every 100 police officers in America (Bureau of Justice Statistics, 2018). The basis of selection for potential law enforcement officers has nar- rowed as increasingly more individuals have experimented with drugs or were part of the drug culture in the past. Screening of applicants for past and current drug use has become the norm. It includes consideration of such things as the time that has elapsed since drug use and the exact nature of the involvement. Assuming a candidate has been hired, a police supervi- sor must respond to the use of drugs by officers after they are on the job. In one department, approximately one-quarter of all suspensions and dismiss- als of police officers were for drug use. Consequently, a supervisor must be alert to signs of drug use on the part of police personnel and it should not be tolerated under any circumstances. In several instances, many police tasks must be performed in violent environment where increasing numbers of officers have been injured on the job. Hostages are being taken more frequently, altering the way offi- cers respond to this type of conflict. Barricaded suspects are becoming 8 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK increasingly common, and many departments utilize SWAT teams to make arrests and serve search warrants. Gangs have become a major problem in many cities and are now starting to emerge in rural communities too. Overall, violent crimes are becoming increasingly prevalent throughout the nation. This is especially true in the case of child and spousal abuse, and it remains a perennial law enforcement problem in many communities. Even though the homicide rate has declined over the last three decades, it has risen in the last reported statistical year. For years, violent crime has repre- sented an intolerable level in terms of human life loss and injuries sustained during a criminal offense; whether we like it or not, in our so-called civilized society, in the eyes of some, human life has little value. One cannot ignore the fact that violence is a fundamental component of our culture, but an alert supervisor should work diligently at ensuring that it does not dominate an officer’s perspective. Cynicism can be a by-product of enforcement activ- ities and is something that should be anticipated and not allowed to spread like a virus (Henchey, 2005). Civil disturbance can also be a factor, as indicated by the May Day melee that took place in 2007 in MacArthur Park, in which the Los Angeles Police Department allegedly used excessive force during an immigration gathering and march. Batons and rubber bullets were used to disperse the gathering, and the police action was recorded by photographers and television crew in the park. The incident received considerable media attention throughout the nation. Two years later, Los Angeles City Council approved a settlement that resulted in a $12.85 million payment to people injured or mistreated in the May Day melee, and the police department submitted to the court oversight (Reston & Rubin, 2009). Public protests over unpopular ruling or laws have also placed a strain on police–community relations. The protests in Virgina over Civil War stat- ues and gun control laws have placed the police, who were trying to main- tain order, face-to-face with citizens expressing their First Amendment rights to protest. Even worse is trying to enforce rules made by executive order that were not legislated but must be enforced by the police. The Covid-19 pandemic created hostility among many civilians, and the police became the symbol of government taking away the rights of Americans. These events place the police in a precarious position where they must choose carefully how they attempt to maintain social order. A first-line manager must communicate constantly with each officer supervised—allaying rumors; interpreting policy; and coaching, mentoring, or utilizing persuasion when the situation dictates. A viable supervisor must work closely with each officer to ensure that they are aware of departmen- tal policy involving personal conduct and that they adhere to that policy. Ethical behavior must be the standard that governs every public contact. All employees must know what is expected of them, and they must be held accountable for their actions (Martin & Matthews, 2000). Continuing  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 9 contact with people who have criminal inclinations makes it essential that each supervisor cultivate a working environment that acknowledges and reinforces the fact that the vast majority of the members of our society are law-abiding—not “gutter punks” or “scumbags.” In other instances, the failure to train officers can lead to civil liability. Like it or not, a first-line supervisor is a trainer, a mentor, a guide, and the one in the best position to identify individual weaknesses and needs. Supervisors should be ever watchful and strive to identify areas of weakness where train- ing can be improved and where closer control is essential. It is a never-ending process and calls for initiative, imagination, and resourcefulness. In most instances, the first-line supervisors are the first ones to observe training inad- equacies; hence, top management should recognize them as a vital resource. Our culture presents new challenges to the first-line supervisor, and it seems reasonable to assume that problems will not only increase in number but will also become more diverse. This means, then, that the supervisor must respond to these critical issues as they arise and must address them with a great deal of imagination and innovation, as well as anticipating prob- lems. The supervisor is at the organizational focal point between officers and other managerial levels, and supervisorial duties must be performed with absolute confidence and situational adaptation. If the police organiza- tion is to become more effective, the first-line supervisor must play a major role in responding to the change that affects the organization. Isolation must be rejected, and organizational rigidity must be refuted. Supervisors are the most transparent in the organization and have greater contact with the pub- lic than any other police managerial position. If supervisors are successful in the performance of their duties, it fol- lows that the organization will become more effective, and the potentiality of attaining goals will be enhanced. Good supervision does not just happen: it has to be cultivated. Until recently, newly appointed supervisors were left to fend for themselves, but now supervisory training courses are becoming more prevalent and an essential component of career development. In some states, improved performance has resulted because each newly appointed supervisor must complete a training program within a specified period after being promoted. Supervisory performance can be improved by establishing a mentoring relationship with others in the organization, conducting online research on leadership skills and other related topics, reading supervisory periodicals, taking courses at local colleges, and consulting with other super- visors. This is a long way from the time when newly promoted individuals had to fend for themselves. “Sink or swim” used to be the cliché of the day. In the future, the new supervisor will have to work in a viable and dynamic police organization that is ever-changing and is constantly creating new demands on everyone in the organization. The new supervisor will have to be more accommodating and open to change. Figure 1.1 sets forth an array of attributes that describe a viable police organization of the future. 10 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Accountability applies to every level of the organization Acerbity of the police culture is the antithesis of modern law enforcement A proactive response to police problems is clearly the most acceptable standard operating procedure Moral and constitutional values need to control every aspect of officer comportment Organizational leaders have positive character and presence Organizational Organizational rigidity impedes change and must be Attributes that dealt with accordingly Acts of corruption and officer misconduct are rejected are Crime fighting is viewed as only one of several priorities Development of guidelines and their evaluation must occur continually Discretion is recognized and accepted as an inevitable Viable and component of police work Effective officers will typically make many decisions outside the purview of supervisors Empowerment is a viable managerial component Every effort is made to integrate every member into the Dynamic organization Improving the quality of the working environment is an organizational mandate Integrity and ethical conduct must circumscribe officer behavior Supervisors are an integral part of the management team Recruitment and retention practices need to emphasize a search for quality Moral and constitutional values need to control every aspect of officer behavior Figure 1.1 Attributes of a Viable and Dynamic Organization—A Place Where Officers Want to Work Transformation The conversion from a line position to first-line supervisor brings numerous rewards, but it also exacts a price. These factors are set forth in Figure 1.2a and b. However, in addition to an increase in pay, the supervisory position is marked by prestige both within and outside the department, as well as the recognition that one has attained a supervisory rank, a new title, and added responsibilities. Administratively, the supervisor usually heads a  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 11 given unit or operation, is more involved in the decision-making process, and at the same time becomes a part of management. If there is any issue that causes a new supervisor a great deal of difficulty, it usually is learning how to be an effective disciplinarian, especially when having to discipline a former fellow line officer. Does one maintain social relationships built up over the years, or does one discontinue this type of interaction? There is not an easy answer to these dilemmas, and each situation must govern the dictated reaction. Further adaptation may be required as the new supervisor finds it nec- essary to attain objectives through the efforts of subordinates, while being held responsible for their success or failure. Accountability is fast becom- ing the byword of the day. The transition from being responsible primarily for oneself to slowly becoming a more integral part of the administration requires a greater degree of commitment to the managerial process and to furthering the success of the organization. This is an especially difficult transformation requiring the balancing of goal attainment and the develop- ment of personnel. It is normally not acceptable to take the time-honored position that “I would rather do it myself.” The conversion to the position of first-line supervisor may be fraught with difficulty, depending on the individual, but most agree it presents a challenge and demands the ability to accept and adapt to change. Histori- cally, police executives have taken for granted that prospective supervisors would intuitively know how to manage people, but this is usually not the case. A new supervisor may be placed in a situation that demands an exper- tise that has not been acquired from experience or training, and if either of these conditions have not been fulfilled, the new supervisor becomes a member of the “sink-or-swim” school of management (Frazier & Reintzell, 1997). In some instances, old ways and habits have to be overcome if one is to succeed in a new position. Traditional coping mechanisms can prove to be ineffective as one begins to work in new territory. It might be that a feel- ing of helplessness arises, and if that happens, one should seek out coun- sel from other supervisors, a mentor, or other managers. Above all, a new supervisor should realize that it takes time to learn how to cope with new challenges. A new supervisor should realize the significance of immediately acknowledging the importance of the ecology of the organization and the fact that the department is a dynamic social system. Officers have personal needs and objectives that the supervisor should help to fulfill while simultaneously ensuring they do not conflict with the attainment of organizational objectives. Interaction with employees is what most first-line supervisors deal with in the workplace. The greater the super- visor’s knowledge in this area, the greater the likelihood that both individual and organizational goals will be attained. Based on their experience of con- flict between officers, the supervisors will be able to notice such situations faster and intervene sooner. Having themselves experienced the feeling of 12 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Advantages: 1. Additional training. 2. Broader perspective of the department’s overall operation. 3. Commitment to success. 4. Develop rapport with peers, managers/subordinates. 5. Different assignments. 6. Feeling of accomplishment. 7. Gained reputation within and outside the department. 8. Greater chance of providing input into the decision-making process. 9. Increase in pay. 10. Interpreter of policy. 11. More control over the type of police service provided to the community. 12. Obligation to be more integrative. 13. Opportunity to be in charge of an operation. 14. Opportunity to influence and develop personnel. 15. Part of management. 16. Prestige of rank. 17. Required to foster innovation. 18. Step up in the organization. 19. Training/mentoring of personnel. 20. Work constructively under stress. Figure 1.2a Advantages—Transformation from a Line Officer to First-line Supervisor Disadvantages: 1. Accountable for work (or lack thereof) performed by subordinates. 2. Acting like a boss rather than a close friend. 3. At the bottom of the seniority level in shift and work assignments. 4. Difficult or impossible to return to former position if being a supervisor is unwanted. 5. Increasingly vulnerable to criticism. 6. Less freedom of action. 7. Lesser commitment to the police union (in some instances). 8. Must function as a disciplinarian. 9. Must have a greater degree of commitment to management. 10. Must implement policy not personally supported. 11. Must make decisions every day. 12. Must make decisions that can have an adverse impact on subordinates’ careers. 13. No longer just “one of the boys.” 14. Objectives must be achieved through others. 15. One step removed from line operations. 16. Positioned in the middle, between the line and top management. 17. Risk taking is part of the game. 18. The need to be effective rather than trying to be liked. 19. The need to work through conflict. 20. Work in isolation part of the time. Figure 1.2b Disadvantages—Transformation from a Line Officer to First-line Supervisor  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 13 not receiving the rewards that their former supervisor could have given them will make them more sensitive to officers’ needs for recognition. On the other hand, the transition will prove to be difficult if they do not accept the respon- sibility of correcting and/or disciplining officers when warranted. A supervisor soon becomes aware of the need to develop a range of skills if they want the officers to be highly productive and achieve the goals and objectives of the department. One study pointed out that, in eight departments, supervisors made important contributions to the capacity of an organization to achieve its goals through specific activities (Mastrofski et al., 2011). Good supervision is the result of the serious application of one’s knowledge about human behavior to the work situation. In fact, a good supervisor develops the ability to obtain results through others. This means that a supervisor must learn to value people as organizational assets. The Need for Accountability Management Police executives have been conscious of the essentiality of account- ability, but its application throughout a department has been a missing managerial element in many communities. While not a new concept, police managers are just starting to realize that accountability is a viable concept and must be incorporated into the law enforcement lexicon. For many years, public safety budgets have been sacrosanct in many communities, and as resources increasingly fall short, some in the public sphere have begun to question whether or not public agencies are, in actuality, well managed. For many years, law enforcement has, along with fire departments, been almost exempt from budgetary pruning, but that is no longer a maxim. Reductions in force are becoming quite common, and programs have shrunk and posi- tions been eliminated. There is a feeling on the part of some that various government operations are accountable only to themselves. True or not, this growing conviction is becoming more vocal as budgetary decision-makers have been forced to moderate budgets. This is a realism that has been with us for some years, and it is anticipated that it will not abate in the years ahead. Managing with a reduced funding amount is fast becoming an actu- ality. Hence, focusing on results is increasingly being demanded. Programs have to show that they are viable and worthy of budgetary support. Histor- ically, police chief executives have been held accountable, especially from the political sphere, and the average tenure as the “top cop” has seldom proven to be excessive. “Achieve or out” has been the axiom, and many of these positions have been filled with advocates who have performed as situ- ational rectors and proponents of the status quo. Under such circumstances, accountability has seen little application, and its obligatory aspects have been ignored and have permeated every level of a department to include the first-line supervisor. This approach was aptly described by W. Artley as an operational attitude of “out of sight out of mind” (Artley, 2001). 14 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Accountability becomes a viable concept when performance expec- tations are planned, defined, and negotiated between concerned parties. Performance is evaluated and adjustment implemented as needed, and the responsible individuals are party to the total decision-making process. This is best done when emphasis is placed on performance improvement, not on having to explain a lack of it (Artley, 2001). Throughout a positive managerial process, responsibilities must be acknowledged and obligations assumed, and it is necessary to accept the fact that there is a liability involved in such a working relationship. It is generally known that there can be both neg- ative and positive sanctions involved in this joint process. For this reason, accountability occurs because consequences are involved in the working relationships, and this should be spelled out from the “get-go.” As accountability is applied throughout a police agency, and if it is man- dated and eventually succeeds, it will move law enforcement to a higher and more-rewarding operational entity. A caveat is that it remains to be seen if higher organizational levels will give up the power needed to ensure its viability at the operational level. Accountability is viewed by some as a multidimensional concept, and it has become increasingly accepted by supervisors and managers. Experts have wrestled with this concept in an effort to make others aware of the concept of accountability. At times, the term responsibility comes into play when considering the term accountability, and for the most part, some view these terms as synonymous. In contrast, others make a distinction between the two terms and suggest that “responsibility” is the obligation to perform, and “accountability” is the liability one assumes for ensuring that an obliga- tion to perform (a responsibility) is fulfilled. Definition of Accountability Accountability refers to the obligation a person, a group, or an organiza- tion assumes for the execution of authority and/or fulfillment of responsibil- ity (Artley, 2001). This obligation includes several features: Answering—providing an explanation or justification—for the execution of that authority and/or fulfillment of responsibility, Reporting on the results of execution and/or fulfillment, and Assuming liability for those results. An effective organization is one where this definition is taken to heart and circumscribes organization behavior. When fully accepted, the defini- tion is all-encompassing, and it relates to personal as well as managerial accountability. Accountability is meaningless unless organizational members  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 15 are liable for results. If there is a central element to this working definition, it is the essentiality of the assumption of “liability.” As accountability per- meates an organization, it can result in a written or unwritten contract. It is founded on assigned authority that defines the relationship between an individual, a team, or the elements of an organization. The result is a recip- rocal working relationship. At the same time, it has to be acknowledged that the initiating authority is responsible for providing resources and guidance. The certainty of accountability is such that while individual and orga- nizational inputs and outputs matter, the important thing that can address success is “outcomes,” with an emphasis on results attainment. It necessar- ily follows that the part that documentation plays is imperative. An excel- lent reporting system eliminates guess work and brings reality to the fore, resulting in a more valid and reliable decision-making process. And first-line supervisors play an important part in this process. Vital Characteristics of Accountability There are a number of key aspects relating to the concept of account- ability that, when followed, improve the potential for a successful achieve- ment. Accountability is a bond that can only be viewed as a two-way street, and it is viewed by many as a contract. Reporting is mandated and, in fact, is the “mainstay” of the process. Deficient reporting is detrimental to accountability unless it is coupled with criteria for improvement. Therefore, accountability is meaningless unless coupled with consequences that mean there is liability as well as obligation. The goal is to enhance performance, not to look for someone who can be held responsible and punished (Artley, 2001). An interesting concept related to accountability is “obligation.” The true acceptance of accountability, in actuality, demands the successful fulfillment of a contract and the achievement of assigned undertakings. No vacillating, just a serious effort to effectively accomplish a task(s). It is not a question of whether the process includes sanctions or rewards, but there has to be some type of consequence to make it a practicable process (Vito et al., 2019). Accountability is operative and proactive when it is used to actually improve the operational performance of a team, task force, group, or the totality of the department. Additionally, there is a working relationship between internal and external stockholders (Connors et al., 1994; Connors & Smith, 2009). Inasmuch as the term accountability represents a challenge, it is at the same time an opportunity to accomplish tasks and attain objectives. The crucial aspect of this term is the concept that it is obligation fulfillment that comes into existence when there is a provision that provides conse- quences. In sum, when taken altogether, the real goal of the accountability process is maximizing achievement through goal attainment. 16 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Five Levels of Accountability The complexity of accountability is such that there are five levels: per- sonal, individual, team, organizational, and stakeholders, as depicted in Figure 1.3. In this pyramid, the foundation is “personal.” This level involves a wide range of variables such as trustworthiness, honor, principled con- duct, scruples, and reliability. Fulfillment of these traits calls for a great deal of introspection and the need to engage in self-examination, and the obligation of acknowledging the necessity of becoming aware of the need to look within one’s self for answers, rather than engaging in rationalization or looking for someone or mitigating factors to blame. When a team, group, task force, or other organizational body is positive and attainment-oriented, it can be described as a healthy and skilled organizational entity. The next level is “individual” accountability that occurs within a work- ing configuration and can be labeled as a task force, team, group, or other organizational entity. At this level, it is a relationship that applies to an offi- cer (one or more) and a supervisor. This is a different type of relationship inasmuch as it is a joint effort where everyone works together and strives for the highest possible achievement. Individual accountability is a manager/supervisor (vested authority) and a delegatee (officer or civilian) functioning in a genuine working associa- tion. In this instance, the authority figure provides guidance, direction, and resources needed to fulfill an employee’s mandate. In turn, the employee is responsible for satisfying allocated responsibilities. In actuality, it is a recip- rocal responsibility, and each is accountable to the other. The focus is on mutual interaction that involves consulting on organizational intent followed by actual accomplishment. In police departments, teams, groups, or task forces obtain results because officers work under supervisors who function as a cohesive unit. STAKE- HOLDERS ORGANIZATIONAL TEAM INDIVIDUAL PERSONAL Figure 1.3 Five Levels of Accountability Source: Modified from Will Artley (September 2001). Establish accountability for performance (vol. 3). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Energy.  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 17 Shared responsibility brings everything together, and accountability becomes a certainty. Definite ownership comes into existence as a result of agreed- upon measured performance. Organizational accountability is both an inter- nal and external relationship. Internal refers to the upward, downward, and lateral flow of information between management and officers and/or teams, groups, or task forces. External accountability answers to or reports to its stakeholders with regard to the performance of the organization as well as the organizational conduct. At the very highest part of the accountability pyramid are the “stake- holders.” In American law enforcement, it is the political supervisory body and the public followed by the internal stakeholders. None can be left out, regardless of whether they are unions, pressure entities, interests groups, assemblages, the legal system, other agencies, sworn officers, or civilians. Most of these are not involved in the everyday operation of the department, but they are a source of counsel, information, assistance, or direction, and the operational entity works at achieving positive outcomes. Accountability does not just happen as a result of a spur-of-the-moment event; it is the result of encouraging and creating a positive environment within a working accountability framework. Accountability has to be embraced as an integral element of each individual, group, team, task force, and all other agency entities. An environment is positive when it can ener- gize and invigorate all of those involved in an effort to transform a tra- ditional police bureaucracy that exemplifies control-control-control into a result-oriented agency that fosters positive relationships within the orga- nization, the political entity, and the broader community. A positive police environment is a condition wherein individuals, teams/groups, and orga- nizational managers/supervisors are motivated to execute their authority and/or carry out their responsibility. In accountability, environment officers and civilian employees are encouraged to work toward achieving attainable results. It is also an environment where employees share results and accept a commitment of liability (Artley, 2001). If there is a single most important element of the accountability environ- ment, it is leadership. (Leadership is discussed in detail in Chapter 5.) It has to start from the chief executive officer and is supported by the positional authority needed to direct control and energize organization members. Leadership also cascades through the environment, impacting every level of the organization. Reciprocation enables an environment that is clearly “two- way.” It has been suggested that this process comes into existence when an assigned authority (individual or group) delegates responsibility and a “quid pro quo” relationship results. Also, the authority must provide direction, guidance, and resources. Additionally, it creates a guarantee of fairness and promotes the elements of clearness and transparency. If there is a cornerstone to this process, it is equity. The organizational leadership that includes the first-line supervisor must totally support fair- ness. Inequity can create organizational imbalance, splinter the organization, 18 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK and inhibit the institution of a positive accountability environment. Trust is the bonding agent of the accountability process. With trust, transparency is apparent to all of those involved. To sum up, trust is mandatory if there is to be an accountability environment. When individuals and groups feel a sense of ownership, they can relate to “outcomes” and fulfill their responsibilities, thus becoming positive per- formers. As pointed out by one researcher, ownership increases responsible behavior and a concerned attitude. Ownership can become a reality with support from the first-line supervisor in the implementation of the account- ability process. Accountability comes with liability that has consequences, and these can be either sanctions or rewards. Consequences enhance execution, fulfill responsibilities, and improve performance. But it should be kept in mind that consequences only have meaning when followed up by first-line super- visors and managers. It is necessary to recognize achievements as well as shortcomings. Rewards should be given when so indicated and corrective action taken when necessary (Artley, 2001). Supervisory Skills Areas (Hu-TACK) Once an individual assumes the position of a supervisor, the role changes to such an extent that there is limited comparison to the tasks he performed as a patrol officer. The supervisor is a manager and must perform managerial-type activities. Certainly one technique a supervisor can use for motivating employ- ees is to show officers how something can be done by actually performing an activity, such as making a number of DUI (driving while under the influence) arrests, conducting a number of field interviews, or backing up an officer. While such an activity might accomplish an immediate objective, it represents only a small part of the things a supervisor must do to be effective. The selection of the best worker for the position of a supervisor is a common agency practice that can prove to be disastrous. The temptation to improve one’s salary, to enhance one’s position, and to achieve a rank attained by few is seldom rejected by a highly competent patrol officer. In many instances, however, this practice results in a feeling of having divided loyalties. A supervisor cannot forget that they are part of the management and no longer a line officer. In some instances, the newly appointed supervisor performs so poorly that it becomes necessary to seek employment elsewhere or be demoted. Some play the supervisory game well enough to get by, but they become marginal supervisors and, in the end, are of limited value to the organi- zation. Some newly appointed supervisors program themselves for failure because they impose rigid, process-oriented rules and regulations rather  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 19 Hu Human T Tactical A Affective C Conce ptual K Knowled ge Figure 1.4 Supervisory Skill Areas (Hu-TACK) than strive to achieve results. Additionally, they will usually refuse to admit mistakes, fail to delegate, and manage in an ad hoc manner. Generally, the inadequate supervisor feels that a laissez-faire managerial style is the “best way to go.” In addition, the feelings of inadequacy foster an approach that emphasizes: “If I leave it alone it will go away,” or “Why should I bother?” or “Why not let someone else do it?” A supervisory position is not for every- one. It is a demanding job and can create an abundance of personal stress. The increase in salary and positional prestige can never compensate for the psychological discord that can occur if one is inadequately prepared, lacks in self-esteem, or just does not have the skills needed to perform effectively. Supervisors should emphasize on the development of the skills of their subordinates, rather than try to do everything themselves. Needless to say, the supervisor could probably accomplish the task in half the time in many instances. The timeworn axiom, “I would rather do it myself,” must be rejected when one becomes a supervisor. As a means of maximizing effectiveness, a supervisor must work to attain objectives through the efforts of others, pref- erably by becoming operationally effective in one or more of the skill areas set forth in Figure 1.4. The acronym for human skills, tactical skills, affective skills, conceptual skills, and knowledge-based skills is “Hu-TACK.” The skill areas are closely interrelated and overlap in their applica- tion. Knowledge-based skills are more important at the supervisory level than they would be to the chief of police, whereas human skills are vitally important at every managerial level. At the same time, managers at all levels must be concerned with applying some degree of conceptual affective and tactical skills. There is a continuing need for the integration of knowledge, human, and conceptual skills as modified by the emotionally based or affec- tive characteristics that are constantly conditioning the managerial process. Figure 1.5 lists the supervisory functions. 20 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Human Tactical Affective Conceptual Knowledge Coaching Capabilities Attitudes Analysis Critically Review Reports Communicating Control Empathy Assessment Directing Counseling Expertise Equality Decision- Evaluating Making Mentoring Procedures Fairness Identification Organizing Work of Objectives Delegating Task Integrity Prioritizing Scheduling Orientation Problems Training Integrating Techniques Interrelations Solving Provides Problems Administrative Credibility Leading Values Interpreting Policy Implementation Resolving Conflict Loyalty Figure 1.5 Supervisory Functions by Skill Areas Source: Adapted from Robert L. Katz (1974, September–October). Skills of an effective administrator. Harvard Business Review, 52(5); Dan L. Costley, Carmen Santana- Melgoza, and Ralph Todd (1993). Human relations in organizations. St. Paul, MN: West; U.S. Department of the Army (2006). Army leadership. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Army. In some instances, respect is earned by a supervisor because of knowl- edge skills, which can have nothing to do with one’s actual position or title. If a line officer is more competent and knowledgeable than his or her supervisor, it can lead to disenchantment and a weakening of organizational support. If an officer always has to turn to someone other than their imme- diate supervisor for such things as the amplification of a technical skill or policy interpretation, that supervisor will be viewed as working beyond their capacity. The same thing can occur if a supervisor does not keep abreast of technological change or state-of-the-art equipment. Additionally, if a situation occurs where a supervisor has to perform line functions in an emergency and the performance is marginal or inadequate, the speed with which this occurrence spreads, via the grapevine, throughout the organiza- tion clearly demonstrates the viability of the informal organization. When ambiguity prevails, it can affect operations negatively. Human Skills (Hu) At the core of successful police supervision is a consideration of human skills. Employees have to be motivated, appraised, and counseled. Stan- dards must be established, tasks analyzed, and expectations communicated.  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 21 Coaches officers Counsels employees Deals with each officer as an individual Develops a rapport with officers Human skills Gives praise when appropriate Lets officers know where they stand Listens and discusses problems with subordinates Motivates employees More human Performs as a professional and sets standards for employees skills Resolves conflict Works with officers to increase positive attitudes and counsels them in an explicit manner Tells employees when they have not met performance standards Additional human skills Figure 1.6 Supervisor’s Human Skills Officers must be trained, developed, and (even though distasteful) occasion- ally disciplined. All these tasks are an effort to meet organizational objec- tives (see Figure 1.6). These activities demand the application of human skills predicated on the absolute belief that employees will work hard and diligently if incentives are such that they become highly motivated. A first-line supervisor must become personally acquainted with each employee and treat each one as an individual. Every member of a team should be expected to perform the kind of work that is vital to the success of the organization. It is imperative for work to be accomplished through people; this can only be done when the supervisor is thoroughly acquainted with the capabilities and limitations of each employee. The supervisor should set high standards for those supervised, and the standards should be applied to each and every employee. In studying supervisor/subordinate relationships, officers have an entirely different view of how they are treated by supervisors as compared to how supervisors view the needs of subordinates. Supervisors feel that they clearly understand the problems that subordinates face, but, on the other hand, subordinates feel exactly the opposite. This is a gap that has to be addressed: it cannot be ignored. Such a disparity clearly reflects the importance of human skills and the need to understand the dynamics of human relationships if employees are to be successfully integrated into the organization. An emphasis on human skills addresses employee needs to include personal development, self-esteem, proficiency, and independence. 22 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Tactical Skills (T) Tactics, used by supervisors, come into play when it is necessary to apply leadership that enables one to control a situation and accomplish a mission in a field situation. It is a time when everything is brought into focus by providing purpose, direction, and motivation to an unusual occurrence. Field supervisors need to combine knowledge, human, conceptual, and affective skills when the time comes to apply tactical skills in an operational situation. It is one of the few times that mission accomplishment overrides other factors and becomes an inviolable imperative. Knowledge skills are used to organize for accomplishment of task and conform to departmental operational policy. Human skills come into play in a tactical situation that requires the supervisor to communicate and lead officers. An additional human element is the delegation and assignment of the tasks to officers in order to enhance goal accomplishment. Supervisors apply their conceptual skills by identifying, assessing, and prioritizing the problem and rendering decisions that lead to problem resolution when tactical skills are executed. Lastly, affective skills interact with other skill areas as the supervisor per- forms with integrity, a positive attitude, and a pattern of interactive relat- edness with officers under his/her supervision. A truly effective supervisor will do everything needed to acquire knowledge and experience needed to respond adequately to extraordinary situations and critical incidents. All of the acquired skills in each area come into focus when the supervisor con- trols a situation in such a manner that the tactical situation, whether it be a lost child, a disturbance, or a hostage situation, is appropriately resolved (U.S. Department of the Army, 2006) (see Figure 1.7). Affective Skills (A) One other set of managerial characteristics is emotion-based. These char- acteristics interact with and modify all the other characteristics (see Figure 1.8). 1. Acquires skills needed to enhance the capability of mission attainment. 2. Applies appropriate techniques tailored to the problem at hand. 3. Develops the technical expertise needed to use appropriate equipment. 4. Establishes a system of control. 5. Establishes operational priorities. 6. Implements procedures in conformance with departmental policy. 7. Ensures that every officer is aware of the task and is oriented to its attainment. Figure 1.7 Supervisor’s Tactical Skills  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 23 1. Accepts responsibility. 2. Creates an environment based on a belief in equality and the opportunity for all to succeed. 3. Deals fairly with subordinates. 4. Develops relationships based on equal treatment. 5. Demonstrates loyalty to the organization and subordinates. 6. Demonstrates the quality of integrity. 7. Integration of organizational and community value systems. 8. Knows personal strengths as well as limitations. 9. Performs as a role model. 10. Values employees and their potential contribution to the organization. Figure 1.8 Supervisor’s Affective Skills The supervisor (by actions) modifies the attitudes, emotions, and values of employees. At the same time, the interaction modifies the supervisor’s per- sonal view of the managerial process and his or her own self-concept. The emotion-based skills of the supervisor have to be utilized to the maximum. The first-line supervisor has to accept responsibility for errors and should never allow subordinates to be criticized for a mistake outside their control. It does not take an alert supervisor long to realize and accept that they are not knowledgeable in every area, and that they have weaknesses as well as strengths. Weaknesses can be numerous including a lack of sensi- tivity, emotional immaturity, a lack of drive, or the clashing of personalities. Effective supervisors apply numerous skills and perform several functions. An important duty is to perform with fairness and equity. If an organiza- tional value based on fairness and equity is to be communicated, it has to be on a continuous basis, demonstrated to each employee by ensuring that everyone is treated as an equal, with absolute fairness. In most situations, subordinates feel that supervisors are more concerned with mistakes than anything else. They feel that their supervisor seldom responds to what is done correctly because of an excessive emphasis on factors other than even- handedness and fairness. Obviously, this demonstrates the difference in line officers and super- visors’ perception of fair treatment. Further indication of this difference in how the supervisory process is viewed is evident in that the vast majority of supervisors sense that subordinates feel comfortable when they are dis- cussing work situations. Again, exactly the opposite is true. Subordinates, in general, are uncomfortable when dealing with a supervisor. Thus, there 24 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK is apparently a barrier possibly precluding the successful communication of organizational values and their integration into the organizational value structure. If employees perceive that managers refuse to acknowledge weaknesses and are always looking for a scapegoat, then the supervisors’ affective skills will be muted, and achievement of organizational goals can be jeopardized. One can apply knowledge-based human relations and cognitive skills, but the affective variable serves as a modifier and allows a manager to become aware of personal limitations as well as strengths. This activity allows the supervisor to recognize and accept responsibility to make necessary deci- sions and to be able to acknowledge the needs of peers and employees. The supervision of line employees is readily acknowledged as complicated and (in the view of many) demands the selection of supervisory techniques that transcend traditional responses. Conceptual Skills (C) Conceptual skills consume the least amount of the first-line supervisor’s time. However, these skills are essential ingredients of the managerial pro- cess. The newly appointed supervisor, whether assigned to patrol or investi- gations, must integrate their individual activities into the total organizational plan so that agency goals can be attained. This can be accomplished when the supervisor is thoroughly aware of the department’s mission, vision, and organizational culture. The relationship of patrol to other specialized units (such as support services or investigation) can be tenuous; therefore, it is necessary for the first-line supervisor to be capable of understanding the complexities of the interrelationship of specialized units to the total organization (see Figure 1.9). A supervisor must respond to organizational conflict with sea- soned judgment and visionary thinking. To “conceptualize” is to form new ideas or concepts. The first-line super- visor is in the best position to identify and resolve conflict between special- ized police units by employing conceptualization techniques and utilizing mediation skills (Umbreit & Coates, 2000). Key ambient factors of concep- tualization involve the identification, prioritizing, and solving of problems. The supervisor also must develop and execute solutions by evaluating new responsibilities and reexamining assignments in an effort to achieve defini- tive managerial goals. Knowledge and human skills will sometimes dominate the day-to-day duties performed by a first-line supervisor. Each of these areas helps to define working relationships within a variety of settings. At times, task accomplishment is seen as paramount, and informality is encouraged as emphasis is placed on problem solving. The organization and the chain of  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 25 1. Assesses performance. 2. Conceptualizes the technical and human aspects of the work environment. 3. Demonstrates the ability to analyze data. 4. Develops and shares information. 5. Enhances and improves proficiency. 6. Identifies emerging problems and works for their resolution. 7. Identifies objectives. 8. Makes decisions. 9. Utilizes all sources in an effort to deal with the positive interpretation of information. 10. Works to eliminate errors. Figure 1.9 Supervisor’s Conceptual Skills command are utilized to facilitate communication and direct activities to the task. In this instance, achievement dominates, and such things as position, power, rank, and status become subordinate factors. Sometimes knowledge skills dominate the working environment, while in other instances it will be human skills. A healthy relationship between the two is needed, and it demands a supervisory response that acknowl- edges the need for the application of both types of skills. At times, it can foster a supervisory approach that is truly participative and the essence of sharing responsibilities. It is the opposite of the “we/they” style of super- vision that utilizes “top-down” management. In other words, it can be a one-way street. The key for this approach is to tell officers not only what to do but how to do it. The other side of the coin gives serious consideration to the personal needs of officers. Employees are seen as a viable and vital part of the operational equation. There is a total awareness of the need for “people skills” if things are to be accomplished. When human skills falter, it is readily apparent that supervisors are not utilizing those supervised to accomplish tasks. Supervisors should determine the interrelationship of the technical and human aspects of the work environment and utilize this infor- mation to improve their supervisory style. Conceptually, the supervisor can demonstrate the ability to analyze data and share information in order to attain organizational objectives. Also, he or she can work to eliminate errors and utilize every available source in order to deal positively with emerging problems. It then becomes apparent that conceptual application can lead to better decision-making and enhanced problem-solving. Additionally, a supervisor can assess performance that will result in improved proficiency. 26 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Knowledge-Based Skills (K) At the time of appointment, the supervisor is usually endowed with all kinds of knowledge-based skills because of the extended duty as a patrol officer (see Figure 1.10). In most instances, promotion to the initial mana- gerial level is predicated on success as a patrol officer or an investigator. Unfortunately, the skillful application of operational techniques can seldom ensure successful performance as a first-line supervisor. The skills are differ- ent and the situation can become somewhat tenuous if, during the transition period to this newly acquired position, the new sergeant fails to adopt a managerial perspective. A manager can only succeed if results are obtained through the efforts of others. The supervisor must realize the necessity of training employees because they are an organization’s most valued assets. Self-Appraisal The initial and highly significant dilemma in becoming a truly compe- tent supervisor is sorting through all the different supervisory techniques to select the approaches compatible with one’s own temperament and person- ality. It is necessary to ask such questions as: What is an acceptable level of conflict between employees? Can per- sonal needs be made compatible with organizational needs? What managerial style will officers find most acceptable? How does one become an effective disciplinarian? Should one go by the book when 1. Demonstrates a real interest in seeing that officers do a good job and complete their assignments. 2. Fairly implements departmental policies, rules, and regulations. 3. Interprets departmental policy. 4. Is capable of doing all tasks an officer must perform. 5. Knows each officer’s workload. 6. Organizes work in such a way as to effectively and efficiently achieve objectives and goals. 7. Provides officers with appropriate administrative and technical support. 8. Reviews officers’ reports for accuracy, thoroughness, and quality. 9. Schedules officers according to organizational priorities. 10. Trains and develops officers. Figure 1.10 Supervisor’s Knowledge-based Skills  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 27 enforcing rules and regulations? Can officer discretion be accepted as an integral part of the job? Can errors be viewed as part of a learn- ing process? It is vital, for several reasons, for supervisors to have a clear idea of what they are doing and what is expected of them. First, it allows them to operate as professionals, above any potential conflict. Second, they are less likely, in hectic day-to-day operation, to delude themselves into believing there is only one potential solution to every problem and that all officers can be treated the same. Each officer is a distinct human being with varying skills, abilities, and personality, and is entitled to be treated as an individual. By accepting every- one as an individual and dealing with them on that basis, supervisors can reduce the potential for making errors and can arrive at decisions suitable for both the individual and the organization. The pivotal factor is to understand the real attitudes toward line offi- cers and their capacity to work. Are they viewed as having the potential to become producers, or are they regarded as “drones?” The real issue, then, becomes crystal clear: the way employees are treated by their supervisor is strongly influenced by the way the supervisor views the officers. Most assur- edly, the best supervisors adopt a managerial style, acknowledging individ- ual differences, and they work diligently to tailor the style to the situation and the individual. If the supervisor is better at conceptualizing than at motivating, it becomes readily apparent that his or her approach to a supervisory prob- lem will be entirely different than when the individual excels at motivating. The two skill areas can be combined by emphasizing conceptual skills, carefully setting forth a plan to resolve a problem and then utilizing motiva- tional skills to implement the program. For example, a plan can be devised, focusing on improving the working relationship between the line officers and other agencies dealing with the homeless in an effort to improve quality of life. Working with citizens and business owners, one patrol unit created a program to identify the extent and the nature of vandalism, panhandling, loitering, thefts, and general deterioration of property. These problems were tracked, and maximum use was made of emergency shelters for homeless people and of action plans that included counseling, casework review, hous- ing placement, and job training. Line officers were instrumental in referring the homeless to the comprehensive treatment program (Klein, 2000). If the supervisor’s anxiety threshold is high, it may be better to resolve a problem with a knowledge skill base rather than a human skill approach. In other words, one can view an issue as a simple rule or regulation violation or it can be approached as a conflict-resolution problem with a goal of maximiz- ing human relations skills. In application, it can become an integration of the two approaches, but it actually is a matter of fitting the style to the situation. 28 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK No supervisory philosophy works all the time. It is important to use a flexible approach. Accomplished supervisors combine different approaches. This is what has become known as “network management.” Managerial networking at the supervisory level is concerned with the integration of each officer into the organization. Efforts are directed toward true communication and the sharing of ideas, information, and resources. It is the focus on decision-making that improves work life and produc- tivity. Networks exist to foster self-help, exchange information, and share resources. The problem is focused upon, and networking enhances the abil- ity of each individual to respond to that problem. In fact, the individual is the most important element of the network. The value of networking is rooted in informality, equality, and true acceptance. It is the fait accompli of effective supervision. Management Expectations of the Supervisor Supervisors serve as a communication link between line officers and higher management. They are responsible for turning the concepts and visions of those in higher positions into the “nuts-and-bolts” reality of police work. Sergeants must translate the intentions of management into actual- ity. Management expects results (not excuses), so it is the responsibility of the first-line supervisor to respond to this challenge. The key is for the supervisor to work diligently at developing the skills that help employ- ees become energized and emphasize effective task completion. Vocational duties must be subordinate to getting work done through employees. One expert suggests asking the question, “What kind of employee would I like to have working for me?” The response to that question provides the first-line supervisor with a standard by which to work and live (Broadwell & Dietrich, 1998). It is a process that ensures success because it reinforces and focuses supervisory efforts. Positive Attitude Everyone likes to be around people who are positive. This can be con- tagious and have a strong influence on working relationships. Think of how much better it is to be involved with people who obviously enjoy work and the challenges it presents. When a new general order or policy is promulgated, the best way to react to it is positively. Response should be based on a precise evalua- tion of ways that will ensure the policy is workable. Everyone, especially the supervisor, must refrain from finding reasons why it will not work (Dobbs & Field, 1993).  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 29 Supervisors should train themselves to think about the positive side of an idea or a suggestion rather than the bad aspects. When addressing a problem, there is no room for tentativeness. Problems should be addressed without circumspection. It is not a question of being unrealistic but of look- ing for ways things can be done rather than why something will not work. When a supervisor focuses on achievement rather than on failure, confidence becomes an integral component of success. It is a fundamental characteristic of anyone in the position of the boss to respond to recommendations by suggesting: “This is what it will take to make this work” rather than “This is why this cannot be done” (Broadwell & Dietrich, 1998). Amazingly, this works. Viewing things in a positive frame of reference focuses energies where they are needed to enhance policy implementation successfully. One can present negatives, but should not dwell on them. Stressing the positive is a contagious supervisory process that works. Without question, enthusi- asm is an intrinsic state of being. It is natural for one to be positive, creative, and challenged by the work being performed (Carlson, 1998). The boss’s ideas may still be questioned, but at the proper time and place. This simply means the idea should be carefully evaluated and constructively criticized, but not rejected simply because it has “never been done that way before.” Individuals who think positively are “results oriented”—a charac- teristic that management is actively seeking. The supervisor must view each obstacle as an opportunity and a challenge. It is like looking at a half-filled glass of water and trying to determine whether it is half-full or half-empty. It is obvious that the positive thinker views the glass as half-full. Positive thinking is a way of dealing with obstacles in a constructive man- ner. It actually is a way of viewing life. The nature of circumstances, places, things, and attitudes toward people can always be affirmative if one wants to view them as such. Because desirable attitudes can be cultivated, the new supervisor should strive to identify means of finding workable solutions to conflict, starting with developing a positive attitude toward employees. A supervisor expresses positive thinking by noticeable enthusiasm, expressive body language, eye contact, and clarity of speech. It is also essential that the supervisor operates from a position that exudes confidence in such a manner that everyone knows where she/he stands. Loyalty The organization anticipates specific behavioral outcomes from first-line supervisors, and one of the outcomes is loyalty. It is of extreme importance. It should never be discounted. It should be an integral part of the police culture. Loyalty is the cornerstone of character. It is an indispensable char- acteristic of a positive working relationship between differing levels of man- agement. Middle and top management want to feel that rules, regulations, 30 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK policies, and decisions coming down through channels are supported by first-line supervisors. The supervisor should realize that policies set at one or two levels above them will, in many instances, lose some of their signif- icance. In fact, their actual need for existence might be questioned by line personnel. A policy may be viewed as unreasonable when it is not fully explained. The first-line supervisor is seldom in a position to know all the facts and rationale for a new policy. The view from the top or middle of the organization is very seldom duplicated at the supervisory level. Only so much information can be sent down through channels. Most managers do not have the time to explain in depth the rationale for each policy. Normally, managers make decisions based upon more factual material that is possibly unavailable at the operational level. If some information is needed before a new policy can be explained to subordinates, then the supervisor must ask for clarifying information. When one accepts the position of a supervisor, one accepts the obligation of being part of the team, not apart from it. This is not an easy task to accomplish, but it must be done if the supervisor is to be successful. Supervisors translate and implement policy and procedures within the organization. The supportive supervisors should ask themselves the follow- ing question: “How can this policy be implemented in the shortest period of time with assurance of actual compliance?” The important factor in this situation is to find the solution that is best for the department. In addition, middle and top managers dislike being referred to as the “they” who take those unreasonable stands and demand nonachievable performance. Man- agers at higher levels have a need for personal loyalty from supervisors, and this should be reciprocated. Loyalty works both ways. First-line supervisors want to feel they have the support and backing of their immediate supervi- sor and others in the chain of command. Integrity Management must convey to every member of the department the ethi- cal standards that govern each and every action taken when performing law enforcement duties. Without question, it is essential to convey a tradition of excellence, professionalism, and commitment to the protection of citi- zens’ constitutional rights (Hiester, 1996). The equal administration of jus- tice is the cornerstone of the integrity required of every member of a police department. People cannot be left to speculate as to the values of the orga- nization. Clear and explicit signals must be given, both within and without the organization, that integrity cannot be compromised. Management must expect every supervisor to be a role model when it comes to integrity, both on and off the job. A commitment to integrity cannot be just an abstract value; it must be reflected in the day-to-day conduct of every supervisor. It can never be compromised. Every word and every deed must reflect an adherence to a standard that is clearly above reproach. A  S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK 31 supervisor is in a position to shape the attitudes and conduct of line officers by setting an example of personal conduct that exemplifies an adherence to a strong code of ethics (see the code of conduct in Chapter 11). Setting an example is a leadership task that must be provided by a first- line supervisor. Integrity can never be compromised, and every action must reflect a commitment to the principle of ethical policing. A supervisor must realize that once one’s reputation is tarnished, it is next to impossible to repair it. The competent supervisor will never be placed in such a position that their personal integrity can be questioned. The significance of integrity at the supervisory level cannot be questioned. It is the administrative level that values can be reinforced and aberrant behavior controlled. An excellent example of the importance of integrity to an organization is the mission statement utilized by the Baltimore Police Department (n.d.) that expresses in no uncertain terms that the department must maintain the highest level of integrity in all of its actions. Performance Managers expect (and indeed have a right to demand) a thorough com- pletion of tasks on time. Supervisors should do everything asked of them. If an assignment cannot be completed on time, the next manager up the line needs to be consulted with an explanation. Perhaps more time is needed or help is required in understanding the problem or completing the task. There are very few managers who will not accept a request for help if assistance is necessary in completing an assigned project. Asking for help is not an admission of incompetence; it is an acknowledgment that the man- ager has an expertise as yet not acquired by subordinates. Every manager expects personnel to be on time and to take appropriate coffee and meal breaks. Supervisors should set the standard, not only for their officers but also for everyone else in the department. First-line supervisors have to accept being at the fulcrum between man- agement and line operations. If problems occur, first-line supervisors are usually the first to know. Supervisors also have a responsibility to identify problems and respond to subordinate complaints; thus, they can serve as part of an early warning system. They are privy to the interaction between officers, they know what is being said on the radio and in emails, they read messages on mobile terminals, they review reports, and they observe offi- cers on a continuing basis. They know when things are going wrong and can act accordingly (McCarthy, 2000). Functioning as a go-between is a supervisory responsibility. No one else can effectively accomplish the tasks of interpreting rules, regula- tions, policies, and translating organizational demands for the coopera- tive attainment of agency goals. It is also essential that the supervisor be involved in the continual review of rules to ensure that they are practical (Solar, 2001). 32 S UPERVISION— T HE M ANAGEMENT T ASK Responding to Management Because management is continually in need of information, supervisors must submit a wide range of requested reports in order to reflect adequately the tasks being accomplished by subordinates. Reports must be completed on time and must be comprehensive. There is nothing worse, in the view of most managers, than a poorly prepared or late report. The nature of police work is such that most supervisors are assessed largely on the basis of reports submitted. While supervisors might have continuing contact with their immediate manager, other management superiors might use the writ- ten work submitted by a supervisor as the only sour