EDST1010 Learning and Development Lecture PDF

lOMoARcPSD|42317550 EDST1010 Learning and Development Lecture Learning and Development: An Introduction to Educational Studies (Macquarie University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored o...

lOMoARcPSD|42317550 EDST1010 Learning and Development Lecture Learning and Development: An Introduction to Educational Studies (Macquarie University) Scan to open on Studocu Studocu is not sponsored or endorsed by any college or university Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 EDST1010 Learning and Development Week One Learning and Developments as Concepts Concepts Concepts are usually defined by their critical attributes Concepts attributes have to be present in ever example of a concept and distinguish it from other concepts Triangle = one-dimensional closed figure with three sides and three angles Motorcycle = a vehicle with two wheels and a handlebar powered by an engine Noncritical attributes can be present in many (or all) examples but do not define the concept Definitions of Learning Clark & Mayer 2008 “We define learning as a change in the learner's knowledge due to experience. This definition has three main elements” - Learning involves a change - The change is in what the learner knows - The change is caused by the learners experience Critical attributes Critical attributes have to be present in every example of a concept and distinguish it from other concepts Learning is change in a person's knowledge due to experience this definition has three components 1. There is a change (and perhaps the duration to experience. This needs to be long-term rather than short-term) 2. The locus of the change is the content and structure of knowledge in memory or behaviour of the learner 3. The cause of the change is the learners experience in the environment (rather than some other possible sources, such as fatigue, motivation, drugs, physical condition or physiologic intervention) Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Child Development “Species-characteristic changes in an individual changes in an individual organism from a relatively simple, but age-adequate, level of organisation through a succession of stable states of increasing complexity and organisation” Hopkins in the Cambridge Encyclopedia of Child Development Woolfolk & Margetts Development Orderly, adaptive changes we go through from conception to death - Physical development changes in body structure and function over time - Emotional development changes in understanding, expression and regulation of feelings - Social development changes in ability to interact with and relate to others individually and at broader societal levels - Cognitive development changes by which mental processes become more complex and sophisticated over time Duchesne & McMaugh - Cognition/Intellectual development the ability to learn and problem solve Includes language development understanding and using language, reading and communicating - Physical development the changes in size, shape and physical maturity of the body, including physical abilities and coordination Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Includes brain development - Social development the process of gaining the knowledge and skills needed to interact successfully with others - Emotional development feelings and emotional responses to events; changes in understanding one's feelings and appropriate forms of expressing them - Moral development the growing understanding of right and wrong, and the change in behaviour caused by that understanding; sometimes called a conscience Critical attributes - Similar to learning, change seems to a critical attribute - Direction of change - from less organised (simple) to more organised (complex) - Source of change maturation (nature) or learning (nurture) - What changes is complex because of the different developmental domains “Learning results from what the student does and thinks and only from what the student does and thinks. The teacher can advance learning only by influencing what the student does to learn” Hebert A Simon TUTORIAL Inclusive classroom culture Respect shown by not speaking down to another Empathy checking in to see how other people in the class are feeling Openness encourage each other to focus on what things we share Curiosity be open to learning more about other people we are learning with Trust show that you have others best interests at heart Fairness aims to meet the needs of all, using language that they choose to talk about themselves. Week Two What is learning in different learning theories Four categories 1. Behavioural/behavioust 2. Cognitive 3. Humanistic 4. Systems theories Behaviourists explanations of learning Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Pavlov, Watson, Thorndike and Skinner Pavlov learning experiments with dogs are famous Watson is famous for his experiment with Little Albery that would be completely unethical by current standards Thorndike worked with rats and cats and was very influential for early education practises in US Associationism learning involves formation of connections between stimuli and responses Skinner also worked mostly with rats and pigeons but expanded operant conditioning to explain human mind According to Skinner behaviour that is reinforiced tends to be repeated whereas lack of reinforcement tends to be repeated whereas lack of reinforcement (or punishment) leads to weakening of the behaviour - Positive reinforcment - add something positive - Negative reinforcement - delete something negative - Punishment - add something negative Cognitive explanations of learning - Important names Piaget, Vygotsky, Bandura, Bruner, Rogoff, Wenger A group of partly overlapping approaches that vary on their focus and on the role of others - Information processing - Constructivism - Social cognitive theory Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Socio-cultural theory We encode, process, store and retrieve information then respond to it - Processing can be very fast and unconscious (and feel like we simply respond to stimuli) - Learning can lead to strengthening of associations between a stimuli and the existing response (somewhat similar to behaviourism), or learning can lead to creation of qualitatively different knowledge structures Atkinson-Shiffrin Model of Memory Newer information processing models tend to use computer as a metaphor for mind and sometimes a particular kind of software as a metaphor for how learning takes place - Connectionist networks - Ruled-based networks Confectionist Model Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Four stages briefly Sensorimotor stage - Initially physical interactions with the environment and self, cognitive and action the same - Language > symbolic thought, memory, deferred imitation - experimenting with prior experiences (mental representation by about 18 months) Preoperational stage - Operations are mental actions that follow rules, internalised from interactions with objects - Egocentrism and centration (focus on one aspect alone) Concrete operations - Decentration and reversibility of operations; classifications intro hierarchies; logical (but concrete) thinking Formal operations - Abstract thinking; hypothetical thinking; meta-cognition Constructivism - Learners actively construct their knowledge when learning - Learning involves developing increasingly more complex cognitive structures (schemas) Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Psychological (individual) constructivism emphasises how the existing knowledge structures and beliefs of the learner actively interact with environment Vygotsky's Socio-Cultural Theory 1. Learning precedes development - Learning is optimal when it is in the zone of proximal development 2. Children's cognitive development can only be understood in terms of their historical and cultural context - complex mental processes begin as social activities that are then internalised into mental activities - This process is organised by the more knowledgable others (MKO) in the environment - You can only learn what is avaliable in the environment - You are rewarded (and scaffolded - bruner) to learn what is valued in the society Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 3. Internalization (learning) relies on the symbolic systems that are available with language being of central importance in transforming basic mental abilities into mediated higher order abilities - Joint attention and control by MKO into verbally regulated self-control - Natural memory into verbally mediated and organised memory systems Humanistic Theories - Abraham Maslow and Carl Rogers the big names - both were psychologists rather than educators - Response to behaviourism with a docus on human well-being and self-actualisation - Basic assumption both made is that humans are good and want to learn but may be prevented from doing so if - Basic needs are not met - We force them to learn a curriculum determined by others Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Real learning requires that - Problems are real and significant to the learn - Teachers have a genuine relationship with their students (active listening, unconditional positive regard - trust and acceptance, empathetic and non-judgemental) Systems Theories Bronfenbrenner's Biological Model More about the processes and context than about the learning process FOUR important elements - Person characteristics - Activities, relationships and practises - Contexts - Time Week Three Perception, Attention and Memory Information Processing Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Information processing takes place when an agent changes information in a detectable manner or the information changes the agent in a detectable manner Perception Senses provide input and some of that input is perceived and processed FIVE traditional senses provide data for perception that interprets it - Visual sense - Auditory sense - Gustatory sense - Olfactory sense - Somatosensory sense - SIXTH Vestibular system (sense of balance) > We also perceive temperature, movement, pain that are not captured by the five traditional sense - what is a sense is not all that clear cut - Perceiving and processing information can be effortful (information is deliberately attended to) or automatic (no internal effort) - Learning can make effortful processing automatic - We may not be aware of automatic processing, yet it can affect our behaviour Interpretation Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Perception involves interpretation - Interpretation involves top-down processing - Interpretation can be automatic or effortful Attention Attention is the gatekeeper between sensing and consciously perceiving and between perceiving and processing the information in short term and long term memory Attention terms Selective focus - focus on one thing at a time Sustained attention/attention span - focus for a longer period of time Divided attention - focus on more than one thing at the same time Alternating attention - switching between tasks Attentional control - the ability to guide attention Vigilance Perseverance Impulsivity Attention development As children get older, biological and language development affects several attention processes 1. Attention span increases (older children can sustain attention longer than younger children) 2. Ability to ignore distractions and stay focused on the task increases 3. Attentional control increases Memory There are several different information processing and memory theories and models The modal model = the common elements (and good enough for most purposes) Sensation - experience incoming information via senses Storage - information is represented in ‘literal’ form Perception - limited interpretation occurs automatically - Some part of the information paid attention to and encoded into short-term/working memory Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 What develops with age? - Processing speed and efficiency - Language skills - Attentional control - Memory capacity - Automatic processing - General knowledge - Conceptual understanding - Use of memory strategies - Metacognitive control The Modal Memory Model MEMORY FUNCTION LIMITATIONS SENSORY MEMORY Registers sensory - Duration of ½ information seconds (visual) - Duration of 3 seconds (auditory) WORKING/SHORT-TERM Organises information - Capacity of 7 - 2 MEMORY Reherses information - Duration of 20-30 Discards information seconds LONG-TERM MEMORY Stores information - None known OBSERVATION TO LOOK FOR - Climate of the classroom (hot/cold) - The decorative space of the classroom - Noise levels - Whether students have difficulty working in groups - MAKE NO ASSUMPTIONS - Allowed time for the students to think about the question then would perform what the student said so that everyone else could understand Week Five Five effective techniques (in order of the strength of evidence) 1. Practise testing 2. Distributed practise 3. Interleaved practice 4. Elaborative interrogation 5. Self-explanation Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Practise testing is about making the memory traces more accessible Learning is about understanding, generating a memory trace, and being able to access it E.g. you put away your class materials and write or sketch everything you know, be as thorough as possible then check your class materials for accuracy and important points you needed Why do practise tests work - Cued recall (including multiple choice quizzes), free recall, short-answer questions, fill-in-the-blank questions - All dosages work, but more is better Distributed practise effect refers to the finding that distributing learning over time (either within a single study session or across sessions) benefits long-term retention more than does missing learning opportunities back to back or in relatively close succession E.g. start planning early for exams, and set aside a little bit of time every day - four hours spread out over two weeks is better than the same five hours all at once WHEN does distributed practise work - Cued recall, free recall, short answer questions - Longers lags usually better than shorter lags - if goal is permanent retention, the longer the better WHY does distributed practice work - More thorough processing of the material when practise distributed When sessions close to each other, the second/third learning opportunity is easier and requires less work > feeling of knowing the material Interleaved practise - Blocking versus interleaving topics and practice - Blocking occurs when you practise one kind of problems at one session, then move on the next and so on - Interleaving means that you mix the problems and move back and forth between them E.g. switch between ideas during a study session - don't study one idea for too long WHEN does interleaved practise work - Some level of initial skill necessary - Does not always work - exact conditions not clear - Only tested with primary, high school and university students Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Long term effect not yet clear WHY does interleaved practise work - Compelling evidence that ti works with related math rpbolems and conceptual and perceptual problems that require learning to identify shared and distinct features of exemplars E.g. learning to classify paintings to different styles, or birds - Maybe interleaving helps to discriminate between problems. Exemplars - Or maybe interleaving helps to practise recall of the solutions more often and therefore lead to better performance Elaborative interrogation happens when the learner is promoted to generate an exploration for an explicitly stated fact or concept - Why would elaborative interrogation help to remember the facts (why would asking why make a difference) E.g. ask yourself questions while you are studying about how things work and why, and then find the answers in your class materials and discuss them with your classmates WHEN does elaborative interrogation work - Some levels of prior knowledge needed - Both intentional and incidental learning - From upper primary onwards - Robust effects across factual materials of different kinds, not tested with more complex explanations WHY - The prevailing theoretical account of elaborative-interrogation effects is that elaborative interrogation enhances learning by supporting the integration of new information with existing prior knowledge Self-explanation Logic problem You have four cards, and each card has a drink on one side and age on the other Rule if a person drinks an alcoholic drink, then they must be over the age of 21 years old WHEN do self-explanations work - Effects shown both with younger (kindergarten and up) - Should work across different materials and task domains Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Helps with all kinds of tasks tapping memory, comprehension, making inferences WHY do self-explanations work Probably different for context-free and context-specific self-explanations - Context free self-explanation prompts very similar to elaborative interrogation or self-monitoring - Context-specific self-explanation may help integrate new information with existing domain-specific prior knowledge What does learning science tell us about other popular study strategies Five techniques that lack evidence for effectiveness 1. Rereading 2. Highlighting and underlying 3. Keyword mnemonics 4. Imagery 5. Summarisation Rereading Most frequently used study technique during self-regulated study - About 20% of students reread entire articles or chapter, and about 60% reread parts FACTS spaced rereading tends to work better than massed - Moderate lag may be better than a long lag - Difference increases with the increase in retention/test interval - Mixed evidence whether massed rereading helps over longer delays Highlighting and underlying The easiest and most common activities - Both can have a negative effect on underlying and being able to connect ideas across texts - Quality of highlighting likely critical to being useful The more highlighted, the less benefit Keyword mnemonic - May work short-term to learn foreign vocabulary - Long-term benefits questionable - Mixed results from studies where students produce their own keywords - Not efficient enough to warrant recommendation Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Imagery (visualisation) - Self-generated imagery Difficult to control use - May work with remembering details of imagery friendly materials - Long term benefits questionable - We need more research Summarisation - Paraphrasing the most important ideas of the text may be useful if you know what to summarise - Compares poorly to practise testing and elaborative interrogation that are both easier to learn to do well Practising in the classroom GOOD Distributed practice Practise of materials spaced out over time E.g. working on an assignment over the time period of two weeks Practise testing Self-generated information to answer questions E.g. doing a practice test under exam conditions Interleaved practice Swapping topics you are working on/revising E.g. going between weeks one and five materials and making sure you remember what they are on Elaborative interrogation Generating information based on a prompting statement E.g. asking students why there are leaves on the floor underneath a tree Self-explanation Explaining the steps taken while solving the problem E.g. when a student answers a question that you've asked you ask them to explain the thought process behind it LESS GOOD Rereading Rereading the same thing over and over again Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 E.g. before school holidays you might read an entire chapter over and over again then after the school holidays you go back and read the same chapter Keyword mnemonics Associating information to be remembered with easily remembered words/imagery/sound E.g. making up a song to go with the learning of something like ‘because’ big elephants can't always use small elevators Summarisation Paraphrasing key information Week Seven Terminology Language: is a code with structural properties, characterised by a set of rules for producing and comprehending utterances through the use of arbitrary symbols Speech: is a specific type of motor output for the production of language Communication: is the exchange of information and ideas, needs and desires between two or more individuals Syntax and Grammar Grammar is a set of rules that set forth the correct standard of usage in a language, including syntax, morphology, phonology and semantic Syntax is the study of sentences and their structure, and the constructions within sentences. Syntax tells us what goes where in a sentence Morphology is concerned with the internal organisation of words - Words consist of one or more smaller units called morphemes - A morphine is the smallest grammatical unit and is indivisible without violating the meaning or producing meaningless units Phonology is concerned with the rules governing the structure, distribution and sequencing of speech sounds and the shape of syllables - The speech sounds themselves are called phonemes - A phoneme is the smallest linguistic unit of sound that can signal a difference in meaning Language form in Preschool - By 3 most children do not fully understand the subject-verb-object word order in both production and comprehension Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Many sentence types they use are learned with specific verbs and only generalise to language rules later in development - By 5 most children have mastered the basic syntax and some use already sophisticated sentence structures - More complex language input tends to lead to first better comprehension of complex sentences and then to production of them Morphological learning seems quite difficult - Bound morphemes are phonologically reduced - Have little information value What may you see in Preschool? - Deletion of unstressed syllables (extinct > stinked) - Consonant cluster reduction (stop > top; swim - sim) Language form in Primary More elaborate noun and verb phrases - Conjoining (clause and dependant clause) K/Year 1 students an identify syllables, match onsets and rhymes with little problems - With developing letter knowledge, they learn to identify phonemes - By about 8 years of age, most children can produce most phonemes used in their language environment Language form in Secondary Children in bottom quartile for vocabulary knowledge in Year 2 > Year 6 had similar vocabulary to upper quartile of students currently in Year 2 Conversational language vocabulary contributes importantly to the development of reading comprehension Why is English vocabulary difficult? Sheer number of words in Worlds Englishes - Check how many words are in Oxford English Dictionary - No other language has even as many words as English Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Polysemy and homonyms EXAMPLE Bank Polysemy a financial institution Homonym a river bank is a homonym as it does not share etymology with the above and has a completely different meaning How are words learned? Fast mapping (early) of basic vocabulary and early academic vocabulary - Preschool / primary / EAL - Often 1 trial learning or very few excuses - A space is created in the student mental lexicon contains the word and hypothesis of what it means Slow mapping (later) word meanings are gradually enriched over time through multiple encounters and practise with varying use of the word - At the cognitive level, these form association networks in memory Week Nine Language Differences Two separate issues: English as an additional language and academic language - Across Australia, Elgihs as a second language (ESL) is also used - Another abbreviation you see used is a EAL/D that combines the two Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 In terms of EDL… - Many Sydney schools have more EAL students in Kindy than students whose first language is English - EAL students are those who have language backgrounds other than English and who are learning English as their second or additional language at school Possible language positions for EAL students - Speaks and understands fluently a language other than English (LOTE) - Speaks and understands fluently two LOTE The Dialect of Standard Australian English The standard is defined as that variety of a language used in institutions, radio, television and newspapers and taught in schools - Spoken as a mother tongue by the educated middle class - Not inherently superior to non-standard dialects, but has the highest social status - Studies demonstrate that even people who speak non-standard dialects tend to judge the standard superior to other dialects EXAMPLE of different ‘Englishes’ - General australian english - Australian aboriginal english - Pakistani english - Chinese english Etc What is a dialect? - Any given variety of a language shared by a group of speaker - Variations of a single language, not different languages - Universal phenomenon of language, exhibiting varying degrees of mutual intelligibility - Result of regional and social distractions, and can also reflect the influences of people's mother tongue or cultural history Research on Dialect - Differences are mainly at spoken level - Degrees of differences in the areas of pronunciation, grammar, vocabulary and discourse patterns - Many speakers of non-standard dialects code-switch - Standard form most prestigious or socially acceptable; often necessary for employment status Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Theories of Language Development Linguistic - Nativist - Generative - Universal grammar Psychological - Cognitive - Constructivist - Interactionist - Emergentist - Socio-cognitive Nativist/Generative/Linguistic theories The main theorist is Noam Chomsky - Later Steven Pinker, Jill de Villiers Universal grammar and Language Acquisition Device (LAD) - All language share basic syntactic rules - All humans have an innate, genetically determines knowledge of those rules from birth Cognitive explanations - Important theorists Brian MacWhitney (emergentism) Joan Bybee (constructivist), Michael Tomaseilo (social-cognitive) - Language is a system that emerges in human development through perception and use in interactions with others Language stimuli is sufficient - Chomsky correct that the learning mechanisms of behaviourism are not sufficient to learn a language based on the stimuli available HOWEVER - Language stimuli is sufficient to learn the language when combined with all the cognitive learning mechanism and understanding of social situations available to the children General cognitive mechanisms (1) - Many correct grammatical constructs learned by imitation before they are understood as examples of grammatical constructs Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 - Sufficient working memory to process what is perceived and large long-term memory to store thousands of examples General cognitive mechanisms (2) Categorisation - Brain is a pattern finding machine - When patterns are found, we want to understand the pattern by reasoning from examples to general rules (inductive reasoning) - Sufficient working memory to process what is perceived and large long-term memory to store thousands of examples > allows statistical learning - Which of these could be a work KARV – KARVE - These processes good enough to learn all units of language and maybe implicity the rules of their proper use General cognitive mechanisms (3) Chunking - Behaviours that occur together and chunked into a single unit - Check the word reading example from earlier lectures Social-cognitive skills Joint attention - Joint attention interactions provide a common referential ground for symbolic communication Intention reading - A child needs to understand the communicative intentions of others Perspective taking - A child needs to learn to take the perspective of others Communicative collaboration - A children need to be able to communicate effectively with others Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Week Ten Social Development Self-concept is the collection of ideas, attitudes and beliefs we have about ourselves - Both a general dimension and multiple specific ones; Instead of having a single set of ideas and beliefs about ourselves, we have different sets for different contexts Self Esteem is a more global satisfaction and pride we have in ourselves - Emotional component, not simply a sum of different self-concepts - Seems to be closely tied to physical self-concept - Associated with overall well-being, but not with academic success - Low self-esteem associated with a variety of negative outcomes Self Efficacy is our belief, expectation of judgement of how well or poorly we will cope with a situation given the skills we possess and the circumstances we face - Academic self efficacy will affect what kinds of activities an individual is willing to engage in (e.g. can lead to task avoidance) how much effort they invest and how long they persist, and the quality of thinking during problem solving Moral Development - Social learning and socio-cultural theories see moral development as part of socialisation - we learn the moral values of the society by observing and listening to the significant others Social Competence Refers to the social, emotional and cognitive skills and behaviours that children and adolescents need for successful social adjustment in school (and beyond) Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])  lOMoARcPSD|42317550 Social competence is a broader construct that includes 1. Specific social skills needed for a situation 2. Ability to evaluate a given situation and understand what the social criterion and expectations are 3. Ability to judge when and how to use the required social skills within a given context Peer relations are important for children's social and emotional adjustment - They provide an important context for learning social norms and what is required for successful interpersonal relationships - Between 5% and 10% of children experience chronic peer relationship difficulties Social competence and peer relations - Are naturally related > socially competent individuals tend to have higher peer status and more friendships Downloaded by Chelsea Karabulut ([email protected])