Earth Science Handouts PDF

EARTH SCIENCE HANDOUTS - The theory also states that the universe is “living” and keeps Coverage: pulsating in and out. - Origin of the Universe & Solar...

EARTH SCIENCE HANDOUTS - The theory also states that the universe is “living” and keeps Coverage: pulsating in and out. - Origin of the Universe & Solar Proponent: Arthur Eddington System (1917-1918) - Earth Subsystem - Minerals and Rocks: - Characteristics of Minerals - Properties of Minerals - Rock Formation - The Rock Cycle - Mineral Resources - Water Resources - Soil Resources ▪ The Origin of the Universe & Solar System Nebular Theory - states that the ❖ Hypothesis Vs. Theory solar system developed out of an Hypothesis – proposed for the sake interstellar cloud of dust and gas; of argument so that it can be tested to called a nebula. see if it might be true. Proponent: Emanual Swedenborg Theory - principle that has been (1734) formed as an attempt to explain things that have already been substantiated by data. ❖ Theories of the Universe Steady State Theory - explains that the universe did not originate from an explosive beginning, because it did not have a beginning. - number of galaxies in the universe is constant and new galaxies are being created continuously out of the empty space Proponents: Fred Hoyle, Hermann Bondi, Thomas Gold (1940’s – 1960’s) Big Bang Theory - began at a single point where it expanded and stretched to grow as large as it is right now (bang). Proponent: George Lemaitre (1927) Pulsating Theory – expansion and contraction of the universe. 1 ▪ Earth Subsystem - Amounts to precious little water, less than half a percent of the ❖ Characteristics of Earth world’s water supply. 1. Not too close or far from the Saltwater – water of the seas and sun/moon. oceans is salty because of the vast 2. Large enough to hold an atmosphere quantity of mineral salts dissolved in it and hydrosphere. from: 3. Temperature range to allow water to exist in liquid as well as gaseous, and - Rocks on land that is being eroded solid forms. to the ocean; and - Opening of the seafloors. ❖ Four Subsystems Geosphere – composes the major zones Atmosphere – invisible layer of gases of the earth: that surrounds the planet. It serves as the 1. Crust – outermost & thinnest following: portion of the earth. - protection from meteorites, 2. Mantle – solid & largest zone of ultraviolet rays, and solar flares. the earth - temperature and weather 3. Core – very hot, solid & liquid regulator. - Composed of Iron & Nickel Biosphere – life sphere of the earth, where all the living organisms can be found. - Made up of the parts of earth where life exists - “zone of life” Layers of the Atmosphere: - Complex interaction and interdependent relationship of Troposphere – where almost all-weather different life forms which all co- activity takes place. exist. Stratosphere – where Ozone layer can be found. Mesosphere – above the stratosphere, where meteors burn up. Thermosphere – where Northern and Southern lights (auroras) occur. Exosphere – highest region of the atmosphere, where satellites can be found. Important Note: These four Hydrosphere – water sphere of the earth subsystems are interconnected with processes that involves the transfer of - 97% saltwater matter and energy such as nutrient - 3% freshwater cycle, hydrologic cycle, etc. The Freshwater – lakes, ponds, rivers, and earth’s subsystem is where matter streams are freshwater habitats and energy flow to make life on earth possible. 2 ▪ Minerals and Rocks: Rock ❖ Properties of Minerals Formation o Physical Properties o Chemical Properties The Earth’s crust is made up of two things: Hardness – measure of the resistance of a mineral to scratching. It is measured Minerals – are useful chemical using the Mohs Hardness Scale made by substances that are naturally occurring Friedrich Mohs. on the ground. - The building blocks of rocks. Rocks – composed of different minerals. ❖ Characteristics of Minerals 1. It must be solid. 2. It must occur naturally. 3. It is made of non-living material. 4. It has a definite chemical formula. 5. It has a crystal structure. ❖ Where do minerals come from? Luster – how the surface of a mineral reflects light. Two types: 1.Metallic 2.Non-metallic From Earth’s processes of: Crystal form/habit – external shape of a 1. Cooling and solidifying of molten crystal or group of crystals is materials. displayed/observed as these crystals 2. Evaporation of water. grow in open spaces. 3. Chemical reaction of different substances. Three types: 1.Euhedral – fully-developed ❖ Two Types of Cooling 2.Subhedral – partially-developed 3.Anhedral – irregularly-formed Color – main body of a mineral. - A unique identifying property of certain minerals. Streak – the color of a mineral in “powdered form”. 3 Fracture – exhibits broken surfaces that Example: Halite are irregular and non-planar. Organic Sedimentary Rocks – formed Cleavage – the property of some from fossils-remains of dead organism minerals to break along parallel repetitive such as bones and shells, which are planes of weakness to form smooth, flat cemented together and form into a rock. surfaces. Metamorphic Rocks – formed when a Specific Gravity – a measure to express rock is exposed to extreme pressure and the density of a mineral. heat which causes the minerals in the rock to change into different minerals. Minerals with specific gravity of: Example: Marble - Below 2: light minerals - 4.5 and above: heavy minerals Contact Metamorphism – where rock minerals and texture are changed, mainly by heat, due to contact with magma. ❖ Special Properties Example: Hornfels Magnetism Fluorescence Regional Metamorphism – is a type of Reactivity metamorphism where rock minerals and texture are changed by heat and pressure over a wide area or region. ▪ Minerals and Rocks: The Rock Example: Schist & Gneiss Cycle The Rock Cycle: Igneous Rocks – or magmatic rock, forms when a magma or lava cools then hardens. Intrinsic Igneous Rocks – rocks are formed from magma underground; magma cools slowly below the Earth’s surface. Examples: Pegmatite & Granite Extrusive Igneous Rocks – formed from molten rocks above the ground. Rocks are made of crystals but when lava cools very fast, no crystals are formed hence, the rock looks shiny and glasslike. Examples: Basalt & Scoria Sedimentary Rocks – forms when rocks ▪ Mineral Resources are weathered, it breaks down and - are the quantity of natural loosens the surface minerals of rock so concentrations of solid, they can be transported away by agents liquid, and gaseous of erosion such as water, wind and ice. material in or on the Earth’s crust. Chemical Sedimentary Rocks – these rocks are commonly found in the ocean. Two mineral deposits: Heat from the sun causes the mineral rich 1. Metallic minerals water to evaporate and leaves material a. contain metal in the raw behind. form 4  b. these metals are generally valuable minerals from the ore. Different associated with igneous techniques are used depending on the rocks nature of the ore. Some common c. they are usually hard and methods include gravity separation, have a shine on their own magnetic separation, froth flotation, and d. minerals like iron, copper, leaching. bauxite, and tin are examples Mining – a processed of accessing and 2. Non-metallic minerals getting valuable material that is buried in a. do not contain metals the earth. b. these metals are generally associated with Phases of Mining: sedimentary rocks Exploration – the first phase of mining c. they are not usually hard and have no shine of their - Is the searching, sampling, own mapping, drilling, and other work d. minerals like salt, coal, - Involved in locating new, mineable mica, and clay are ore deposits examples - Locating new mineral resources takes new exploration techniques Ore Minerals – a natural occurrence of rock or sediment which contains enough Development – involves extensive pre- minerals with the economically important development planning and paperwork element. - Budget and financial - It is extracted by mining for a profit reports are prepared from the earth; they are then - Permits are requested and refined (often by smelting) in order plans are assessed to extract valuable elements. regarding the: 1. The mining process/technology that will be used. 2. Building of access roads for transportation. 3. Identification of resources such as power and water resources. 4. Construction of ore processing facilities and disposal areas for waste. Extraction – the mineral is removed from Stages of Ore Processing: the earth in large quantities as the mine begins producing. 1.Crushing and Grinding: The ore is usually in a large rock form and needs to Reclamation – when land is restored be reduced in size to separate the after mining activities are completed. valuable minerals from the waste rock. The ore is crushed and ground into smaller particles using crushers and Open Pit Mining – involves the mills. extraction of rock or minerals from the 2.Separation: After crushing and earth by forming an open pit. grinding, the next step is to separate the 5 Strip Mining – involves the method of transpiration, condensation, extracting the mineral by removing soil precipitation, and runoff. and rock which are deposited on the surface. Coal and lignite are the two principles minerals that are extracted through this method. Mountain Top Removal – aims at mining the summit or the long and narrow edge of the mountain. Coal – main mineral extracted by Mountain Top Removal Underground Mining – is carried out Process: when the rocks, minerals, or precious 1. Evaporation – water from the stones are located at a distance far different bodies of water turns into a beneath the ground to be extracted with water vapor (gas). Liquid to gas. surface mining. Types of evaporation: o Sublimation – the conversion between the solid and the gaseous phases of matter, with no intermediate liquid stage. - most often used to describe the process of snow and ice changing into water vapor in the air without first melting into water. o Transpiration – the ▪ Water Resources evaporation of water through minute pores, or stomata, in the leaves of plants. Water – has remarkable physical 2. Condensation – the process by properties and its molecules are polar. which water vapor in the air is changed into liquid water. - is made up of hydrogen and - is crucial to the water cycle oxygen and exists in gaseous, because it is responsible liquid, and solid states. for the formation of clouds. - carries nutrients to all cells in our 3. Precipitation – water released body and oxygen to our brains. from clouds in the form of rain, Hydrologic Cycle – sum total of all freezing rain, sleet, snow, or hail. processes in which water moves from - the primary connection in the land and ocean surface to the the water cycle that atmosphere and back in form of provides for the delivery of precipitation. atmospheric water to the Earth. Most precipitation - also called the water cycle. falls as rain. Many processes are involved in 4. Infiltration and Runoff the water cycle, the most - Infiltration – precipitation important are evaporation, that reaches the Earth’s 6  surface seeps into the o B Horizon (Subsoil) – zone of ground. accumulation - the more opening in the ground - made of small particles of or soil the more water will minerals that form clay. infiltrate. - clay-rich subsoil. This - Runoff – precipitation horizon is often less fertile reaches the surface of the than the topsoil but holds Earth but does not infiltrate more moisture. It generally the soil and flows from the has a lighter color and less surface. biological activity than the A Horizon. o C Horizon – underlying Reasons why water is important and weathered rock (from which the A how water should be conserved: and B horizons form) - weathered bedrock (rotten Water is needed for a specific rock) individual in order to live and survive. o R Horizon – bedrock (parent Conserving water can also save material) from which the soil was energy. formed. Protection of diverse living organisms in their own habitats. Less utilization of water helps you to Types of Soil save money. o Sandy – consists of small particles of weathered rock. ▪ Soil Resources - one of the poorest types of soil for growing plants. Soil – the outmost part of the earth’s - is usually formed by the crust on that we have a tendency to live, breakdown or work, and grow food crops. fragmentation of rocks like - provides all mineral nutrients, granite, limestone and anchorage, and water required quartz. for the expansion and o Silt – made up of rock and other development of plants and mineral particles, which are animals. smaller than sand and larger than clay. It is the smooth and fine Layers of Soil: Horizons quality of the soil that holds water better than sand. o O Horizon (Organic Layer) – - is more fertile compared to humus on the ground surface. the other three types of - mainly composed of soil. Therefore, it is also organic material like used in agricultural decomposed leaves, plant practices to improve soil material, and other organic fertility. matter. o Clay - the smallest particle o A Horizon (Topsoil) – contains a among the other two types of soil. lot of organic matter mixed with The particles are tightly packed some minerals. together with each other with very - rich in nutrient organic little or no airspace. matter and biological - this soil has very good activity. Typically, dark water storage qualities. color. - the densest and heaviest - Grasslands have the type of soil which does not largest A horizon. 7  drain well or provide space soil macrofauna to new for plant roots to flourish. predators. o Loamy - a combination of sand, Pesticides - These are silt, and clay. It has the ability to diverse groups of retain moisture and nutrients; chemicals used to control hence, it is more suitable for insects and other farming. organisms harmful to - referred to as "agricultural cultivated plants and soil”- equilibrium of all animals. three types of soil materials being sandy, Construction of Structures - clay, and silt and it also urban development activities can happens to have humus. cause rapid soil degradation and - it also has higher calcium sedimentation. Soil erosion and and pH levels. sedimentation from construction o Peat - is high in organic matter sites can be significant in quantity and retains a large amount of and in the impact on off-site moisture. resources such as streams. - is very rarely found in a Urban Development garden and is often Land Consumption: imported into a garden to urban expansion requires provide an optimum soil converting natural base for planting. landscapes, including o Chalk - can be either light or forests, wetlands, and heavy but always highly alkaline agricultural land, into built due to the calcium carbonate or environments. This lime within its structure. reduces the overall area of - as these soils are alkaline, natural and productive soil. they will not support the Land Sealing: the growth of ericaceous construction of buildings, plants that require acidic roads, and pavements soils to grow. covers soil with impervious materials like asphalt and concrete. This sealing Human activities that leave the soil prevents water from expose and speed up erosion: infiltrating the soil, leading agricultural depletion to increased runoff and reduced groundwater overgrazing animals recharge. deforestation Waste Disposal - hazardous development and expansion chemicals that get into the soil recreational activities (contaminants) can harm plants when they take up the contamination through their roots. Human activities that affect the If humans eat plants and animals quality and quantity of soil: that have been in contact with Farming such polluted soils, there can be Negative effect of farming: a negative impact on their health. Tillage - All tillage operations, including aerations and sward lifting, cause direct damage to 8 Importance of Soil Conservation The soil is literally the foundation of plant life A tree will not be a tree without soil. While there are some plants that can live in water or air, most plants need to be rooted to the ground. It is the soil that provides nutrition to this plant life. It is through this vegetation that nourishes humankind and the animal kingdom. Plants are important resource of food and fuel and of wood and other by- products that make our other life functions possible. The soil additionally supports the animal kingdom. Our agriculture also relies on soil, for its location and for other functions to be derived from its existence. It will be almost impossible to support the animal and human life without land. Biodiversity relies on soil at all times. Study well and do your best! Rooting for you