HPGD1203 Theories and Practices of Teaching and Learning PDF - OUM

HPGD1203 Theories and Practices of Teaching and Learning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  HPGD1203 THEORIES AND PRACTICES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING Dr Pauline Swee Choo Goh Dr Wong Kung Teck Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Fourth edition...

HPGD1203 Theories and Practices of Teaching and Learning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  HPGD1203 THEORIES AND PRACTICES OF TEACHING AND LEARNING Dr Pauline Swee Choo Goh Dr Wong Kung Teck Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Fourth edition 2021 (CS) Third edition 2020 Second edition 2018 First edition 2011 Developed by Centre for Instructional Design and Technology, OUM. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM), HPGD1203 All rights reserved. No part of this work may be reproduced in any form or by any means without the written permission of the President of Open University Malaysia (OUM). www.oum.edu.my Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Table of Contents Course Guide xiăxvii Topic 1 The Changing Notion of Teaching and Learning in the Digital 1 Age 1.1 New Knowledge Ecologies in the Digital Era 2 1.1.1 Connectivism 3 1.1.2 Implications of Connectivism 4 1.2 Managing Change: Rethinking Roles and Pedagogies 5 1.2.1 Paradigm Shift in Learning in the Digital Era 5 1.2.2 New Roles for Teachers 6 1.3 Teaching and Learning in an ODL Environment 7 1.3.1 Basic System in an ODL Environment 8 1.3.2 Online Teaching and Learning 9 1.4 Teaching for Lifelong Learning 10 1.4.1 Self-directed Learning 10 1.4.2 Metacognitive Awareness 11 1.4.3 Desire towards Lifelong Learning 11 1.4.4 Features to Facilitate the Capacity for Lifelong 12 Learning 1.4.5 Conclusion of Teaching for Lifelong Learning 14 Summary 15 Key Terms 16 References 16 Topic 2 Behaviourist Theories and Their Applications 18 2.1 Ivan P. Pavlov 19 2.1.1 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning 21 2.1.2 The Principles of Classical Conditioning for 22 Learning 2.1.3 Implications of Classical Conditioning for 23 Learning 2.2 Edward L. Thorndike 24 2.2.1 Implications of Connectionism for Learning 27 2.3 B. F. Skinner 28 2.3.1 SkinnerÊs Experiments 28 2.3.2 Positive and Negative Reinforcements 31 2.3.3 SkinnerÊs Schedules of Reinforcement 33 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) iv  TABLE OF CONTENTS 2.3.4 Implications of the Theory of Operant 34 Conditioning on Learning 2.4 Robert M. Gagne 34 2.4.1 GagneÊs Hierarchy of Learning 35 2.4.2 GagneÊs Five Learning Outcomes 37 2.4.3 GagneÊs Conditions of Learning ă The Nine 38 Events of Instruction and Their Application 2.4.4 Implications of GagneÊs Learning Theories 40 Summary 41 Key Terms 42 References 43 Topic 3 Constructivist Theories and Their Applications 44 3.1 Jean Piaget 46 3.1.1 PiagetÊs Four Stages of Cognitive Development 46 3.1.2 How Children Learn 48 3.1.3 Implications for Learning 49 3.2 Lev Vygotsky 50 3.2.1 Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD) 51 3.2.2 Sociocultural Theory 52 3.2.3 Implications for Learning 53 3.3 Jerome Bruner 53 3.3.1 BrunerÊs Discovery Learning and Representation 54 3.3.2 Implications for Learning 55 3.4 Howard Gardner 56 3.4.1 Multiple Intelligences 57 3.4.2 Rationale for Implementing Multiple 62 Intelligences in the Classroom 3.4.3 Identifying StudentsÊ Multiple Intelligences 62 3.4.4 Implications for Learning 63 Summary 64 Key Terms 65 References 65 Topic 4 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Cooperative Learning 66 4.1 Characteristics of Cooperative Learning 67 4.2 Benefits of Cooperative Learning 70 4.3 Various Cooperative Learning Structures 71 4.3.1 Social Structure of Cooperative Learning 71 4.3.2 Seating Arrangements in Cooperative Classrooms 73 4.3.3 Cooperative Learning Approaches 75 4.4 Effective Teaching and Learning Using Cooperative 83 Learning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TABLE OF CONTENTS  v 4.4.1 Managing the Learning Environment 83 4.4.2 Preparing Students for Cooperative Learning 85 Summary 89 Key Terms 90 References 90 Topic 5 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Discovery-based 92 Learning 5.1 What is Discovery-based Learning? 93 5.1.1 Characteristics of Discovery-based Learning 94 5.1.2 Differences between Discovery-based Learning 95 and Traditional-based Learning 5.2 Various Approaches to Learning via Discovery 96 5.3 Inquiry-based Learning as a Discovery-based Learning 99 Strategy 5.4 Assessment Issues in Discovery-based Learning 106 5.4.1 Strategically Thinking about Assessing 106 Discovery-based Learning Summary 108 Key Terms 109 References 110 Topic 6 Contemporary Instructional Strategies: Problem-based 112 Learning (PBL) 6.1 What is Problem-based Learning (PBL)? 113 6.1.1 Characteristics of PBL 114 6.1.2 Aims of PBL 115 6.1.3 Comparing PBL with Didactic Teaching 117 6.2 Elements of Problem-based Learning 118 6.3 Problem-based Learning Processes 121 6.4 Managing the PBL Environment 124 6.5 Assessment of Learning in PBL 126 Summary 132 Key Terms 133 References 133 Topic 7 Teaching and Learning with ICT 135 7.1 The Use of ICT in Teaching and Learning 137 7.2 Varying Roles of ICT in Teaching and Learning 139 7.2.1 Planning Tool 139 7.2.2 Instructional Tool 139 7.2.3 Enhance Communication and Promote Creativity 141 7.2.4 Assessment Tool 145 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) vi  TABLE OF CONTENTS 7.3 The Use of Generic Software for Learning 146 7.3.1 Generic Software 146 7.3.2 Integrating the Generic Software 150 7.3.3 Benefits of Generic Software 150 7.4 Recent Developments in ICT-enhanced Learning 152 7.4.1 EduWebTV 152 7.4.2 Interactive Whiteboard (IWB) 153 7.4.3 Web-based Software Tools 154 Summary 155 Key Terms 155 References 156 Topic 8 BloomÊs Taxonomy and Its Application 157 8.1 Three Learning Domains in BloomÊs Taxonomy 159 8.1.1 Descriptions of the Three Learning Domains 159 8.2 Six Levels of Cognition in BloomÊs Taxonomy 161 8.3 Levels of Affective and Psychomotor Domains in 168 BloomÊs Taxonomy 8.3.1 Affective Domain 168 8.3.2 Psychomotor Domain 170 8.4 Application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in Writing Learning 171 Outcomes 8.4.1 Learning Objectives and Learning Outcomes 171 8.4.2 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning 173 Outcomes for the Cognitive Domain 8.4.3 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning 175 Outcomes for the Affective Domain 8.4.4 Writing Learning Objectives and Learning 177 Outcomes for the Psychomotor Domain 8.5 Application of BloomÊs Taxonomy in Assessment of 178 Learning 8.5.1 Using BloomÊs Cognitive Domain to Assess 178 Achievement 8.5.2 Using BloomÊs Affective and Psychomotor 182 Domains in Assessment Summary 184 Key Terms 186 References 186 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TABLE OF CONTENTS  vii Topic 9 Teaching and Learning of Thinking Skills 188 9.1 Definitions of Thinking 189 9.2 Roles of Thinking in Learning 192 9.2.1 Critical Thinking 192 9.2.2 Creative Thinking 194 9.3 Essential Teaching Skills: Teaching for Thinking 195 9.3.1 Essential Teaching Skills: What are They? 195 9.4 Teaching of Critical and Creative Thinking 199 9.4.1 Strategies for Teaching Critical Thinking 199 9.4.2 Strategies for Teaching Creative Thinking 202 9.5 Assessing Thinking 207 Summary 209 Key Terms 210 References 210 Topic 10 Motivation and Learning 212 10.1 Some Theories Related to Motivation 213 10.2 General Principles of Motivation 218 10.3 Roles of Motivation in Teaching and Learning 222 10.4 Strategies to Motivate Learning 223 Summary 228 Key Terms 230 References 230 Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) viii  TABLE OF CONTENTS Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) COURSE GUIDE Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  COURSE GUIDE  xi COURSE GUIDE DESCRIPTION You must read this Course Guide carefully from the beginning to the end. It tells you briefly what the course is about and how you can work your way through the course materials. It also suggests the amount of time you are likely to spend in order to complete the course successfully. Please keep on referring to the Course Guide as you go through the course materials as it will help you to clarify important study components or points that you might miss or overlook. INTRODUCTION HPGD1203 Theories and Practices of Teaching and Learning is one of the courses offered at Open University Malaysia (OUM). This course is worth 3 credit hours and should be covered over 8 to 15 weeks. COURSE AUDIENCE This course is offered to all learners taking the Post Graduate Diploma in Teaching programme. This course is designed for the study of fundamental and contemporary theories related to teaching and learning as well as their applications in todayÊs instructional and learning process. It is structured to guide learners to explore the different theories of teaching and learning in light of changing roles of teachers and learners in the digital age. The course connects theories to the planning and designing of lessons. It aims to equip learners with the knowledge and skills of a competent and effective teacher. As an open and distance learner, you should be able to learn independently and optimise the learning modes and environment available to you. Before you begin this course, please ensure that you have the correct course materials, understand the course requirements, and know how the course is conducted. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) xii  COURSE GUIDE STUDY SCHEDULE It is a standard OUM practice that learners accumulate 40 study hours for every credit hour. As such, for a 3 credit hour course, you are expected to spend 120 study hours. Figure 1 shows the student learning time (SLT). Figure 1: Student Learning Time COURSE LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this course, you should be able to do the following: 1. Differentiate the various educational theories of teaching and learning. 2. Plan appropriate teaching strategies to promote learning. 3. Adopt teaching and learning using ICT to promote teaching skills. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  COURSE GUIDE  xiii COURSE SYNOPSIS This course is divided into 10 topics. The synopsis for each topic is listed as follows: Topic 1 describes the paradigm shifts in teaching and learning in the digital age. It highlights the roles of teachers and subscribes to the integration of conventional pedagogical principles and the use of ICT in teaching and learning. This topic also illustrates what lifelong learning is and how you, as teachers, can support and prepare your students towards their quest for lifelong learning. Topic 2 highlights behaviourist theories. To better understand the different behaviourist theories, this topic will examine four outstanding behaviourists. It will first examine Ivan PavlovÊs classical conditioning and Edward ThorndikeÊs connectionism. Next, the topic will discuss B. F. SkinnerÊs operant conditioning and finally GagneÊs theories of learning. We will also look at the implications of behaviourism on teaching and learning. Topic 3 focuses on constructivist perspectives. Constructivist perspectives are grounded in the research of Piaget, Vygotsky, Bruner as well as Gardner. Constructivists believe that students actively construct their own knowledge and that social interactions are important for knowledge construction. Implications of constructivism on teaching and learning are discussed. Topic 4 focuses on the characteristics of cooperative learning, as well as its benefits and structures. It also discusses effective cooperative learning in teaching and learning. Topic 5 discusses the characteristics of discovery-based learning and how it differs from traditional learning. It also describes the various approaches and strategies to learning via discovery including inquiry-based learning. It also discusses the various assessment issues that need to be solved in discovery-based learning. Topic 6 focuses on student-centred approaches to teaching and learning. This topic will describe three student-centred approaches, namely, cooperative learning, discovery-based learning and problem-based learning. Each approach encourages interaction among students. These approaches also encourage student inquiry and the exploration of issues and problems. You will also find some differences in the three approaches − some are used to help students improve their social skills, others are more useful for certain types of learning, while another approach uses small group learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) xiv  COURSE GUIDE Topic 7 discusses the importance of using and integrating ICT into your teaching to enhance student learning. Various ICT tools are introduced together with suggestions for its use in teaching and learning. Topic 8 introduces one of the most used taxonomies in the world ă the BloomÊs Taxonomy. This topic will also describe the three learning domains found in BloomÊs taxonomy ă the Cognitive Domain, the Affective Domain and the Psychomotor Domain. Because objectives and learning outcomes can be written at any levels within the three domains of learning, this topic suggests ways of writing appropriate objectives and learning outcomes to provide an optimal level of student learning. Topic 9 looks at better understanding „thinking skills‰ and the role they play in student learning. The topic also looks at some approaches to help develop studentsÊ thinking and how you can integrate this strategy into your teaching. Topic 10 focuses on an essential aspect of learning ă student motivation to improve academic performances. This topic takes a look at different motivational theories that have shaped the development of student motivation. As you read this topic, you should have several insights into the motivational aspects of student behaviour and use some strategies to enhance student motivation. TEXT ARRANGEMENT GUIDE Before you go through this module, it is important that you note the text arrangement. Understanding the text arrangement will help you to organise your study of this course in a more objective and effective way. Generally, the text arrangement for each topic is as follows: Learning Outcomes: This section refers to what you should achieve after you have completely covered a topic. As you go through each topic, you should frequently refer to these learning outcomes. By doing this, you can continuously gauge your understanding of the topic. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  COURSE GUIDE  xv Self-Check: This component of the module is included in strategic locations throughout the module. It may be located after one subtopic or a few subtopics. It usually comes in the form of a question. When you come across this component, reflect on what you have already learnt thus far. By attempting to answer the question, you should be able to gauge how well you have understood the subtopic(s). Most of the time, the answers to the questions can be found directly in the module itself. Activity: Similar to Self-Check, the Activity component is also placed at various locations or junctures throughout the module. This component may require you to answer questions, explore short case studies or conduct an observation or research. It may even require you to evaluate a given scenario. When you come across an Activity, you should try to reflect on what you have gathered from the module and apply it to real situations. You should, at the same time, engage in Higher Order Thinking skills (HOTs) i.e. analysing, synthesising and evaluating instead of only recalling and defining. Summary: You will find this component at the end of each topic. It summarises various important parts of each topic and helps you to recap the whole topic. By going through the summary, you should be able to gauge your knowledge retention level. Should you find points in the summary that you do not fully understand, it would be a good idea for you to revisit the details in the module. Key Terms: This component can be found at the end of each topic. You should go through this component to remind yourself of important terms or jargon used throughout the module. Should you find terms here that you are not able to explain, you should look for the terms in the module. References: A list of relevant and useful textbooks, journals, articles, electronic contents and sources can be found in this section. The list may appear in a few locations such as in the Course Guide (in the References section), at the end of every topic or at the back of the module. You are encouraged to read or refer to the suggested references to obtain additional information and enhance your overall understanding of the course. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) xvi  COURSE GUIDE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE This is an introductory course. There is no prior knowledge needed. ASSESSMENT METHOD Please refer to myINSPIRE. REFERENCES Arends, R. I. (2009). Learning to teach (8th ed.). New York, NY: McGraw-Hill. Bandura, A. (1986). Social foundations of thought and action: A social cognitive theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Bloom, B., Englehart, M., Furst, E., Hill, W., & Krathwohl, D. (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives: The classification of educational goals. Handbook I: Cognitive domain. New York, Toronto: Longmans, Green. Eggen, P. D., & Kauchak, D. P. (2001). Strategies for teachers: Teaching content and thinking skills. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon. Johnson, D. W., & Johnson, F. P. (2006). Joining together: Group theory and group skills (9th ed.). Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall. Slavin, R. E. (2009). Educational psychology: Theory and practice (9th ed.). New Jersey, NJ: Pearson Education. Woolfolk, A. (2007). Educational psychology (10th ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon. TAN SRI DR ABDULLAH SANUSI (TSDAS) DIGITAL LIBRARY The TSDAS Digital Library has a wide range of print and online resources for learners. This comprehensive digital library, which is accessible through the OUM portal, provides access to more than 30 online databases and several of them are shown in Figure 2. As an OUM learner, you are encouraged to make full use of the resources available through this library. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) Topic  The Changing Notion of 1 Teaching and Learning in the Digital Age LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Define ecologies in the digital era; 2. Describe how to manage the changing roles and pedagogies; 3. Identify various paradigm shifts in teaching and learning in the digital era; and 4. Explain the meaning of lifelong learning.  INTRODUCTION Looking back, say 20 years ago ă there were no smartphones, no cloud computing, no tablet computers and many other types of equipment we use today. The Internet then was expensive and limited to a selected group of people. Computers were also expensive, and not everyone could afford to buy one. Now, almost everyone has a smartphone! The Internet and computers have become working tools for everyone, just like your pen and pencil. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 2  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE Information and communication technology (ICT) has grown rapidly and has changed the way people work. Bill Gates once advised that education and the workplace in the 21st century cannot follow the methods, systems and technologies of the 20th century. Instead, education and the workplace in the 21st century should be using the new knowledge ecologies of the 21st century. Let us look at what these knowledge ecologies of the 21st century are all about. 1.1 NEW KNOWLEDGE ECOLOGIES IN THE DIGITAL ERA Ecology can be defined as the relationship between an organism and the environment. Therefore, knowledge ecology can be defined as learning and the digital environment of the 21st century. What does it mean when we say that the learning ecology of today has changed? It simply means that the main sources of knowledge and information (learning) are no longer our universities or schools, experts or teachers, but everywhere (including cyberspace)! In cyberspace, there are millions of websites and equally millions of articles as well as tens of millions of data and other information that can be accessed anytime, anywhere! We can access knowledge and information from our computer, iPad, smartphone, and any interactive communication facilities available. We can easily chat and discuss learning with fellow teachers and with our students. We can teach even though we are very far away from each other. With technology, like the popular saying, „the world is our oyster‰. Changes in the way teaching and learning can be conducted requires a relook at the theories to explain the impact of technology in our education system. George Siemens, an education expert from the University of Manitoba, Canada, and now Athabasca University, identifies various trends in the information technology of the 21st century as follows (Siemens, 2004): (a) Students will not be studying only one discipline but various disciplines and in various fields of knowledge; (b) Formal learning, although still necessary, will not be the only way of learning. In its place, learning will take place through different ways ă through the Internet, video-conferencing, forums, practical training and many other modes; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  3 DIGITAL AGE (c) Learning will be an ongoing process, and a „journey‰. Activities related to learning and work will no longer be separated but coordinated; (d) ICT will help shape our thinking; and (e) Much of learning can and will be supported by ICT. From these trends, George Siemens identified connectivism as a new idea to explain teaching and learning in the digital era. 1.1.1 Connectivism Connectivism as a learning theory is understood as a process that occurs within the environment. The theory posits that learning can be unclear and is not entirely under the control of an individual (Siemens, 2004). In connectivism, learning is no longer „in a straight line‰. Connectivism is driven by the understanding that new information is being continuously acquired. The ability to differentiate between important and unimportant data is vital; so too, the ability to recognise when new information has changed, to enable us to make new decisions. There are eight principles of connectivism, which are: (a) There is diversity in learning and knowledge; (b) Learning is a process of connecting the sources of information; (c) Learning can occur outside of the human self (may reside in non-human appliances/equipment); (d) The ability to know more is more important than what is currently known; (e) Encouraging and maintaining connections is needed to make learning happen; (f) The ability to see connections between ideas and concepts is a core skill; (g) Connectivist learning activities are current and up-to-date; and (h) Decision-making is a learning process. A correct answer now can be wrong tomorrow due to a change of the „environment‰ of information that influences the decision. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 4  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE SELF-CHECK 1.1 1. Describe what you understand by „the new knowledge ecology of the digital era‰. How does the new knowledge ecology of the digital era affect society? 2. Explain what you understand by connectivism. 3. Before reading 1.1.2, can you think of any implications connectivism can have on teaching and learning? ACTIVITY 1.1 Are teachers today prepared for the new knowledge ecology of the digital era? If yes, how so? If no, why not? Share your answer with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 1.1.2 Implications of Connectivism Connectivism has implications for all aspects of life. According to Siemens (2004): (a) An idea that is considered „different‰ today will someday be part of everyday life. The ability of organisations (of which school is an organisation) to encourage, foster and synthesise various interpretations of information is essential for survival in the digital era; (b) The challenge for organisations and governments is to ensure open and real-time access to media services, news and information; and (c) The design of the learning environment has changed with connectivism as a learning model; it is like a „tectonic shift‰ in society where learning is no longer an individual activity. The way people work and function have changed with advances in ICT. Therefore, education cannot be too slow to recognise and adapt to the impact of these „new tools‰ to make changes in the learning environment and give new meaning to learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  5 DIGITAL AGE 1.2 MANAGING CHANGE: RETHINKING ROLES AND PEDAGOGIES New ideas for learning are sure to impact teaching and learning. Teachers and students need to understand that the development of knowledge is no longer a monopoly of one person or an expert. Teachers need to understand that their students can easily access a variety of online sources of knowledge anywhere in the world and they can interact together to develop new knowledge. Teachers need to make adjustments to traditional ways of teaching and learning, and understand how students operate in universities and schools; for example, information storage and recall can now be taken over by computer technology. 1.2.1 Paradigm Shift in Learning in the Digital Era According to Kim (2002), there are three paradigm shifts, which are described in Table 1.1. Table 1.1: Three Paradigm Shifts in the Digital Era Paradigm Shifts Description Learning is centred on  Traditionally, learning was assumed to flow like traffic on search and discovery a „one-way street‰, where students listened passively and accepted what the teacher said. The teacher was regarded as the „expert‰ and authority in the classroom. However, in the digital era, students are encouraged to be actively seeking knowledge through various sources. They take responsibility for their own learning. Learning activities are authentic (real-life) and stimulating, motivating students to acquire knowledge that is practical for their future context and circumstances. Learning emphasises Ć In the digital era, student learning emphasises creativity and exploration, discovery, inquiry, creativity and the initiative construction of knowledge as opposed to memorisation and repetition. Ć Teachers are encouraged to be flexible and to develop creative approaches to planning and teaching. What we want are students who are able to use their creativity and initiative to solve and meet complex challenges. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 6  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE Learning emphasises  It is essential to allow students the opportunity to interact interaction and and collaborate while learning. Instructions need to be collaboration planned so that interaction happens not only between students but also between students and technology. Teachers need to provide students with aspects of „real‰ issues and problems. Through interacting and collaborating, students experience sharing and working together. 1.2.2 New Roles for Teachers Teachers have new roles to play in the paradigm shift (Kim, 2002), as shown in Table 1.2. Table 1.2: TeachersÊ Roles in the Three Paradigm Shifts TeachersÊ Roles Description Change enabler  The teacher is no longer the expert, but is the change enabler instead. Teachers are no longer the expert. Instead, a teacherÊs role needs to shift from a „knowledge provider‰ to someone who encourages and helps students construct new knowledge needed for their future. As a change enabler, the teacher helps students build their visions for the future, encourages leadership, and guides them towards their own self-development. Knowledge navigator  With the advancement of technology, especially with cloud computing, storage of data and information can happen anywhere. This has allowed people to network and share information. In such an environment, a teacher can no longer be the sole-keeper of knowledge or the „super-brain‰ that serves as the source of knowledge. Instead, the teacher can serve as a „knowledge navigator‰ to show and teach students where and how to find information. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  7 DIGITAL AGE Learning consultant Ć Teachers, now and in the future, are content specialists of their subject matter. They play important roles to identify issues that their students may face and try to facilitate effective learning. They are like a „learning consultant‰. For such a role, teachers require the necessary teaching skills ă the methodology of teaching, planning skills, questioning skills, facilitating appropriate teaching strategies, motivating and much more. However, in the digital era, teachers are also required to have digital skills ă to search, evaluate, edit and process using ICT. Ć Teachers must also be skilful in using the various social media available as part of their teaching repertoire. 1.3 TEACHING AND LEARNING IN AN ODL ENVIRONMENT Open and distance learning (ODL) is defined as an education system that is provided to students who are not physically „on site‰ ă meaning that students do not attend traditional and formal classrooms. ODL, which places pedagogy together with technology, is an instructional design system that supports students who are self-determined and independent. Because students are self- directed in their motivation to learn, ODL gives some flexibility and control to the students as to how, when and where they wish to learn. Although ODL allows for flexibility, ODL is not similar to informal learning which lacks external support. ODL, which is sometimes called e-learning, uses a unique distance education delivery method aided by ICT and supported by academic staff trained in the ODL environment. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 8  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE 1.3.1 Basic System in an ODL Environment ODL uses synchronous and asynchronous technology. Synchronous technology means that students are „present‰ at the same time to interact among themselves or with their teacher even though everyone may be far apart. A set time needs to be made to ensure that everyone is „present‰. This is made possible with Web-based VoIP (Voice over Internet Protocol), telephone, video conferencing, or live streaming (such as Skype, refer to Figure 1.1). Figure 1.1: An example of web communication ă Skype Source: http://phuddukhata.com/skype-4-1-0-166/ When students can access study materials as and when they want to (also known as online delivery), this is called the asynchronous technology. Students do not have to be together, but yet they can keep in contact with each other or with their teacher. This is made possible through message board forums, e-mail, recorded video, print materials, or voice mail/fax. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  9 DIGITAL AGE 1.3.2 Online Teaching and Learning Online teaching requires a lot of the same pedagogical skills as face to face teaching. The lesson must have clear learning objectives and learning outcomes and activities that can actively involve students. The teacher should also create a learning environment that provides opportunities for the students to interact. Frequent feedback must also be given („e-learning‰, n.d.). The work involved in online teaching can be quite heavy. Many teachers may find it difficult to cope with studentsÊ postings and replies. Some teachers find it hard to communicate with their students when they cannot see them face-to-face. Teachers also need to develop writing skills to communicate effectively in an online environment („e-learning‰, n.d.). The following aspects should be considered when teaching and learning through ODL („e-learning‰ n.d.): (a) Are expectations, programme policies and timelines made clear? (b) Are other students in the same programme known to each other to generate interaction when the programme progresses? (c) Are discussions encouraged? (d) Are diverse learning styles accommodated, that is, are the ICT capabilities of the Internet used appropriately (for example, video clips, sound files and visuals)? (e) Are the activities stimulating and can they develop higher-order thinking skills (for example, the use of case studies, compare and contrast activities, debates, role-playing exercises)? (f) Are assessments sufficiently carried out so that students can monitor their own learning (for example, study questions, sample answers, assessment guidelines, „authentic‰ assessments using real-world examples, multiple assessment strategies in addition to quizzes, papers, and exams, self- assessment and peer feedback)? Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 10  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE 1.4 TEACHING FOR LIFELONG LEARNING Lifelong learning is intentional learning that people engage in throughout their lives for personal and professional fulfilment and to improve the quality of their lives. (Dunlap & Grabinger, 2003) Lifelong learning is the search for knowledge, for personal or professional development, on a voluntary and self-directed basis. It is the process of continuous learning that motivates and empowers individuals to appreciate life and to face its challenges (Hargreaves, 2004). An OECD (2001) report suggests that lifelong learning combines „learningful work‰, „learningful play‰, and „learningful community life‰. Learning is no longer separated into age phases or into institutional forms called schools and colleges. The report further adds that teachers play important roles in promoting lifelong learning among their students by implementing changes in the way they approach their teaching and their studentsÊ learning. Dunlap and Grabinger (2003) suggest that to help students to upgrade their skills and knowledge continually, teachers need to use teaching approaches that can help students to be self-motivated and self-directed. They also suggest that with proper assistance from their teachers, students will have the capacity to develop their self-directed learning, metacognitive awareness and desire towards lifelong learning (Dunlap & Grabinger, 2003). Let us understand better what these three capacities are. 1.4.1 Self-directed Learning Knowles (1975, p. 18) has this to say about self-directed learning: (It is) the process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formatting learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  11 DIGITAL AGE Teachers can greatly help students towards self-directed learning. The following are some self-directed learning activities that teachers should include (Dunlap & Garbinger, 2003): (a) Identify learning needs; (b) Ensure that learning objectives and outcomes are well-established to address the learning needs; (c) Prepare action plans and timelines to guide learning activities; (d) Prepare the necessary resources for students to find and use for problem- solving; and (e) Help students apply information to the given problems or issues. 1.4.2 Metacognitive Awareness Metacognitive awareness is the studentsÊ own understanding of their own intellectual processes to control and further develop it. Students with well-developed metacognitive awareness generally are also good at problem solving. Moreover, students with metacognitive awareness are able to perform the following activities (Dunlap & Garbinger, 2003): (a) Consciously take control of their own learning; (b) Ability to plan and select learning strategies; (c) Use self-assessment to evaluate their own learning strategies; (d) Ability to adjust to their own learning behaviours; and (e) Use self-reflection on their own learning. 1.4.3 Desire towards Lifelong Learning Although teachers can greatly help their students towards the desire for lifelong learning, students must still want and desire to engage in it. Students who are generally more ready to accept lifelong learning show the following characteristics (Dunlap & Garbinger, 2003): (a) Willing to admit mistakes and to learn from them; (b) Always wanting to build new knowledge from existing knowledge; Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 12  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE (c) Take responsibility for their own learning; (d) Seek deep understanding and not interested in mere memorisation; (e) See learning as an ongoing activity and not just something that happens in schools; (f) Have internal motivation to learn without being asked or forced to; and (g) Do not give up easily. Teachers must try to provide opportunities for students to develop their capacity for self-directed learning, awareness of their metacognitive processes, and have a desire towards continuous learning. How can you as a teacher facilitate such capacities? The following subtopic will try to answer the question. 1.4.4 Features to Facilitate the Capacity for Lifelong Learning There are several features that a teacher should do to help facilitate their studentsÊ capacity for lifelong learning as shown in Figure 1.2. Figure 1.2: Four features for teachers to facilitate their studentsÊ capacity for lifelong learning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  13 DIGITAL AGE Let us now discuss the features in greater detail. (a) Develop StudentsÊ Responsibility Students who are responsible for their learning are purposeful and active. Teachers can encourage students by: (i) Understanding what the students know and do not know about a topic; (ii) Having specific and clear learning objectives and learning outcomes; (iii) Posing problems, issues and questions that enable them to think critically and creatively; (iv) Helping students plan their learning; (v) Setting timelines for completion of the learning objectives; and (vi) Helping students with resources that they will need to complete the learning tasks. (b) Encourage Reflection In encouraging reflection, teachers will: (i) Ask students to keep journals and diaries; (ii) Encourage students to self-evaluate through checklists; (iii) Help students to focus on their thinking processes; (iv) Provide activities that can test and challenge their knowledge; and (v) Ask students to describe their thinking, their learning, and how they make decisions. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 14  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE (c) Encourage Cooperation and Collaboration Through cooperation and collaborative work, students will: (i) Learn to share ideas, communicate and work together; (ii) Brainstorm solutions; (iii) Debate and critically argue through problems; (iv) Challenge each otherÊs knowledge; (v) Teach each other; (vi) Learn negotiation skills; and (vii) Evaluate, assess and review each otherÊs work. (d) Provide Motivating and Interesting Learning Activities Examples of motivating and interesting learning activities are those that: (i) Relate learning to real-life situations in studentsÊ lives; (ii) Give problems, issues and questions to solve that are authentic (real, or those that students encounter in their everyday lives); and (iii) Ask students to build products (a presentation, model, webpage, etc.) to show how they solve problems and issues. 1.4.5 Conclusion of Teaching for Lifelong Learning Lifelong learning is necessary for students to continuously achieve the high level of skills, knowledge and flexibility to work and function effectively in the 21st century (English & Seath, 1998). You, teachers, have the ability to help your students upgrade their skills and knowledge through the use of effective teaching methodologies, approaches and through the use of ICT. In the following topics of this module, you will better understand different theories and approaches to teaching that can nurture the development of lifelong learning skills among your students. You will want to engage your students in authentic student-centred learning experiences where they take responsibility for their own learning decisions and processes. These methods, strategies, techniques and approaches will ultimately promote your studentsÊ understanding of and engagement in lifelong learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  15 DIGITAL AGE SELF-CHECK 1.2 1. What are the three capacities that Dunlap and Grabinget (2003) suggest that teachers can help their students develop? 2. What can teachers do to facilitate their studentsÊ motivation towards lifelong learning? ACTIVITY 1.2 Do you think that studentsÊ lifelong learning efforts combined with ICT are an opportunity for change or do you think that lifelong learning and ICT diminishes a teacherÊs identity and role, and that school is no longer a place of learning? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum.  The knowledge ecology of the digital age has brought about changes in how teachers teach and students learn. Teachers are no longer the sole provider of knowledge and studentsÊ learning environment is also no longer limited to universities or schools.  Knowledge acquisition has become more diverse which makes it necessary for teachers to use information communication technology with traditional teaching methodologies.  Connectivism is a learning theory to help us understand the current knowledge ecology. Connectivism is driven by the understanding that new information is continuously being acquired.  Changes in how teachers teach and students learn, call for a paradigm shift: learning is centred on search and discovery; learning emphasises creativity and initiative; and learning emphasises collaboration and interaction. TeachersÊ roles in the paradigm shift include being a change enabler, knowledge navigator, and learning consultant. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 16  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE DIGITAL AGE  ODL enables teachers to teach and students to learn even though they are far apart from each other. ODL uses synchronous and asynchronous technology.  Students who adopt lifelong learning tendencies are self-directed in their own learning, are aware of their metacognitive capability, and continuously desire to engage in lifelong learning.  Teachers can help facilitate studentsÊ lifelong learning by developing their sense of responsibility, providing motivating and interesting activities, encouraging cooperative and collaborative work, and encouraging self- reflection. Asynchronous technology Lifelong learning Change enabler Metacognitive awareness Connectivism Open and distance learning (ODL) Digital era Paradigm shift Knowledge ecology Self-directed learning Knowledge navigator Synchronous technology Learning consultant Dunlap, J. C., & Grabinger, S. (2003). Preparing students for lifelong learning: A review of instructional features and teaching methodologies. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 16(2), 6ă25. E-leaning: Higher Ed in a Web 2.0 World. (n.d.). Retrieved August 1, 2011, from http://www.columbia.edu/cu/tat/pdfs/e-learning.pdf English, H., & Seath, I. (1998). Lifelong learning: The essential guide. Somerset, England: TEC and TQMI. Hargreaves, D. H. (2004). Learning for life: The foundations of lifelong learning. Bristol, England: Policy Press. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 1 THE CHANGING NOTION OF TEACHING AND LEARNING IN THE  17 DIGITAL AGE Kim, C. Y. (2002). Teachers in digital knowledge-based society: New roles and vision. Asia Pacific Education Review, 3(2), 144ă148. Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. New York, NY: Association Press. OECD. (2001). What schools for the future? Paris, France: OECD. Siemens, G. (2004). A learning theory for the digital age. Retrieved August 1, 2011, from http://www.elearnspace.org/Articles/connectivism.htm Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) T op i c  Behaviourist Theories and 2 Their Applications LEARNING OUTCOMES By the end of this topic, you should be able to: 1. Explain Ivan PavlovÊs classical conditioning theory; 2. Explain Edward ThorndikeÊs reinforcement theory of learning; 3. Identify B. F. SkinnerÊs theory of operant conditioning; and 4. Discuss GagneÊs conditions of learning theory.  INTRODUCTION Behaviourist theories focus on aspects of human behaviour that can be observed and measured. Behaviourist psychologists believe that there are behaviours that we can see and observe. They believe that the outcome of learning is change in behaviour. Behaviourist theories focus on how pleasant and unpleasant outcomes of behaviour can change a studentÊs behaviour over a period of time (Slavin, 2009). Among the well-known behaviourist psychologists and their works that we are going to look at are Ivan P. Pavlov, Edward L. Thorndike, B. F. Skinner and Robert M. Gagne. Let us begin with one of the earliest behaviourist psychologists ă Ivan P. Pavlov. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  19 2.1 IVAN P. PAVLOV Ivan Petrovich Pavlov (see Figure 2.1) was born in Kyazan, Russia. He lived from 1849 to 1936. He held the title of professor in Pharmacology at the Institute of Experimental Medicine in St Petersburg, Russia. In 1904, he won the Nobel Prize for his study of physiology and medicine. Figure 2.1: Ivan Pavlov Source: Nobelprize.org (2008) How did Pavlov become so well known in educational psychology? In almost all education psychology books, you will see his name and his PavlovÊs Dog experiment mentioned. Let us explore this experiment that he is so famous for. At the end of the 1890s and early 1900s, Pavlov and his colleagues had been studying the digestive processes (specifically the gastric function) of dogs. In these studies, Pavlov and his colleagues wanted to see how often saliva was produced when food was placed near the mouth of a hungry dog. They found that even before the food was delivered to the mouth of the hungry dog, it was already salivating. Pavlov called this phenomenon the „psychic secretion‰. In subsequent experiments, he discovered that the dog was actually reacting to the laboratory coats Pavlov and his colleagues were wearing. Although no food was in sight, once the dogs saw the laboratory coat, they would salivate. This was because every time the dog was served food, the person who served it was wearing a laboratory coat. Therefore, the dog reacted as if the food was on its way whenever it saw a laboratory coat. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 20  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS To further test his hypothesis, Pavlov conducted another experiment. This time, Pavlov struck a bell before the hungry dog was fed. The dog learnt to associate the sound of the bell with food. After a while, at the sound of the bell, although no food was there, the hungry dog responded by salivating. According to Pavlov, each stimulus (the bell) will generate a response (salivating). Put in another way ă the response is anything that comes from the behaviour of the stimulus. Take an everyday example ă sometimes when we hear the sound of a fork and a spoon clanking against each other, we immediately start to think about food. The stimulus (the sound of the fork and spoon) has generated our response to being hungry (hunger is the behaviour). A stimulus is anything that raises the energy of the response. Through his study, Pavlov concluded that learning could occur as a result of the association between the stimulus and the response. Learning that occurs through the association is called conditioning and learning that occurs as a result of two stimuli is known as classical conditioning, as shown in Figure 2.2. Figure 2.2: Classical conditioning Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  21 2.1.1 Basic Principles of Classical Conditioning Let us look at some basic principles associated with classical conditioning, as shown in Figure 2.3. Figure 2.3: Four basic principles associated with classical conditioning Let us now discuss each principle in greater detail. (a) Unconditioned Stimulus The unconditioned stimulus is one that automatically creates a response. In PavlovÊs dog, the food automatically caused the dog to salivate ă salivating is a natural occurrence. The food is the unconditioned stimulus. For example, when you smell nasi lemak, you may automatically feel hungry ă therefore, nasi lemak is the unconditioned stimulus. (b) Unconditioned Response PavlovÊs dog automatically salivated in the presence of food, without any training. The response of salivating is known as the unconditioned response. In our nasi lemak example, the feeling of hunger is in response to the smell of the nasi lemak. Feeling hungry is our unconditioned response. An unconditioned response occurs naturally in response to the unconditioned stimulus. (c) Conditioned Stimulus In PavlovÊs experiment, at first, when Pavlov rang the bell, the dog did not respond. However, when Pavlov started to ring the bell each time food was served, the dog began to associate the bell with the food. After a while, each time Pavlov rang the bell, the dog would salivate even if there was no food. The bell had become the conditioned stimulus. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 22  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Suppose that when you smelled nasi lemak, you also heard the sound of a spoon clinking on a plate. Actually, the sound of the spoon clinking has no association with the smell of the nasi lemak. However, if the sound of the spoon clinking is paired many times with the smell of the nasi lemak, every time you hear a spoon clinking, you will think of the nasi lemak or feel hungry. The sound of the clinking spoon is the conditioned stimulus. (d) Conditioned Response In PavlovÊs experiment, the dog would salivate at the sound of the bell, even if there was no food. Similarly, in our nasi lemak example, the conditioned response would be feeling hungry whenever you heard the sound of the spoon clinking even if there was no nasi lemak or its smell. Refer to Figure 2.2 again for a pictorial depiction of the unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses. ACTIVITY 2.1 Can you think of any other situations where unconditioned and conditioned stimuli and responses occur in our everyday lives? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.1.2 The Principles of Classical Conditioning for Learning Three important concepts generated by the principles of classical conditioning for learning are as shown in Table 2.1. Table 2.1: Concepts Generated by the Principles of Classical Conditioning Concepts Generated by the Principles of Classical Description Conditioning Generalisation  Generalisation means that the same stimulus will produce the same reaction.  For example, five-year-old Amy has been conditioned to be afraid of a white toy rabbit. Amy will also feel afraid each time she sees any toy that is white. So, the anxiety felt in a white toy rabbit has been generalised to other white toys. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  23 Discrimination  Discrimination means that individuals have the ability to differentiate a particular stimulus from other stimuli.  For example, if the sound of the spoon clinking is the conditioned stimulus, discrimination means that you will be able to tell the difference between the spoon clinking sound and other sounds. In the case of five- year-old Amy, she will not be afraid if the toy is a doll or a toy car because the two toys are very different from the white toy rabbit. Extinction  Extinction means that when the unconditioned stimulus (for example, the smell of nasi lemak) is no longer paired by the conditioned stimulus (sound of spoon clinking), and eventually the conditioned response (hunger) would decrease or disappear. ACTIVITY 2.2 Can you think of how the principles of classical conditioning can be used in your classroom? Explain and discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.1.3 Implications of Classical Conditioning for Learning Implications of classical conditioning for learning include the following: (a) Our students should be provided with a learning environment that gives them pleasant emotions, such as enthusiasm, excitement and enjoyment in their learning; (b) Teachers must try to relate a positive experience (conditioned stimulus) with the learning task (unconditioned stimulus) to produce the conditioned response through activities that are interesting; and (c) Learning situations that cause students to feel anxiety, disappointment or anger should be avoided. For example, many students feel very anxious about mathematics. Using classical conditioning can help lessen their anxiety. The teacher can make the learning interesting. Once the students find it interesting, they will give attention to the lesson. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 24  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.2 EDWARD L. THORNDIKE During the time of Pavlov, another psychologist was also interested in the study of how a stimulus can condition human behaviour. He was Edward Lee Thorndike (see Figure 2.4). He lived from 1874 to 1949. He was considered a founder of American psychology. Like Pavlov, he was also famous for his various experiments that involved animals, but instead of dogs, ThorndikeÊs experiments involved cats. Figure 2.4: Edward Thorndike Source: adultededucation.pbworks.com In the late 1890s and early 1900s, Thorndike started to study how animals learnt. He believed that learning is a process of trial and error or select and connect. Thorndike believed that learning, if done many times, would cause the desired response. He called it his theory of connectionism. To test his trial and error learning or connectionism, Thorndike invented an experiment that is still popular today. His experiments used a cage called the puzzle box. A diagram of the puzzle box is shown in Figure 2.5. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  25 Figure 2.5: One of ThorndikeÊs puzzle boxes Source: Chance & Delaware (1999) He placed a cat in the puzzle box. Outside the puzzle box was some fish. The cat was encouraged to get the fish. Thorndike would monitor how long it took the cat to escape and reach the fish. He observed that the cat tried many different ways to escape. Eventually, the cat discovered a lever that it could step on to open the puzzle box. After the cat had managed to escape, Thorndike would put the cat into the puzzle box again, and he would monitor how long it took the cat to escape again. This was repeated several times. After a few times, the cat learnt that by stepping on the lever, it could escape. The time taken for the cat to step on the lever became shorter and shorter. Thorndike believed that the catÊs behaviour (stepping on the lever) produced a pleasing effect (ability to escape). This created a connection between a stimulus (being in the puzzle box) and the response (stepping on the lever). This response would occur faster and faster because the cat had learnt (produced a behaviour) that was pleasing (ability to escape). From this experiment, Edward Thorndike generated his three laws: Law of Readiness; Law of Exercise; and Law of Effect. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 26  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Let us see what each means. (a) The Law of Readiness The Law of Readiness refers to the readiness and preparedness that must be present before any students take action. If the students are motivated and excited to learn, they are more willing to pay attention to their teacher. However, if they are ready and prepared to learn and then the teacher does not enter the class, they will feel frustrated instead. On the other hand, if the students are not ready and willing but they are forced to do something, then learning will not be productive as it will cause them to be frustrated. (b) The Law of Exercise The Law of Exercise refers to a behaviour that can be strengthened by continuous practice but will be weakened without reinforcement. The connection between stimulus and response is strengthened through repetitive training. Students will be able to be very good at a skill if training is provided. Similarly, if a student continuously repeats the mathematical formula (stimulus), the student will be able to remember the formula more easily (response). The Law of Exercise is often used in rote learning. (c) The Law of Effect The Law of Effect explains that any behaviour that is followed by a pleasing result is likely to be repeated. If a student is given a reward after showing good examination results, the student is likely to want to continue to do well in future exams. In this case, the response in a connection is followed by a pleasing event. Therefore, the strength of the connection is increased. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  27 Let us go back to ThorndikeÊs cat experiment. When the cat was given an electric shock when it got out of the cage, the result was pain. After a while, the cat would not have the motivation to get out of the cage anymore. Therefore, any behaviour that is followed by an unpleasant result is also likely to be stopped. In this case, the response in a connection is followed by a painful event. Therefore, the strength of the connection is decreased or stopped completely. ACTIVITY 2.3 1. Look up the Internet for articles on Edward Thorndike to read more about his work on connectionism and how it is used even in todayÊs classrooms. Present your findings in the next tutorial session. 2. Can you think of how ThorndikeÊs three laws can be used in your classroom? Discuss with your coursemates in the myINSPIRE online forum. 2.2.1 Implications of Connectionism for Learning There are some implications of the theory of connectionism for learning. Based on the theory of connectionism, teachers should: (a) Provide a variety of stimuli to create motivation and an enjoyable learning environment; (b) Have revisions, tasks, quizzes and exercises to reinforce learning; (c) Give rewards as reinforcement for correct responses; (d) Determine the appropriate environment for learning; and (e) Always evaluate studentsÊ readiness and willingness. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 28  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.3 B. F. SKINNER B. F. Skinner or Burrhus Frederic Skinner (see Figure 2.6) was an American psychologist, author, inventor and poet. He obtained his doctoral degree (PhD) in psychology from Harvard University. He was the Edgar Pierce Professor of Psychology from Harvard University in 1958 and held this title until he retired in 1974. He died at the age of 86 in 1990. Figure 2.6: B. F. Skinner Source: www.biography.com 2.3.1 Skinner’s Experiments Skinner was interested in the theories of classical conditioning proposed by Pavlov and other psychologists who said that every response was generated from a known stimulus. Pavlov and the other psychologists argued that the behaviours of people were passive, that is, individuals cannot control their behaviour. On the other hand, Skinner believed that just because a stimulus was presented, it did not necessarily mean that an individual was going to react in any specific way. Skinner believed that individuals can control their own behaviour and that learning can also occur as a result of previous behaviours. Skinner was famous for his theory of operant conditioning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  29 To test his theory, Skinner conducted various experiments. (a) SkinnerÊs First Experiment Skinner created a box which he called the Skinner box, in which he put animals, specifically rats. A diagram of the Skinner box is shown in Figure 2.7. Figure 2.7: A rat in the Skinner box Source: Skinner psychology: operant conditioning (n.d.) Skinner began his experiment by placing a hungry rat inside the Skinner box. In the box, there was a tray, which was fixed and connected to a lever. If the rat pressed on the lever, food would drop into the tray. At first, the hungry rat was seen running around inside the box in search of food. When the rat accidentally pressed the lever, food would drop out. The rat learnt that each time it pressed on the lever, food would drop into the tray. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 30  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Skinner would take the rat out, and once the rat was put back in the box, the rat would immediately go to the lever and press the lever, again and again, to fill up the tray with food. Skinner explained that the rat was moving around (or operating) in its environment (the Skinner box) looking for food. During this moving around or operating, the rat discovered a reinforcer ă the food. The food (reinforcer) increased the operant which was the ratÊs behaviour (pressing the lever) which occurred before the reinforcer. Skinner concluded that a behaviour that was followed by a reinforcer increased the chances of the behaviour (operant) being repeated. (b) SkinnerÊs Second Experiment In another experiment, Skinner disconnected the tray from the lever. Therefore, when the rat pressed on the lever, no food dropped out. The rat pressed the lever many times but soon learnt that no food was going to drop out. After a while, the rat stopped pressing on the lever. Skinner explained that when the rat learnt that there was no more food dropping out (absence of a reinforcer), the rat stopped pressing the lever (operant behaviour). Skinner called this the extinction of the operant behaviour. Skinner concluded that a behaviour that was no longer followed by the reinforcer decreased the chances of the behaviour being repeated. SkinnerÊs work focused on the association between behaviour and its results. In other words, if a pleasing result immediately followed a studentÊs behaviour, the student would repeat the behaviour. Reinforcers (or reinforcements) are things done to encourage the behaviour to be repeated. If students enjoy reading books, they will probably read more often. If they find the stories boring, they may read less often and choose other activities instead (Slavin, 2009). Reinforcers or reinforcements can be either positive or negative. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  31 2.3.2 Positive and Negative Reinforcements Positive reinforcement strengthens a behaviour or causes the behaviour to be repeated when it is presented. In the classroom, positive reinforcement is given as a form of motivation in learning activities. Examples of positive reinforcement in the classroom are words of praise after a student has done a task or answered a question, a smile, a pat on the back, gifts and so on. However, teachers must be sincere when giving reinforcement. According to Brophy (1981), the following are characteristics of positive reinforcement (praises): (a) Praise must be sincere; (b) Praise should be quickly given; (c) Praise specific behaviours only; (d) Commend students for their effort; (e) Praise without favouritism; and (f) Praise studentsÊ spontaneous responses. Negative reinforcement is the immediate response that is uncomfortable or painful that an individual would want to avoid. The negative reinforcement that is uncomfortable (or painful) can be avoided if the individual makes the correct response or responses as required. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 32  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS For example, AhmadÊs father would scold him (negative reinforcement) for not doing his homework given by his teachers. As Ahmad is tired of the scolding from his father, Ahmad will make sure he completes the work given by his teacher (correct operant behaviour). AhmadÊs actions of doing his homework takes away the fatherÊs scolding. In another example, Swee Lan sees fire, and she touches it. This immediately produces pain (negative reinforcement). Swee Lan will learn not to touch fire again so that she does not get the pain. In this case, the negative reinforcement occurs immediately following the behaviour. Please do not confuse negative reinforcement as punishment. It is not! Remember that positive or negative reinforcements strengthen behaviour, but punishment weakens behaviours (Slavin 2009). The most common example of punishment is when you discipline your student. For example ă you ask Ah Kow to stand in front of the class because he is talking when you are teaching. Ah Kow will associate being punished with the behaviour (talking in class). Ah Kow does not like the punishment. The next time you are teaching, he will most likely not talk in class. Punishment weakens the behaviour. Table 2.2 shows what this means. Table 2.2: Positive/Negative Reinforcement and Positive/Negative Punishment Increases and Strengthens Decreases and Weakens Situation Behaviour Behaviour Given Positive reinforcement Positive punishment Taken away Negative reinforcement Negative punishment Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  33 2.3.3 Skinner’s Schedules of Reinforcement To help teachers with reinforcements, Skinner created the schedules of reinforcement. Schedules of reinforcement refer to the number of times that reinforcements are given. This schedule is shown in Table 2.3. Table 2.3: Schedules of Reinforcement Reinforcement Meaning Example Fixed Ratio (FR) Reinforcement is given A teacher allows her students to go to after a fixed number of the library after they have finished 10 behaviours. mathematics problems (10 behaviours for one reinforcement). Variable Ratio The number of behaviours Students raise their hands to answer (VR) required for reinforcement questions, but they will not know if is not fixed. the teacher will give them the reinforcement by allowing them to answer. Fixed Interval Reinforcement is available Students study very hard only before (FI) only at certain times. a final examination is due. It is suggested that it is better to give frequent quizzes to encourage students to learn. Variable Interval Reinforcement is available A teacher making spot checks of her (V1) sometimes but not at students who are doing assignments other times, and students in class. Students are reinforced if they do not have any idea are working well at that particular when a behaviour will be moment. Because the students do not reinforced. know when the teacher will next check on them, they must do good work all the time. Source: Summarised from Slavin (2009, pp. 140ă141) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 34  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS ACTIVITY 2.4 Go to www.bfskinner.org to learn more about SkinnerÊs work on human behaviour and how it is related to learning in classrooms today. In the myINSPIRE online forum, discuss the following question: How is SkinnerÊs theory of operant conditioning different from PavlovÊs classical conditioning? 2.3.4 Implications of the Theory of Operant Conditioning on Learning The following are implications of the theory of operant conditioning on learning: (a) Behaviour can be modified or improved through the use of appropriate positive or negative reinforcements; (b) Using positive reinforcement allows students to focus on the positive aspects of the situation. Punishment, when applied immediately following the negative behaviour, can be effective. However, punishment can also create other negative responses such as anger; and (c) Plan and use SkinnerÊs reinforcement schedule to ensure that appropriate behaviour is strengthened. 2.4 ROBERT M. GAGNE Robert M. Gagne (see Figure 2.8) was born in 1916. He died in 2002 at the age of 86. He received his doctorate (PhD) in Psychology from Brown University, the United States in 1940. Between 1949 and 1958, Gagne became the director of the Perceptual and Motor Skills Laboratory of the United States Air Force. It was during his time in the air force that he began to develop many of his theories of learning. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  35 Figure 2.8: Robert Gagne Source: Advanced educational psychology (photograph of Gagne) (2001) Gagne is well known for his: (a) Eight levels of learning which he called the hierarchy of learning. Each level will only be achieved if the student has mastered the level before it; (b) Five observable and measurable learning outcomes; and (c) Instructional model which he named the nine events of instruction. This has been GagneÊs most famous learning theory which he called the conditions of learning. Let us look at each of GagneÊs conditions of learning in greater detail. 2.4.1 Gagne’s Hierarchy of Learning GagneÊs hierarchy of learning is the transition from behaviourism to cognitivism. Cognitivism is the study of studentsÊ mental or intellectual processes. Unlike behaviourism, cognitivism focuses on mental processes that cannot be observed or seen that students use to learn and remember new information (Slavin, 2009). Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 36  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS Table 2.4 explains GagneÊs eight levels of situations in which students learn. The hierarchy of learning shows that students move from behaviourist learning to higher cognitive processes of learning. Table 2.4: GagneÊs Eight Levels of Situations GagneÊs Eight Levels Hierarchy of Description of Situations Learning 1. Signal Learning: When a teacher puts her finger to her Behavioural Classical lips, students will know that she wants Conditioning ă them to keep quiet. Similarly, if a teacher Response to a signal enters the class, the students will stand up. Students have been conditioned to this behaviour. 2. Stimulus-Response: Reinforcement is important to strengthen Behavioural Operant the relationship between the stimulus Conditioning ă and response. Muthu shows his father Response to given his report card that shows as in all his stimulus subjects. MuthuÊs father praises him with „Very good, Muthu.‰ Muthu will repeat that behaviour again (excelling in studies) to receive praise from his father. 3. Chaining: Linking It is the process where most complex Behavioural two or more stimulus skills (e.g. riding a bicycle or playing the response connections piano) are learned. It is also used in the to form a more learning of skills such as games, sports, complex skill repairing electronic equipment, etc. 4. Verbal Association: To explain something, students will Behavioural Linking two or more need the language skills to be able to words or ideas relate facts and data. Students require the language skills they have learnt previously. 5. Discrimination: Discrimination learning is important so Behavioural Responding in that students are able to filter out different ways to important information from unimportant different items information; which facilitates the process of remembering. Ahmad likes motorbikes and is able to discriminate (differentiate) one brand from another although they may look alike. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  37 6. Concepts: Able to With conceptual learning, students are Behavioural- classify and able to classify their surrounding world Cognitive categorise according to colours, shapes, numbers and so on. 7. Rules: Combining This learning involves a combination of Behavioural- two or more two or more concepts that are related in a Cognitive concepts sequence or series. For example, 1 + 2 = 3; or that winds blow from high pressure to low-pressure areas. 8. Problem Solving: Problem solving involves the use Cognitive Combining known of principles, generalisations, concepts rules/principles into and rules to solve problems in new new situations to situations. There are steps in the process solve a problem of solving problems such as knowing the problem, finding information, making hypotheses, choosing best solutions, testing hypotheses, and formulating. According to Gagne, this is the highest level of cognitive processes. Source: Adapted from Slavin (2009) and Woolfolk (2007) 2.4.2 Gagne’s Five Learning Outcomes According to Gagne, studentsÊ learning outcomes that can be observed as a result of learning are the studentsÊ capabilities. There are five capabilities (or learning outcomes) as shown in Table 2.5. Table 2.5: Five Capabilities or Learning Outcomes Capability or Description Learning Outcome Intellectual skills Knowing „how‰ to organise and use verbal and mathematical symbols, concepts and rules to solve a problem Cognitive Learning strategies needed to process information strategies Information Knowing „what‰ ă knowledge and facts Motor skills Ability to coordinate movements Attitudes Feelings and emotions developed from positive and negative experiences Source: Adapted from Tate, Goad & Gralish (n.d.) Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 38  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS 2.4.3 Gagne’s Conditions of Learning – The Nine Events of Instruction and Their Application Let us look at GagneÊs conditions of learning and how they can be used in your classroom. There are nine events of instruction, as shown in Table 2.6. Table 2.6: GagneÊs Nine Events of Instruction Event of Instruction Description Gain attention The first step is to try to raise your studentsÊ interest and motivation to learn. Some of the ways are asking questions, telling a story, showing a video or presenting a case study. Inform learner of objectives It is important to inform the students the purpose of the lesson and also what is expected of them from the lesson. This will help reduce anxiety in students because they know what they should be studying. Stimulate recall of prior Relate current lesson/subject matter to concepts that learning students already know. In this way, students will be able to retain concepts and new information better. They can also make the connection to their personal experiences, and the learning will be more meaningful. Present stimulus material At this stage, you present the content that you want your students to learn. To help your students understand better, the content should be organised meaningfully. Because a classroom will have different levels of student abilities, it is important that you use different methods and strategies for teaching. You can help your students relate the new material to their own lives by using relevant examples and real-life situations as part of your teaching strategies. Provide learner guidance Some examples of student guidance come in the form of visual materials such as graphs, videos, case studies, mnemonics and analogies. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  39 Elicit performance Once the content/subject matter is presented and hopefully understood, your students need an opportunity to practise what they have learnt. This can take in the form of exercises, group work, discussions, presentations, etc. It is important to remember that student practice must be: Ć Relevant to the objective; and Ć Provided frequently and immediately. Provide feedback Good feedback should: Ć Provide comments about studentsÊ performance; Ć Be immediate and frequent; and Ć Enable students to correct their own mistakes when possible. Assess performance At the end of a course, your studentsÊ performance is assessed in order to determine if learning has occurred. Enhance retention and Try to help your students to apply what they have transfer learnt by providing them with situations where they can use the new knowledge. Source: Adapted from Gagne & Medsker (1999) ACTIVITY 2.5 Form a small group with your coursemates. Do the following in the myINSPIRE online forum: (a) Expand on the information you have read by providing some examples how you can apply it in your own lives. (b) Describe what you think are the strengths and/or weaknesses of operant conditioning that can help you control student behaviour in your classroom. (c) Discuss some of the problems you may face when you use positive and negative reinforcements. Use examples from your own childhood or from your own teaching experiences. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM) 40  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS SELF-CHECK 2.1 1. How many conditions of learning did Gagne theorise? A. 5 B. 9 C. 2 D. 7 2. Which of these is not a condition of learning? A. Gain attention B. Elicit performance C. Cooperative learning D. Enhance retention and transfer 3. Which of the following is not one of GagneÊs learning outcomes? A. Intellectual skills B. Mathematical skills C. Cognitive strategies D. Motor skills 2.4.4 Implications of Gagne’s Learning Theories Implications of GagneÊs learning theories for learning are: (a) Gagne emphasised that students must be supported to move from simple to more complicated learning levels ă from behaviourism to cognitivism. Teachers must ensure students have mastered the basic skills necessary to help them in more complicated skills. Copyright © Open University Malaysia (OUM)  TOPIC 2 BEHAVIOURIST THEORIES AND THEIR APPLICATIONS  41 (b) To use the hierarchy of learning, a teacher can start by working backwards from the final learning objectives, that is, teachers can ask „What are the intellectual skills my students would need to have mastered before they can learn the new objectives?‰ Teachers can use the hierarchy of learning to identify these prerequisites in order for learning to take place at each level. (c) The nine events of instruction can be arranged by the teacher to support learning processes.  Behaviourist theories operate on the principle of „stimulus-response.‰ All behaviour is caused by external stimuli (operant conditioning) and can be explained without the need to consider internal mental states or consciousness.  The primary means of investigating learning is by observation.  Learning involves behavioural change. Some behaviourists proposed that if no observable change happens, then no learning has occurred.  Some principles of behaviourist theories are: ă Positive or negative reinforcement increases or strengthens a behaviour. ă Extinction is the gradual elimination of behaviour when reinforcement is taken away. ă Positive or negative punishment weakens a behaviour. It must not be mistaken for negative reinforcement! ă Schedules of reinforcement can be used to increase the number of desired behaviours.  Originators and important contributors of behaviourist theories are Pavlov, Thorndike, Skinner, and Gagne (who moved towards cognitivism too): ă Pavlov developed the theory known now as classical conditioning through the stud