Earth Science PDF

THINGS THAT MAKE LIFE ON EARTH POSSIBLE WE HAVE AN OZONE LAYER TO BLOCK HARMFUL OUR LOCATION IS FAR FROM MANY HAZARDS. RAY. - The solar system sits far from the galactic core - Ozone (03) is a gas in the atmosphere that...

THINGS THAT MAKE LIFE ON EARTH POSSIBLE WE HAVE AN OZONE LAYER TO BLOCK HARMFUL OUR LOCATION IS FAR FROM MANY HAZARDS. RAY. - The solar system sits far from the galactic core - Ozone (03) is a gas in the atmosphere that (almost 30,000 light-years), between two major protects everything living on the Earth from spiral arms. Also, the solar system's circular orbit harmful ultraviolet (UV) rays from the sun. Without helps avoid that dangerous part of the galaxy. the layer of ozone in the atmosphere, it would be - The presence of our Jupiter, farther out in the solar very di cult for anything to survive on the surface. system blocking Earth from much of the incoming - Nitrogen accounts for 78% of the atmosphere, debris, has also helped Earth become a safe oxygen 21% and argon 0.9%. Greenhouse gases haven for life. Jupiter acts like a giant broom, like carbon dioxide, nitrous oxides, and methane sweeping the solar system of debris rocks. are trace gases that account for about a tenth of OUR SUN IS A STABLE AND LONG LASTING STAR. one percent of the atmosphere. - Our sun is a yellow dwarf, a relatively rare type of star that is both small and stable. It also has a EARTH’S SUBSYSTEM long life and probably would not start to zzle out There are 4 components of the Earth which we refer for another ve billion years or so. as subsystems or spheres: atmosphere, geosphere, - The sun radiates light and heat, or solar energy, hydrosphere, and biosphere. which makes it possible for life to exist on Earth. The sun provides the earth with energy estimated 1. ATMOSPHERE at over 239 trillion horsepower, about 35,000 is the gaseous layer surrounding the earth and is held horsepower for each current resident. Plants need to its surface by gravity. It extends from less than 1 m sunlight to grow. below the planet's surface to more than 10,000 km WE ARE AT JUST THE RIGHT DISTANCE FROM THE above. It receives energy from solar radiation which SUN. warms the earth's surface and is re-emitted and - Earth is at an average distance of 93 million miles conducted to the atmosphere. The upper portion of or 150 million kilometers away from the sun. It the atmosphere protects the organisms of the orbits in the so-called Goldilocks zone, where the biosphere from the sun's ultraviolet radiation. It also planet receives enough energy to allow water to absorbs and emits heat. exist as a liquid on its surface. absorbs water from the earth's surface via the - Too far, and the vital compound stays locked up process of evaporation; it the acts to redistribute heat as ice. Too close, and the water would rapidly and moisture across the earth's surface. The heat on evaporate into the atmosphere. The Earth is the the Earth's surface is redistributed through only planet with huge bodies of water-70% of its atmospheric circulation. surface area consists of oceans, lakes, and seas contains 21% of oxygen necessary for respiration, surrounding huge bodies of land. 78% of nitrogen, and 1% other gaseous such as - Water is unique because it absorbs large amounts argon, carbon dioxide, hydrogen and ozone which are of heat without much alteration in its temperature. important in absorbing harmful solar radiation. Its absorption speed is extremely rapid--about ten times as fast as steel. WE HAVE THE RIGHT STUFF TO HOST A DYNAMIC CORE. - The interstellar cloud of gas and dust that gave rise to Earth contained enough radioactive elements (potassium, uranium and thorium) to power a churning core for billions of years. This creates a magnetic eld which is crucial to life on our planet because it protects the planet from dangers like solar ares and solar wind. - The Earth's magnetic eld de ects most of the solar wind, whose charged particles strip away the ozone layer that protects the Earth and the life on it from harmful ultraviolet radiation. WE HAVE A BIG MOON TO STABILIZE OUR AXIAL WOBBLE. - The Earth has a slight tilt and teeters like a top as it spins, which can cause drastic shifts in climate over the course of thousands of years. But 2. HYDROSPHERE because of the moon's stabilizing e ect on our contains the water of the Earth in its liquid, gaseous orbit, our climate is a lot steadier. (vapor) and solid (ice) phases including the earth's - The moon causes the tides, so if the Moon were oceans and seas; ice sheets, sea ice and glaciers; much nearer to the Earth, say 20 times closer, it lakes, rivers, and streams; atmospheric moisture and would exert a gravitational force 400 times greater ice crystals; and areas of permafrost. Most of Earth's than what we are used to. It would result to huge fresh water is frozen. Thus, in some classi cations, tides which would over ow onto the lowlands, the hydrosphere is sub-divided into the uid water causing great ooding. systems and the cryosphere (the ice systems). ffi fi fl fl fi fi fl fl ff fi fl fi  About 70% of the Earth is covered with liquid water 4. BIOSPHERE (hydrosphere) and much of it is in the form of ocean is the subsystem that is intimately related to the other water (Figure 2). Only 3% of Earth's water is fresh: three spheres. For example, most living organisms two- thirds are in the form of ice, and the remaining require gases from the atmosphere, water from the one-third is present in streams, lakes, and hydrosphere and nutrients and minerals from the groundwater. geosphere. Living organisms also require a medium Water is essential to the existence and maintenance for life and are adapted to inhabit one or more of the of life on earth. It is part of the living cells. It provides other three spheres. habitat, regulates climate, and takes part in the The biosphere can be considered the set of all life transport, distribution and circulation of important forms on Earth. It covers all ecosystems--from the nutrients which are essential for life. It helps bind soil to the rainforest, from mangroves to coral reefs, together the Earth's lands, oceans, and atmosphere and from the plankton-rich ocean surface to the deep into an integrated system through the hydrological sea. However, much of the biosphere is contained (water) cycle. within a shallow surface layer encompassing the lower part of the atmosphere, the surface of the geosphere and approximately the upper 100 meters of the ocean. Humans are part of the biosphere, although they are increasingly responsible for the creation of systems that may be largely arti cial such as cities. 3. GEOSPHERE is the largest of the four spheres. This is the part of the Earth that includes the solid crust, the molten mantle, the liquid outer core, and the solid inner core. The solid and rigid outer layer of the Earth is called as the lithosphere. The term is taken from the Greek word lithos meaning "rocky". The lithosphere is bounded by the atmosphere above and the asthenosphere (another part of the upper mantle) below. The outermost layer consists of loose soil rich in nutrients, oxygen, and silicon. Beneath that layer lies a very thin, solid crust of oxygen and silicon. Next is a thick, semi-solid mantle of oxygen, silicon, iron, and INTERACTION IN EARTH’S SPHERES magnesium. Below that is a liquid outer core of nickel Although the four systems have their unique and iron. At the center of Earth is a solid inner core of identities, they are closely connected. For example, nickel and iron. many birds (biosphere) y through the air (atmosphere), while water (hydrosphere) ows through the soil (geosphere). These close connections cause changes to take place in Earths spheres. These changes are called events. This two-way relationship between event and sphere is called interactions. VOLCANOES Volcanoes in the geosphere may cause profound direct and indirect e ects on the hydrosphere, atmosphere and biosphere. This happens when volcanoes (geosphere) emit large amount of particulate matter into the air (atmosphere). These particles serve as nuclei for the formation of water droplets (hydrosphere). Rainfall (hydrosphere) often increases often increases following an eruption, stimulating plat growth (biosphere). ff fl fi fl  ACID RAIN 1. COLOR AND STREAK Acid rain is any form of liquid precipitation Most minerals have a distinctive color that can be (hydrosphere) that contains high level of nitric and used for identi cation. In opaque minerals, the color sulfuric acid. Rain (hydrosphere) brings these acids to tends to be more consistent. Translucent to the Earth, acidifying soil (geosphere) lakes and rivers transparent minerals have a much more varied degree (hydrosphere). Acidic water leaches nutrients from the of color due to the presence of trace minerals. soil (geosphere) into the water table (hydrosphere, For example, ruby and sapphire are di erently making the soilless fertile for the plants(biosphere and colored types of the mineral corundum (Al2O3). The the subterranean water (hydrosphere) not potable for red color of ruby is due to the presence of the humans (biosphere). element chromium. There are also lots of minerals that share the same FOREST FIRE color while some minerals can exhibit a range of Forest re (an event in biosphere) may destroy all the colors. The mineral quartz for example, can be pink plants (biosphere) in the area. This could lead to (rose quartz), purple (amethyst), orange (citrine), white increase in erosion (geosphere). Increased amount of (colorless quartz) etc. soil entering the streams (hydrosphere) can lead to Streak, on the other hand is the color of a mineral in increased turbidity or muddiness of the water which powdered form. Streak is the color of the mineral in will a ect that plants and animals (biosphere) that live powdered form when rubbed against a streak plate or in it. unglazed porcelain le. For example, pyrite (FeS2) exhibits golden color. MINERALS AND ROCKS Hence, the other term of pyrite is Fool's Gold which has a black or dark gray streak. Streak is a better MINERALS diagnostic property as compared to color since it is rocks are made up of minerals which are glued inherent to almost every mineral. together by natural processes to form into solid lumps. There are over 4.000 di erent minerals which 2. LUSTER have been identi ed by scientists but only a few Luster is the amount (quantity) and appearance forms into rocks. Both rocks and minerals are (quality) of light re ected from the surface of a valuable to humans because of their ecological and mineral. It provides an assessment of how much the economic uses. mineral surface "sparkles". Minerals possessing metallic luster are opaque and MINERALS CAN BE DEFINED BASED ON 5 very re ective, possessing a high absorptive index. REQUIREMENTS: This type of luster indicates the presence of metallic Naturally Occurring- means that people did not bonding within the crystal lattice of the material. Sub- make it, but produced naturally. Steel is not a mineral metallic minerals have similar luster to metal but are because it is an alloy produced by people. duller and less re ective. Those which vary in Inorganic- means that the substance is not made by appearance and non-lustrous possess non-metallic an organism. Wood and pearls are made by luster. organisms and thus, they are not minerals. Solid- means that it is not a liquid or a gas at TYPES OF LUSTER standard temperature and pressure. Water is not a A. Metallic mineral because it is a liquid. - having the look of a polished metal. De nite Chemical Composition- means that all - Ex: copper, gold, silver, galena, pyrite. occurrences of that mineral have a chemical B. Sub-metallic composition that varies within a speci c limited - having the look of a metal that is dulled by range. weathering or corrosion. (Ex. Hematite) Ordered Internal Structure- means that the atoms in C. Non-metallic a mineral are arranged in a systematic and repeating - Dull or Earthy- re ected light poorly and don’t shine. pattern. (Ex. Kaolinite) - Resinous- resembling that of a resin. (Ex. Sulfur) There are over 4000 known mineral species. Yet, a - Pearly- having the iridescence look of mother-of- vast majority of rocks are formed from combinations pearl. (Ex. Tale) of a few common minerals, referred to as "rock- - Greasy- looks as if it’s covered with oil / grease. (Ex. forming minerals". Gypsum) - Silky- having the look of a silk, ne parallel bers of PHYSICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS mineral.(Ex. Asbestos) Each of the minerals has a unique set of physical - Vitreous- similar to that of glass. (Ex. Quartz) properties. The properties are related to the chemical - Adamantine- sparkling re ection. (Ex. Diamond) composition and bonding of the minerals which include color, streak, hardness, luster, cleavage, 3. HARDNESS fracture, magnetism, and many more. These physical Hardness is a measure of how resistant a mineral properties are useful for identifying minerals. from being scratched. This physical property is controlled by the chemical composition and structure of the mineral. Hardness is commonly measured on the “Mohs scale”. fi ff fi fl fi fi fl fi fl fl fl ff fi fi fi ff  The hardness scale is designed by German geologist/ mineralogist Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (Mohs Scale of Hardness). The test compares the resistance of a mineral relative to the 10 reference minerals with known hardness. 4. CLEAVAGE Cleavage is the property of some minerals to break along parallel repetitive planes of weakness to form smooth, at surfaces. These planes of weakness are inherent in the bonding of atoms that makes up the mineral. Properties Description Example The gure shows the e ect when an external force is applied on calcite that produces cleavage. Where the Magnetism allows a mineral to A. Diamagnetic crystal breaks (the at surfaces) are called cleavage attract or repel other minerals- not attracted planes. magnetic materials by a magnet B. Paramagnetic minerals- attracted by a CLEAVAGE VS FRACTURE magnet Cleavage di ers from fracture in terms of breaking properties. Cleavage occurs when mineral breaks Examples: along a at surface. While fracture happens if mineral magnetite (Fe3O4) -strongly magnetic breaks with lots of jagged edges. ilmenite (FeTiO3) -weakly magnetic 5. CRYSTAL FORM OR HABIT Crystal Form or habit is the external shape of a Taste a characteristic shown A) acid or sour taste of among water-soluble sulfuric acid. crystal or groups of crystals that is displayed and minerals. Some - indicates the presence observed as these crystals grow in open spaces. The minerals are toxic. So, of sulfur form re ects the supposedly internal structure (of tasting minerals is B) alkaline taste of atoms and ions) of the crystal (mineral). It is the discouraged. potash natural shape of the mineral before the development C)astringent or puckering - alum of any cleavage or fracture. D)bitter taste - epsom or It is important to clearly di erentiate a crystal habit bitter salts from cleavage. Although both are dictated by crystal E)saline or salty - table structure, crystal habit forms as the mineral is salt (NaCI) growing. Therefore, it relies on how the individual E ervescence Property of some Chemical reaction of atoms in the crystal come together. Cleavage on the minerals that calcium carbonate with other hand is the weak plane that developed after the e ervesce or bubble dilute hydrochloric acid crystal is formed. Cleavage in di erent directions is when dilute produces bubbles presented. hydrochloric acid is because because carbon applied to the surface. dioxide gas if released. The crystal form also de nes the relative growth of the crystal in 3 dimension which are its length, width, Fluorescence the ability of a Gypsum and height. substance to produce A mineral that does not have a crystal structure is light when activated described as amorphous. by invisible ultraviolet light (UV), X-rays and/ or electron beams. Crystal Example Crystal Example Form Form 7. DIAPHANEITY Acicular Mesolite Columnar Selenite Also known as transparency, diaphaneity is the gypsum degree by which the mineral transmit light. It can be described as opaque, translucent or transparent. Banded Rhodochrosite Hexagonal Corundum A. Opaque- The mineral does not transmit light. B. Translucent- The mineral allows some amount Bladed Kyanite Hopper Halite of light to pass through it in a distorted fashion. C. Transparent- The mineral allows transmission Botryoidal Agate Octahedral Diamond of light in an undisturbed manner. Cubic Fluorite Rosette Barite Rose 8. FRACTURE occurs when a mineral is broken or crushed. The 6. SPECIFIC GRAVITY breaking happens in a direction which does not serve is the ratio of the weight of a mineral to the weight of as a plane of perfect or distinct cleavage. In other an equal volume of water. A bucket of silver would words, fracture takes place along a plane possessing weigh 10 times more than a bucket of water. It di cult or indistinct cleavage. Thus, the mineral splits expresses the density of a mineral. The speci c into any possible direction. gravity of a mineral is numerically equal to density. ff ff ffi fi fl fl fl ff fl ff fi ff ff fi  CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS Rock is a naturally occurring solid aggregate of minerals sometimes with non-mineral solid particles. Minerals Uses Minerals Uses Rutile Paints Pyrite Source of iron Gypsum Plaster of Apatite Fertilizer Paris Gold Jewelry Calcite Chalk CLASSIFICATION OF ROCKS IGNEOUS ROCK Igneous rocks or magmatic rocks are formed through the cooling and solidi cation of magma or lava. Igneous rock can be classi ed into: - Intrusive - Extrusive Intrusive Igneous Rocks- this type of igneous rock is formed from solidi cation of magma below the surface. They have large crystals of minerals that f o r m e d o v e r t i m e t h ro u g h s l o w p ro c e s s o f crystallization in a magma. (Ex. Granite, diorite, gabbro, pegmatite, and peridotite) CHEMICAL PROPERTIES OF MINERALS Extrusive Igneous Rocks- this type of igneous rock Minerals can be pure elements or compounds. Their is formed through faster rate of solidi cation of lava chemical properties mainly re ect the kind of atoms on the surface of Earth. They can become glassy in or molecules present in each. The properties depend appearance due to less crystallization or vesicular like on the way the atoms or molecules are bound in the scoria, due to the air that was trapped inside when mineral's crystal structure. And minerals are identi ed they solidi ed and formed on the surface of the earth. by how they chemically react to certain substances. (Ex. andesite, basalt, dacite, obsidian, pumice, rhyolite and tu ) fi f fi fi fi fl fi fi SEDIMENTARY ROCK is formed by the deposition and cementation of mineral or organic particles on the oor of oceans and other bodies of water at the Earth surface. Sedimentary rock can be classi ed into: - clastic - chemical - organic Clastic Sedimentary Rock- it is formed from the mechanical weathering debris of rocks. Examples are breccia (rock fragments with sharp edges), conglomerate (rounded fragments of rocks), sandstone (sand from beaches or sand dunes), siltstone, and shale (clay particles). Chemical Sedimentary Rock- it is formed when dissolved materials precipitate from solution. Examples of these are rock salt, iron ore, chert, int, some dolomites. Organic Sedimentary Rock- formed from the build- up of plant or animal debris. Examples of these are chalk, coal, and limestone with fossils. METALLIC MINERALS The Island of Cebu is famous for its limestone and The metallic minerals include gold, copper, nickel, dolomite deposits. chromite and iron. Benguet, Masbate, Camarines Norte, Compostela Valley, Agusan del Sur, and METAMORPHIC ROCK Surigao del Norte have large deposits of gold and Metamorphic rock forms from existing rock types silver, Copper with gold and silver deposits are found called "parent rock" in the process called in Benguet, Cebu, Zamboanga del Norte and Nueva metamorphism, which means change in form. The Vizcaya, Chromite deposits are located in Surigao del original rock which can be an igneous, sedimentary or Norte and Samar. Large deposits of nickel are found another metamorphic rock is subjected to heat and in Palawan, Zambales, Surigao del Norte and Surigao pressure, causing a profound chemical or physical del Sur, as well as Dinagat Island. Iron deposits are change. located in Leyte, Bulacan, Camarines Sur, and Foliated Metamorphic Rocks- formed through Zamboanga. pressure due to compression of rocks that create bands called foliation. Examples are gneiss, phyllite, schist, and slate. - Increasing metamorphism: shale, slate, phyllite, schist, gneiss Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks- it has no foliation or bands. Examples of this type are hornfels, marble, quartzite, and novaculite. The Island of Romblon is famous for its marble rocks. ECONOMIC VALUE OF MINERALS Minerals that are of economic value can be classi ed as metallic or nonmetallic. Metallic minerals are those from which valuable metals (e.g. iron, copper) can be extracted for commercial use. Some important metallic minerals IMPORTANCE OF MINERALS TO THE SOCIETY are: hematite (a source of iron), bauxite (a source of aluminum), sphalerite (a source of zinc) and galena PHILIPPINE MINERAL PROFILE (a source of lead). Metallic minerals occasionally but The Mines and Geosciences Bureau estimated that rarely occur as a single element (e.g. native gold or the country has around USD 840 billion worth of copper). untapped mineral wealth from metallic and nonmetallic minerals. fi fl fl fi  PHILIPPINE MINERAL PROFILE IMPORTANT MINERALS IN CONSTRUCTION The non-metallic minerals include limestone, In construction, skyscrapers that tower up to 50 marble, gravel and sand, and other quarry materials. stories high use durable materials like iron steel - a Limestone deposits are found in Guimaras Island, La combination of iron and carbon and concrete that Union, and Pangasinan and largest marble deposits is contains limestone, lime, and chalk that make them found in Romblon - the marble capital of the strong and stand still against strong wind and Philippines. earthquake. They also use glass made of silica or quartz. Floors ECONOMIC VALUE OF MINERALS are made up of granite and marbles. Aluminum is Non-metallic minerals are valuable, not for the used in window and door panels. metals they contain, but for their properties as chemical compounds. Because they are commonly IMPORTANT MINERALS IN HEALTH AND MEDICAL used in industry, they are also often referred to as FIELD industrial minerals. They are classi ed according to Titanium is a strong but very light metal and is used in their use. making medical and dental tools. It is also known for Some industrial minerals are used as sources of its biocompatibility which makes it important in important chemicals (e.g. halite for sodium chloride prosthetics and in dental implants. In taking care of and borax for borates). Some are used for building our dental health, dentists use many tools materials (e.g. gypsum for plaster and kaolinite for appropriate for a purpose. bricks). Others are used for making fertilizers (e.g. There are also lots of other minerals that they use for apatite for phosphate and sylvite for potassium). Still cleaning and surgery. Examples are gypsum in plaster others are used as abrasives (e.g. diamond and cast, and alloys like stainless steel that is primarily corundum). composed of iron, chromium, and carbon in their tools. For our health, the pharmaceutical industry manufactures supplements that contain many essential minerals that keep us strong and healthy like Calcium that helps body in developing strong and healthy bones, Magnesium and Zinc that are essential in improving health by helping our immune system to function properly. IMPORTANT MINERALS IN ENERGY PRODUCTION Minerals are also important for generation of power and electricity. In nuclear power plant, radioactive minerals like Uranium are used as source of heat to run a nuclear reactor and generate electricity. On the hand, batteries for electric cars need minerals like lithium, cobalt, and nickel. In producing dry cell batteries, zinc and carbon are used on its electrodes while cadmium, carbon, lead, and nickel are also used to manufacture di erent dry cell. IMPORTANT MINERALS IN HOUSEHOLD In households, we use toothpaste that contains IMPORTANT MINERALS IN AGRICULTURE uoride from uorite mineral. It prevents tooth decay In agriculture, NPK Fertilizers contain vital minerals by protecting teeth from acids in the mouth. Face for the plant to grow healthy. These minerals include powder contains talc - the softest mineral. In the nitrogen, phosphorous, and potassium. kitchen, salts are commonly used to enhance the Moreover, minerals like lime are also used to lower avor of our food. the acidity of the soil. Stainless kitchen wares that are less reactive to food, durable and non-corrosive, contain mostly of alloy of IMPORTANT MINERALS IN THE SOCIETY iron and chromium while other kitchen wares like Graphite is often referred to as the most stable form casserole are made of aluminum - a durable metal, of carbon. Since the early 17th century, the Greeks corrosion resistant and a better conductor of heat have used graphite as a writing tool-or pencil. and lighter than stainless steel. Moreover, minerals Copper is the most vital mineral to modern life, used such as silicon, silver, and gold are used as in everything from electrical wiring in households and components of gadgets like cellphones and cars to the saucepans in our kitchens. computers. Copper is the mostly used electrical Platinum serves a critical role in the circuit boards of wiring because it is less expensive. medical apparatus, electrical and household gadgets, including ber optic cables for telecommunication devices. The metal is also critical in keeping people alive, serving a huge role in pacemakers to transmit electrical impulses to stabilize heartbeats. fl fl fi fl fi ff  Iron Ore is fundamental in creating railway tracks, which have long been a central part of daily life. About 98% of iron is used to make steel. Some other uses are used for magnets, metallurgy parts, auto parts and others. Silver known for its rarity and value. Traditionally, used for jewelry and silverware, the precious metal is also resistant to corrosion and oxidation. Making it extremely useful for other industries. In addition, silver is the best thermal and electrical conductor of all the metals. Gold is the clear breadwinner when it comes to value. The precious metal, which is basically worshipped across the global, is primarily used for luxury purposes such as jewelry. ORE MINERALS: HOW THEY ARE FOUND, MINED, Cobalt- On a global basis, the leading use of cobalt AND PROCESSED is in rechargeable battery electrodes. Super alloys, which are used to make parts for gas turbine engines, MINING are another major use for cobalt. Used as alloyed The term usually refers to the extraction of mineral with aluminum and nickel to make powerful magnets. resources. Lithium a soft silvery metal, the lowest density of all Mining is an intensive and sophisticated process that metals and is often alloys with aluminum and varies based on the mineral depending on whether magnesium to improve their strength, including they are extracted, stripped, or brought via tunnels making them lighter. Used in everything from mobile and shafts. phones, laptops, digital cameras and electric Mining is the process of mineral extraction from a vehicles. rock seam or ore - a natural rock or sediment Bauxite is formed from a laterite soil that has been containing one or more valuable mineral. The severely leached of silica and other soluble materials minerals can range from precious metals and iron to in a wet tropical or subtropical climate. It is primarily gemstones and quartz. used to create aluminum. Modern mining technology uses geophysical Zinc is vital for modern life because of its resistance techniques that involve measuring the magnetic, to corrosion. It is used to make many useful alloys gravity and sonic responses of rocks above and including lead, tin, brass and copper. Metallic zinc is around a prospective mineral ore body. also used to make dry cell batteries, roof cladding and die castings. MINERAL EXPLORATION Prospecting or exploration can be simply described as looking for the ore body which is a deposit that can yield a large amount of a speci c mineral. Steps needed during mineral exploration: - Formulating Project - Field Exploration - Detailed Exploration - Prospect Evaluation and Feasibility Study LOCATING ORES Potential ore bodies are located by recognizing that a geologic process or combination of processes can produce a localized enrichment of one or more minerals, and that these processes only happen in speci c types of environments. fi fi  DIFFERENT MINING METHODS MINERAL EXPLORATION The location and shape of the deposit, strength of the rock ore grade, mining costs, and current market price of the commodity are some of the determining factors for selecting which mining method to use. The primary methods used to extract minerals from the ground are underground mining surface (open pit) mining and placer mining. UNDERGROUND MINING This method of mining is utilized to extract higher- grade metallic ores found in deep veins under the Earth's surface. This type of mining is quite more expensive than surface mining as the rock is drilled and blasted, then moved to the surface by truck, belt conveyor, or elevator. Once at the surface, the material is sent to a mill to separate the ore from the waste rock. PLACER MINING It is an ancient method of using water to excavate, transport, concentrate, and recover heavy minerals from alluvial or placer deposits. Placer mining is the practice of separating heavily eroded minerals like gold from sand or gravel. The word placer is thought to have come from Catalan and Spanish, meaning a shoal or sand bar. PROCESSING MINERALS Mineral processing is the process of extracting minerals from the ore, re ning them, and preparing these minerals for use. The primary steps involved in processing minerals include: SURFACE MINING 1. Sampling- is the removal of a portion which Surface mining is utilized to extract lower grade metal represents a whole needed for the analysis of ores which are found closer to the Earth's surface. this material. This method generally costs less than underground 2. Analysis- is important to evaluate the valuable method. In a surface mine, hard rock must be drilled component in an ore. This includes chemical, and blasted, although some minerals are soft enough mineral and particle size analysis. to mine without blasting. 3. Comminution- is the process where the valuable components of the ore are separated TYPES OF SURFACE MINING through crushing and grinding. This process 1. Open-pit mining- this is the most common type of begins by crushing the ores to a particular size surface mining. Open pit means a big hole (or pit) in and nishes it by grinding the ores into a the ground. The pit in mine is created by blasting powder form. with explosives and drilling.It is used to mine gravel 4. Concentration- involves the separation of the and sand and even rock. valuable minerals from the raw materials 2. Strip Mining- involves the removal of a thin strip of 5. Dewatering- uses the concentration to convert overburden (earth or soil) above a desired deposit, it to usable minerals. This involves ltration and dumping the removed overburden behind the sedimentation of the suspension and drying of deposit, extracting the desired deposit, creating a the solid materials harvested from this second, parallel strip in the same manner and suspension. depositing the waste materials from that second (new) strip onto the rst strip. This method is used ORE PROCESSING for coal, phosphates, clays, and tar mining. The materials mined are rocks composed of both ore 3. Dredging- this is the process of mining materials and waste material. High grade ores are extracted or from the bottom of a body of water, including rivers, separated from the rest of the deposit. While the part lakes, and oceans. Underwater excavation of a of the rock which contain very little, or no element or placer deposit by oating equipment. Dredging mineral of economic value is considered as waste systems are classi ed as mechanical or hydraulic, material. depending on the method of material transport. fi fi fi fl fi fi  The extracted rocks will undergo processes of They are natural and nite resources that are very mineral separation and recovery which is usually abundant and has a cheaper cost production done in a mill. compared to other resources present on Earth. In milling, the ore is crushed and concentrated. They are considered as non-renewable energy source Crushing and screening are the rst stages of as they take millions of years to form. controlled size reduction followed by grinding where the rocks are pulverized. MAJOR TYPES OF FOSSIL FUELS MILLING OR RECOVERY PROCESS 1. COAL Heavy media separation: The crushed rocks are It is an important and primary fossil fuel present on submerged in liquid where the heavier or denser Earth. minerals sink. Thus, heavier minerals are separated Coal resources are found predominantly where forest from the lighter ones. This is commonly used to trees, plants and marshes existed before being buried separate chalcopyrite from quartz before the re ning and compressed millions of years ago. processes of extracting copper. Philippines uses approximately 50% coal resource to Magnetic separation: Magnetic separation: If the produce energy and electricity. metal or mineral is magnetic, the crushed ore is separated from the waste materials using a powerful Coal Dry Carbon Moisture Dry, Volatile Heat magnet. Content (%) Content Content (%) Content Flotation: The powdered ore is placed into an Before (%) (MJ/kg) agitated and frothy slurry where some minerals and Anthracite 86-92 7-10 3-14 32-33 metals based on physical and chemical properties may either sink to the bottom or may stick to the Bituminous 76-86 8-18 14-46 23-33 bubbles and rise to the top thus separating the Coal minerals and metals. Sub- 70-76 18-38 42-53 18-23 Cyanide heap leaching: This method is used for Bituminous low-grade gold ore where the crushed rock is placed Coal on a “leach pile” where cyanide solution is sprayed or Lignite 65-70 35-55 53-63 17-18 dripped on top of the pile. Peat < 60 75 63-69 15 ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Mining is a controversial industry because it is usually associated with the neglectful and irresponsible COAL CLASSIFICATION practices that bring about environmental problems Anthracite and hazards. - which is the highest rank of coal. It is a hard, Improper mining can cause ooding; erosion; brittle, and black lustrous coal, often referred to as formation of sinkholes; loss of biodiversity; air hard coal, containing a high percentage of xed pollution; and contamination of soil, ground water carbon and a low percentage of volatile matter. and surface water by chemicals from mining Bituminous Coal activities. Contamination resulting from leakage of - It usually has a high heating value and is the most chemicals a ects the health of the local population if common type of coal used in electricity not properly controlled. generation. Mine site decommissioning or rehabilitation is done - If appears shiny and smooth at rst glance, but when active mining ends. when you look closely, you will see that it has Republic Act 7942, otherwise known as the layers. Philippine Mining Act of 1995 was mainly instituted Sub-Bituminous Coal to “govern the exploration, development, utilization - is black in color and dull, and has a higher heating and processing of all mineral resources within the value than lignite. territory and exclusive economic zone of the - used in generating steam to produce electricity. Philippines”. - Moreover, sub-bituminous coal can be lique ed The Department of Environment and Natural and converted into petroleum and gas. Resources (DENR) ensures the implementation this Lignite law with its Mines and Geosciences Bureau that is - is also known as brown coal. If is the lowest grade responsible tasked for the conservation, coal with the least concentration of carbon. management, development, and proper use of the - Lignite's high moisture content and lower carbon country’s mineral resources including those in content results in more carbon dioxide emissions reservations and lands of public domain. than harder black coals. Peat FORMATION OF FOSSIL FUELS - is a soft, crumbly, dark brown substance that is Fossil fuels are basically remains of plants and formed from generations of dead and partially animals that died millions of years ago. decaying organic matter. They are the world's primary energy source that - rst step in the formation of coal, and slowly provide most of the energy support in transportation, becomes lignite after pressure and temperature electricity, and industries. increase as sediment is piled on top of the partially decaying organic matter. fi ff fi fl fi fi fi fi fi  COAL FORMATION The proportion of liquids and gas generated in this Coali cation is the formation of coal from plant way depends on the type of source rock. If the material by the processes of diagenesis and organic debris is composed mostly of animal origin, it metamorphism. Also known as bituminization or will produce more oil than gas. If it is composed carboni cation. mainly of plant debris, the source rock will produce It all starts with a swamp on the edge of a mostly gas. sedimentary basin, such as a lagoon or a lake. With an estimated average sedimentation of 50 Tectonic activity raises sea levels, covering and killing meters every million years, it takes 60 million years for vegetation. Plant debris accumulates and is buried dead animals to become liquid hydrocarbons. It is under layers of mud and sand in a process known as hardly surprising; therefore, that oil is classi ed as a sedimentation. non-renewable energy source. The sedimentary basin gradually sinks under the weight of the sediments, and the layers of dead plants are subjected to rising temperatures that gradually "cook" them, leading to their transformation. The di erent stages of sedimentation turn cellulose, the main component of wood, from peat to lignite (brown coal), then sub-bituminous coal, followed by bituminous coal and, nally, anthracite. FOSSIL FUEL POWER GENERATION Electrical energy generation using steam turbines involves three energy conversions, extracting thermal energy from the fuel and using it to raise steam, converting the thermal energy of the steam into kinetic energy in the turbine and using a rotary generator to convert the turbine's mechanical energy into electrical energy. 2. OIL (Petroleum) Most of the oil that we are using today started forming millions of years ago. Oil is an organic material, mostly algae, which was buried in mud at the bottom of the sea and lakes. It is used mainly to produce transportation fuels and petroleum-based products. Philippines imports crude oil and petroleum from Saudi Arabia and Russia. 3. NATURAL GAS A naturally occurring hydrocarbon gas with the mixture of methane. It is the Earth's cleanest fossil fuel and is odorless and colorless in its natural state. Natural gas is produced from sedimentary rock formation by forcing chemicals, water, and sand down a well under high pressure. The Philippines' main domestic source of energy is the Malampaya natural gas eld which is located at GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Palawan Island. The heat generated beneath the ground, that when harnessed can generate electrical energy. This is OIL AND NATURAL GAS FORMATIOM possible when a geothermal power plant is At a depth of 2,000 meters, when the temperature established equipped with technology that runs the reaches 100°C, hydrocarbon is released. process of energy conversion. Between 2,000 and 3,800 meters, it turns into oil. This depth interval is known as the oil window. HARNESSING GEOTHERMAL ENERGY When the source rock sinks further, to between 3,800 In areas with greater geologic activity, water pockets and 5,000 meters, production of liquid hydrocarbons are heated by the magma from the mantle. The water peaks. The liquids produced become increasingly pockets a ected and heated by the hot magma is lighter and gradually turn into methane gas, the called geothermal reservoirs. Heated water rises and lightest hydrocarbon. This depth interval is known as expands, turning to steam and naturally looks for a the gas window. way up to the surface in cracks in the crust. fi ff fi ff fi fi fi  GEOTHERMAL ENERGY Geothermal power plants are carbon neutral, meaning that they have little to no carbon emission unlike non-renewable power plants that burn fuel to produce steam. Geothermal power plants are ideal ways of generating electrical energy in a clean and environment-friendly way. STEPS IN TAPPING THE ENERGY IN GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT 1. Water from the geothermal reservoir is heated by the magma of the earth. 2. Wells are drilled deep into the ground to tap the GEOTHERMAL HEAT PUMP energy from heat of the Earth. Geothermal energy is not only used by a power plant 3. The steam makes the turbine move activating the for electricity generation. Another way of using the generator, thus producing electricity. energy is through heat pumps that can be installed at 4. Steam is directed to the cooling tank to condense home. Heat pump works depending on the season and turn back to water. using water or a refrigerant and obtaining the Earth’s 5. Cool water is brought back to the injection well to constant temperature (50 F - 60 F) below the ground. be dropped back to the reservoir to restart the process. HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY Since approximately 71% of the Earth's surface is covered in water and water is renewed and recycled everyday through the water cycle, tapping the energy from water is a viable option. To be speci c, it is the energy harnessed from the stored gravitational potential energy of water and its kinetic energy when released or allowed to ow that is used in generating electrical energy. HARNESSING HYDROELECTRIC ENERGY Hydroelectric power plants convert the mechanical energy of owing water to electrical energy. Commonly, this is done by constructing a dam over a TYPES OF GEOTHERMAL POWER PLANT naturally owing water like a river or falls. A dam is a structure that holds back the water and stores it making its level higher that the other side of the dam, the higher level water Is referred as the reservoir. This elevated water stores potential energy. SIZES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT Large Hydropower- facilities that have a capacity of more than 30 megawatts (MW). Small Hydropower- projects that generate between 100 kilowatts and 10 MW. Micro Hydropower- capacity of up to 100 kilowatts. A small or micro hydroelectric power system can produce enough electricity for a single home, farm, ranch, or village. fl fl  fl fi  TYPES OF HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANTS S T E P S I N TA P P I N G T H E E N E R G Y I N HYDROELECTRIC POWER PLANT 1. RUN-OF-RIVER HYDROPOWER 1. Water is blocked by a dam creating a higher level a facility that channels owing water from a river on one side called the reservoir. through a canal or penstock to spin a turbine. 2. The control gate allows the controlled amount of Typically a run-of-river project will have little or no water to ow through the penstock. storage facility. 3. The owing water in the penstock, carrying kinetic energy makes the turbine spin which in turn activated the generator to produce electricity. 4. The generator produces electricity that is then stepped-up by the transformer for distribution. 5. The used water that owed through the penstock is released as an out ow and ows in the river or stream as it naturally would have. WATER RESOURCES WATER is a simple compound, made of two atoms of hydrogen and one atom of oxygen bonded together. More than any other substance on the Earth, water is important to life and has remarkable properties. 2. STORAGE HYDROPOWER SOURCES OF WATER typically a large system that uses a dam to store Nearly three-fourths of the earth's surface is covered water in a reservoir. Electricity is produced by with water. Most of which is found in the ocean. Great releasing water from the reservoir through a turbine, amount of the freshwater is found below the earth's which activates a generator. surface called ground water and the rest of the freshwater is found in lakes, rivers, streams. Water is also present in air in the form of water vapor. DISTRIBUTION OF WATER Oceans cover an area of 139 million miles? or 361 million km, and contain a volume of about 1.37 billion km° of water. 3. PUMPED STORAGE HYDROPOWER provides peak-load supply, harnessing water which is cycled between a lower and upper reservoir by pumps which use surplus energy from the system at times of low demand. THE HYDROLOGIC CYCLE OR WATER CYCLE The unending exchange of water among the continents, surface water, and the atmosphere is called the. This cycle of water maintains the quantity of water on earth. fl fl fl fl fl fl  SOURCES OF WATER The chemical characteristics of natural water are a Rainwater, oceans, rivers, lakes, streams, ponds and re ection of the soils and rocks with which the water springs are natural sources of water. Dams, wells, has been in contact. In addition, agricultural and tube wells, hand-pumps, canals, etc., are man-made urban runo and municipal and industrial treated sources of water. wastewater impact the water quality. MAIN SOURCES OF WATER WATER’S CHEMICAL RESOURCES DISSOLVED OXYGEN- Fish and other organisms SOURCES OF WATER that live in water need oxygen to survive. The oxygen Rain water is collected on Earth in the form of surface that is dissolved in water is called dissolved oxygen, water and underground water. or DO. If the DO in water is too low, many organisms can become sick or die. SURFACE WATER pH- The pH of water is a measure of how acidic the Water present on the surface of the earth in the form water is. Most organisms cannot live in very acidic of rivers, lakes, reservoir, ponds and streams is called water. Acid rain and some kinds of wastes can make surface water. The water in rivers and lakes comes water bodies more acidic. Water with a high alkalinity, from rain and melting of snow on mountains. or ability to react with acids, can protect organisms from acid rain and other pollution. UNDERGROUND WATER Groundwater lies under the surface of the land, where it travels through and lls openings in the rocks. The rocks that store and transmit groundwater are called aquifers. An aquifer is a body of rock and/or sediment that holds groundwater. SALT WATER RESOURCES Oceans and seas are interconnected bodies of seawater. The percentage of salt in a given volume of Water with good qualities is good for human seawater is called salinity. Ocean water is a source of consumption. Water availability is de ned as the dissolved minerals like salts. quantity of water that can be used for human purposes without signi cant harm to ecosystems or IMPORTANCE OF WATER RESOURCES other users. Residential, Commercial and Industrial Use- Residential water use includes drinking, cleaning, THREATS TO THE QUALITY OF WATER SYSTEM personal hygiene and car washing In farming, sewage runo s from farms and gardens Hydropower - Hydroelectric facilities use the power may contain nitrogen and phosphorous triggers of owing water to turn turbines that produce uncontrolled plant growth. This will also lead to electricity. bioaccumulation of toxic materials which might be Irrigation- Water for irrigation comes from either taken in by aquatic organisms that may have an groundwater or surface water. active e ect once it enters circulation in the food Navigation- Agricultural and commercial goods are chain. moved on water on a large scale, making navigation Improper waste disposal during industrial an important economic concern. production causes water pollution. The dissolved oxygen in bodies of water decreases which leads to WATER QUALITY low production of aquatic resources. describes the condition of the water, including The excessiv e water w it hdrawal redu ces chemical, physical, and biological characteristics, considerable amount of water supply intended for usually concerning its suitability for a particular public utility use. purpose such as drinking or swimming. The clearing of land to build roads and other construction structures increase surface runo and WATER’S PHYSICAL CHARACTERS cause landslides or ash oods in sloping areas. This COLOR- It can indicate the presence of organic also leads to low and slow in ltration in recharging substances, such as algae or other compounds. groundwater supply. In addition, the slow in ltration More recently, color has been used as a quantitative of surface runo water results to ooding in low lying assessment of the presence of potentially hazardous areas. or toxic organic materials in water. Fossil fuel production is another human activity that TASTE AND ODOR- Organic materials discharged places considerable strain on drinking water — and directly to water, such as falling leaves, runo , etc., not just because fracking and coal mining use a great are sources of tastes and odor-producing deal of water, but because their waste products can compounds released during biodegradation. pollute groundwater, and therefore drinking water, as TURBIDITY- It is a measure of the light-transmitting well. properties of water and is comprised of suspended and colloidal material. It is important for health and aesthetic reasons. fl fl ff ff ff fl fi fi fl ff fi fl fi fi ff ff  HOW CAN DIRTY WATER BE CLEANED? Though pesticides are found bene cial to soil, it was Sewage treatment plants are facilities that clean found to have long term harmful e ects on the overall waste materials out of water. After water has passed activity or population of soil organisms. through a sewage treatment plant, it can safely be Construction of Structure. Construction activities, released into the environment. such as grading and lling, reduce soil quality on A septic tank is a large underground tank that cleans construction sites. Land use conversion usually done the wastewater from one household. The wastewater to support urbanization activities can cause rapid soil ows into the tank, where the solids sink to the degradation and sedimentation. Soil nutrients are bottom. Bacteria break down these solids. The water washed away making it unsuitable for farming. then ows into pipes buried underground. Waste Disposals. Soil quality is adversely a ected by improper waste disposal. Soil pollution happens WAYS TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT WATER when hazardous chemicals from human and industrial RESOURCES: sewage are carelessly disposed of, altering soil's Use less water. natural health and quality. Keep harmful substances out of the Water. Keep pipes and appliances in good condition. WAYS TO PROTECT SOIL Use water-e cient appliances. Forest Protection. Trees as well as other plants and Use water e ciently outdoors. vegetation in the forest are important in the creation of new soil as leaves and other vegetation rot and Water Scarcity occurs when the amount of water decompose. Hence, soil qualities are ensured when withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater is so forest are protected and conserved. great that water supplies are no longer adequate to Bu er Strips. Bu ers are strips or corridors of satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements, permanent vegetation used to reduce water and wind resulting in increased competition between water erosion. They provide protection where stream banks users and other demands. exist. They can be created with grass, trees and Although it is di cult to instantly put an end to such shrubs. Bu er strips are designed to intercept runo problems, man must manage, develop, and protect using permanent vegetation. water and related resources in an environmentally No-Till Farming. No-till farming is an approach that and economically sound manner. allows crops to remain in place for a season. This keeps the soil from being left bare and unprotected. HUMAN ACTIVITIES THAT AFFECT THE QUALITY Farmers grow crops with minimal disturbance to their AND QUANTITY OF SOIL elds and the organisms that call them home. Soil con be de ned as the organic and inorganic Fewer Concrete Surfaces. Lots of concrete materials on the surface of the earth that provide the surfaces, especially in residential areas make it medium for plant growth. Soil develops slowly over di cult for water to get to the soil. Using paving time and is composed of many di erent materials stones for patios and gardens work to protect the through the process of weathering. soil. They are also a tool to prevent soil erosion in Soil is a necessary resource because it helps sustain speci c areas. life on Earth including humans, animals and plants. Plant Windbreak Areas. Windbreaks are narrow Aside from life sustaining roles, soil helps purify, or strips of trees, shrubs, and/or grasses planted in a clean, water as it drains through the ground and into row to slow and redirect the wind. This is a method rivers, lakes, and oceans. that can work to prevent erosion of the soil. Also known as shelterbelt. FARMING Terrace Planting. This type of planting is done by Farming is the act or process of working the ground, maximizing the topography of the land. It bene ts planting seeds, and growing edible plants. It can also from the way the rain water ows naturally. This is a be in a form of raising animals. way to protect the soil from erosion. It is also a proven method to encourage growth from moist soil POSITIVE EFFECT OF FARMING areas. Application of herbicide, a pesticide used to kill Plant Trees. Simply planting trees is a good unwanted plants used in farming has a positive conservation method. As the tree grows, its roots bene t on soil health. become even more secure in the soil. This soil is Lime and mineral fertilizers added to soil provide protected in numerous ways because of the trees' stable optimum growing conditions for plants. existence. Erosion is prevented from this planting Organic manures and other organic fertilizers provide process. a source of food/energy for many soil organisms thus Crop Rotation. Crop rotation is a process that works making the soil healthy and good for planting. Even to conserve soil. Crop rotation is the practice of the growing plants help in stabilizing the soil planting di erent crops sequentially on the same plot structure. of land to improve soil health, optimize nutrients in the soil, and combat pest and weed pressure. NEGATIVE EFFECT OF FARMING Maintain pH. Soil pH or soil reaction is an indication Tillage in farming is the preparation of soil for planting of the acidity or alkalinity of soil and is measured in and the cultivation of soil after planting. It can cause pH units. A pH range of approximately 6 to 7 direct damage to soil microorganisms and potentially promotes the readiest availability of plant nutrients. expose them to new predators. fl fi ffi ff fi fl fi ff ff ffi ffi ffi fi ff fi fl ff fi ff ff fi ff  The pH levels in the soil can be a ected by a number WASTE GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT of pollutants and acid. The United Nations Environment described wastes Indigenous Crops. Indigenous crops are native crop as unwanted or unusable materials which are options that enhance the soil. Indigenous crops are disposed of or are intended to be disposed of or are well-adapted to the regions where they originate. required to be disposed of by the provisions of They often are free of pests and diseases, and are national law. able to grow in extremely di cult conditions (in very The sum total production of waste from human dry areas or in very acidic or alkaline soil, for example) society, including agricultural, industrial, municipal A orestation. Planting trees is a method of and mining is called waste stream. conserving the soil. A orestation is the establishment of a forest or stand of trees in an area where there TYPES OF WASTE was no recent tree cover. It encourages healthy soil Solid Waste. This type of wastes is in solid form like and water absorption. domestic, commercial and industrial wastes such as Monitor Grazing. Animal grazing plays a critical role plastics, styrofoam, papers, scrap iron, and sludge in conserving soil. Monitoring the areas where cows from a wastewater treatment plant or air control and other animals graze is important. This helps to facility. prevent depletion of the soil. It also addresses the Liquid Waste. This type of wastes is in liquid form issue of hoof damage, which can occur to the soil. such as chemicals, oils, and waste water from ponds Fertilizers. Not all fertilizer products are e ective for and manufacturing industries. It includes sewage as conservation e orts. The composition of these well as wastewater from industrial processes and fertilizers can be the problem. The use of organic agricultural processing. fertilizer improves the quality of soil because it is Gaseous Waste. This type of waste are wastes in composed of readily biodegradable materials make gas form. These include oxides of carbon, Sulphur better nutrient sources. dioxide, oxides of nitrogen, hydrocarbons, aerosols, No Soil Compacting. Soil compaction occurs when carbon monoxide, methane, Greenhouse gases like soil particles are pressed together, reducing pore chloro uorocarbon (CFC) etc. The increasing number space between them. A compacted soil has a of factories, industrial areas and the number of reduced rate of both water in ltration and drainage. vehicles causes a large amount of gaseous wastes Contour Plowing. Contour plowing was a method of coming to the atmosphere. plowing furrows that follow the curves of the land rather than straight up and down slopes. Furrows that SOURCES OF WASTE run up and down a slope form a channel that can Agricultural Waste. Are all t