Paths to Modernization: East Asia in the 19th Century PDF

Created by Turbolearn AI Paths to Modernization: East Asia in the 19th Century China's Initial State At the beginning of the 19th century, China was the dominant power in East Asia, ruled by the Qing dynasty. The dynasty appeared secure, while Japan remained isolated. China's Turmoil China f...

Created by Turbolearn AI Paths to Modernization: East Asia in the 19th Century China's Initial State At the beginning of the 19th century, China was the dominant power in East Asia, ruled by the Qing dynasty. The dynasty appeared secure, while Japan remained isolated. China's Turmoil China faced immense turmoil and was unable to effectively resist colonial challenges. The imperial government lost political control and struggled with reforms. The country was plagued by civil war. Japan's Modernization Japan successfully built a modern nation-state. Japan created an industrial economy. Japan established a colonial empire by incorporating Taiwan (1895) and Korea (1910). Japan defeated China (1894) and Russia (1905). China's Response and Revolution China reacted slowly and faced difficulties in redefining its traditions to cope with the modern world. China wanted to rebuild its national strength and become free from Western and Japanese control. The Chinese Communist Party emerged victorious in 1949. By the late 1970s, Chinese leaders felt that the ideological system was hindering economic growth, which led to economic reforms that reintroduced elements of capitalism and the free market. Page 1  Created by Turbolearn AI Japan's Trajectory Japan became an advanced industrial nation. Its imperial ambitions led to war and defeat by the Anglo-American forces. The U.S. Occupation led to a more democratic political system. Japan rebuilt its economy and emerged as a major economic power by the 1970s. Japan's modernization was built on capitalist principles within a world dominated by Western colonialism. Historical Writings Both China and Japan have long traditions of historical writings. History served as a guide for rulers and a standard for judgment. Official departments were established to maintain records and write dynastic histories. Sima Qian (145-90 BCE): Considered the greatest historian of early China. In Japan, Chinese cultural influence led to a similar emphasis on history. The Meiji government established a bureau in 1869 to collect records and write a version of the Meiji Restoration. Great respect was given to the written word, and literary ability was highly valued. A wide range of written materials (official histories, scholarly writings, popular literature, religious tracts) are available. Printing and publishing were important industries in the pre-modern period. Modern Scholarship Page 2  Created by Turbolearn AI Modern scholarship has built upon the work of: Chinese intellectuals like Liang Qichao. Kume Kunitake (1839-1931), a pioneer of modern history in Japan. European travelers like Marco Polo (1254-1324) in China. Jesuit priests Mateo Ricci (1552-1610) in China. Luis Frois (1532-97) in Japan, all of whom left rich accounts of these countries. The writings of Christian missionaries in the 19th century provide valuable material. Scholarship in English from works like Joseph Needham's on the history of science in Chinese civilization and George Sansom's on Japanese history and culture has grown. Writings by Chinese and Japanese scholars have been translated into English. Naito Konan Naito Konan (1866-1934) was a leading Japanese scholar of China. He used Western historiography and his experience as a journalist in China. Naito helped establish the Department of Oriental Studies in Kyoto University in 1907. In Shinaron [On China (1914)], he argued that republican government offered the Chinese a way to end aristocratic control and centralised power. He believed Chinese history had strengths that would make it modern and democratic. Naito thought Japan had a role to play in China but underestimated the power of Chinese nationalism. Physical and Ethnic Diversity China Page 3  Created by Turbolearn AI Vast continental country spanning many climatic zones. Dominated by three major river systems: Yellow River (Huang He) Yangtse River (Chang Jiang) Pearl River Large part of the country is mountainous. Dominant ethnic group: Han Major language: Chinese (Putonghua) Other nationalities: Uighur, Hui, Manchu, and Tibetan Dialects: Cantonese (Yue) and Shanghainese (Wu) Chinese Food Chinese food reflects regional diversity with at least four distinct types: Southern or Cantonese cuisine: includes dim sum Northern cuisine: wheat is the staple food Szechuan cuisine: spices and chillies Eastern China: both rice and wheat are eaten Japan A string of islands: Honshu, Kyushu, Shikoku, and Hokkaido. Okinawan chain is the southernmost. More than 50% of the land area of the main islands is mountainous. Situated in an active earthquake zone. Population is largely Japanese. Small Ainu minority and Koreans who were forcibly brought as labor. Lacks a tradition of animal rearing. Rice is the staple crop, and fish is the major source of protein. Japan: Political System Rule Page 4  Created by Turbolearn AI An emperor ruled Japan from Kyoto. By the 12th century, the imperial court lost power to shoguns. From 1603 to 1867, members of the Tokugawa family held the position of shogun. The country was divided into over 250 domains under the rule of lords called daimyo. Samurai The samurai (the warrior class) were the ruling elite. The samurai served the shoguns and daimyo. Changes in the Late 16th Century The peasantry was disarmed, and only the samurai could carry swords. The daimyo were ordered to live in the capitals of their domains. Land surveys identified owners and taxpayers. Growth of Cities By the mid-17th century, Japan had the most populated city in the world, Edo, as well as Osaka and Kyoto. At least half a dozen castle-towns had populations of over 50,000. This led to the growth of a commercial economy. A person's merit began to be more valued than their status. Vibrant Culture A vibrant culture blossomed in the towns. The fast-growing class of merchants patronized theatre and the arts. People enjoyed reading. Gifted writers could earn a living solely by writing. In Edo, people could rent a book for the price of a bowl of noodles. Economic Shifts Page 5  Created by Turbolearn AI Trade Japan was considered rich due to importing luxury goods like silk from China and textiles from India. Paying for these imports with gold and silver strained the economy. The Tokugawa put restrictions on the export of precious metals. They took steps to develop the silk industry in Nishijin in Kyoto to reduce imports. Nishijin Silk The silk from Nishijin came to be known as the best in the world. Nishijin is a quarter in Kyoto. In the 16th century, it had a weavers guild of 31 households. By the end of the 17th century, the community numbered over 70,000 people. Sericulture spread and was encouraged by an order in 1713 that only domestic yarn was to be used. Nishijin specialised only in the most expensive products. Silk production helped the growth of a class of regional entrepreneurs who challenged the Tokugawa order. Economy Other developments included the increased use of money and the creation of a stock market in rice. Social and intellectual changes led people to question the degree of Chinese influence. They argued that the essence of being Japanese could be found long before contact with China, in such early classics as the Tale of the Genji and in the myths of origin that said that the islands were created by the gods and that the emperor was a descendant of the Sun Goddess. Page 6  Created by Turbolearn AI The Tale of Genji: A fictionalized diary of the Heian court written by Murasaki Shikibu, the Tale of the Genji became the central work of fiction in Japanese literature. That period saw the emergence of many women writers, like Murasaki, who wrote in the Japanese script, while men wrote in the Chinese script, used for education and government. The novel depicts the romantic life of Prince Genji and is a striking picture of the aristocratic atmosphere of the Heian court. It shows the independence that women had in choosing their husbands and living their lives. The Meiji Restoration Foreign Relations Internal discontent coincided with demands for trade and diplomatic relations. In 1853, the USA sent Commodore Matthew Perry to Japan to demand a treaty that would permit trade and open diplomatic relations. Japan lay on the route to China, which the USA saw as a major market. At that time, only Holland traded with Japan. Politics Perry's arrival had an important effect on Japanese politics. The emperor re-emerged as an important figure. In 1868, a movement forcibly removed the shogun from power and brought the Emperor to Edo. Edo was made the capital and renamed Tokyo. Fear of Colonization Officials and people were aware that European countries were building colonial empires. News of China being defeated by the British was flowing in. Many scholars and leaders wanted to learn from the new ideas in Europe. Some argued for a gradual and limited opening to the outer world. Slogan Page 7  Created by Turbolearn AI The government launched a policy with the slogan fukoku kyohei (rich country, strong army). They realised that they needed to develop their economy and build a strong army. They needed to create a sense of nationhood among the people. Emperor System The new government worked to build the emperor system. Officials were sent to study the European monarchies. The Emperor was treated with reverence as he was considered a direct descendant of the Sun Goddess but he was also shown as the leader of westernisation. His birthday became a national holiday. He wore Western-style military uniforms. Edicts were issued in his name to set up modern institutions. The Imperial Rescript on Education of 1890 urged people to pursue learning, advance public good, and promote common interests. Education and Unification School System A new school system began to be built from the 1870s. Schooling was compulsory for boys and girls and by 1910 almost universal. Tuition fees were minimal. The curriculum had been based on Western models. Stress was placed on loyalty and the study of Japanese history. The ministry of education exercised control over the curriculum. Moral culture had to be taught. Texts urged children to revere their parents, be loyal to the nation, and become good citizens. Writing Page 8  Created by Turbolearn AI The Japanese had borrowed their written script from the Chinese in the sixth century. They developed two phonetic alphabets - hiragana and katakana. Hiragana is considered feminine because it was used by many women writers in the Heian period. It is written using a mixture of Chinese characters and phonetics. The existence of a phonetic syllabary meant that knowledge spread from the elites to the wider society relatively quickly. In the 1880s it was suggested that Japanese develop a completely phonetic script, or adopt a European language. Integration To integrate the nation, the Meiji government imposed a new administrative structure. The administrative unit had to have revenue adequate to maintain the local schools and health facilities. It had to serve as a recruitment centre for the military. All young men over twenty had to do a period of military service. A modern military force was developed. A legal system was set up to regulate the formation of political groups, control the holding of meetings and impose strict censorship. The military and the bureaucracy were put under the direct command of the emperor. The tension between a democratic constitution and a modern army had far- reaching consequences. The army pressed for a vigorous foreign policy to acquire more territory. This led to wars with China and Russia, in both of which Japan was the victor. Popular demand for greater democracy was often in opposition to the government's aggressive policies. Japan developed economically and acquired a colonial empire that suppressed the spread of democracy at home and put it in collision with the people it colonised. Modernizing the Economy Funding Page 9  Created by Turbolearn AI Another important part of the Meiji reforms was the modernising of the economy. Funds were raised by levying an agricultural tax. Infrastructure Japan's first railway line, between Tokyo and the port of Yokohama, was built in 1870-72. Textile machinery was imported from Europe, and foreign technicians were employed to train workers, as well as to teach in universities and schools, and Japanese students were sent abroad. Institutions In 1872, modern banking institutions were launched. Companies like Mitsubishi and Sumitomo were helped through subsidies and tax benefits to become major shipbuilders. Japanese trade was from now on carried in Japanese ships. Zaibatsu: large business organizations controlled by individual families The population, 35 million in 1872, increased to 55 million in 1920. To reduce population pressure the government actively encouraged migration, first to the northern island of Hokkaido, which had been a largely autonomous area where the indigenous people called the Ainu lived, and then to Hawaii and Brazil, as well as to the growing colonial empire of Japan. Urbanization Within Japan there was a shift to towns as industry developed. By 1925, 21% of the population lived in cities; by 1935, this figure had gone up to 32% (22.5 million). Industrial Workers Growth Page 10  Created by Turbolearn AI The number of people in manufacturing increased from 700,000 in 1870 to 4 million in 1913. Most of them worked in units employing less than five people and using neither machinery nor electric power. Over half of those employed in modern factories were women. Women organised the first modern strike in 1886. After 1900, the number of men began to increase but only in the 1930s did male workers begin to outnumber women. The size of factories also began to increase. Factories employing more than a hundred workers, just over 1,000 in 1909, jumped to over 2,000 by 1920 and 4,000 by the 1930s. Even in 1940, there were over 550,000 workshops that employed less than five employees. This sustained the family-centred ideology, just as nationalism was sustained by a strong patriarchal system under an emperor who was like a family patriarch. Environmental Destruction The rapid and unregulated growth of industry and the demand for natural resources such as timber led to environmental destruction. Tanaka Shozo (1841-1913): a self-taught son of a farmer, rose to become a major political figure. He participated in the Popular Rights Movement in the 1880s, a movement demanding constitutional government. He was selected member to the first Diet. He believed that ordinary people should not be sacrificed for industrial progress. Tanaka Shozo launched the first agitation against industrial pollution in 1897 with 800 villagers in a mass protest forcing the government to take action. Aggressive Nationalism Constitution Page 11  Created by Turbolearn AI The Meiji constitution was based on a restricted franchise. It created a Diet with limited powers. The leaders who brought about the imperial restoration continued to exercise power and even established political parties. Between 1918 and 1931, popularly elected prime ministers formed cabinets. Thereafter, they lost power to national unity cabinets formed across party lines. Military The emperor was the commander of the forces. From 1890 this was interpreted to mean that the army and the navy had independent control. In 1899, the prime minister ordered that only serving generals and admirals could become ministers. This strengthening of the military, together with the expansion of Japan's colonial empire, was connected with the fear that Japan was at the mercy of the Western powers. This fear was used to silence opposition to military expansion and to higher taxes to fund the armed forces. Westernization and Tradition Intellectual Views Successive generations of Japanese intellectuals had different views on Japan's relations with other countries. To some, the USA and western European countries were at the highest point of civilisation, to which Japan aspired. Fukuzawa Yukichi: a leading Meiji intellectual, expressed this by saying that Japan must expel Asia. He meant that Japan must shed its Asian characteristics and become part of the West. He advocated not just modern factories and institutions but the cultural essence of the West the spirit of civilisation. With this spirit it would be possible to build a new citizen. His principle was: Heaven did not create men above men, nor set men below men. Page 12  Created by Turbolearn AI Indigenous Values The next generation questioned this total acceptance of Western ideas and urged that national pride be built on indigenous values. Miyake Setsurei (1860-1945): argued that each nation must develop its special talents in the interest of world civilisation: To devote oneself to one's country is to devote oneself to the world. Many intellectuals were attracted to Western liberalism and wanted a Japan based not on the military but on democracy. Ueki Emori (1857-1892): a leader of the Popular Rights Movement, was demanding constitutional government, admired the French Revolution's doctrine of the natural rights of man and of popular sovereignty, and spoke for a liberal education that would develop each individual: Freedom is more precious than order. Others even advocated voting rights for women. This pressure led the government to announce a constitution. Daily Life Family Japan's transformation into a modern society can be seen also in the changes in everyday life. The patriarchal household system comprised many generations living together under the control of the head of the house, but as more people became affluent, new ideas of the family spread. The new home (homu as the Japanese say, using the English word) was that of the nuclear family, where husband and wife lived as breadwinner and homemaker. This new concept of domesticity in turn generated demands for new types of domestic goods, new types of family entertainments, and new forms of housing. In the 1920s, construction companies made cheap housing available for a down payment of 200 yen and a monthly instalment of 12 yen for ten years this at a time when the salary of a bank employee (a person with higher education) was 40 yen per month. Page 13  Created by Turbolearn AI Travel The new middle-class families enjoyed new forms of travel and entertainment. Transport in cities improved with electric trams, public parks were opened from 1878, and department stores began to be built. In Tokyo, the Ginza became a fashionable area for Ginbura (walking aimlessly). The first radio stations opened in 1925. Entertainment Matsui Sumako, an actress, became a national star with her portrayal of Nora in the Norwegian writer Ibsen's A Doll's House. Movies began to be made in 1899 and soon there were a dozen companies making hundreds of films. The period was one of great vitality and the questioning of traditional norms of social and political behaviour. Overcoming Modernity Nationalism State-centred nationalism found full expression in the 1930s and 1940s as Japan launched wars to extend its empire in China and other parts of Asia, a war that merged into the Second World War after Japan attacked the USA at Pearl Harbor. Control This period saw greater controls on society. There was repression and imprisonment of dissidents. Patriotic societies were formed. Symposium Page 14  Created by Turbolearn AI An influential symposium on Overcoming Modernity in 1943 debated the dilemma facing Japan of how to combat the West while being modern. A musician, Moroi Saburo, posed the question of how to rescue music from the art of sensory stimulation and restore it to an art of the spirit. The philosopher Nishitani Keiji defined modern as the unity of three streams of Western thought: the Renaissance, the Protestant Reformation, and the rise of natural sciences. After Defeat US Occupation Japan's attempt to carve out a colonial empire ended with its defeat by the Allied forces. Under the US-led Occupation (1945-47) Japan was demilitarised and a new constitution introduced. Agrarian reforms, the re-establishment of trade unions and an attempt to dismantle the zaibatsu or large monopoly houses that dominated the Japanese economy were also carried out. Political Parties Political parties were revived. The first post-war elections held in 1946 where women voted for the first time. Economic Growth The rapid rebuilding of the Japanese economy after its shattering defeat was called a post-war miracle. The social cohesion of the pre-war years was strengthened, allowing for a close working of the government, bureaucracy and industry. US support, as well as the demand created by the Korean and the Vietnamese wars also helped the Japanese economy. The 1964 Olympics held in Tokyo marked a symbolic coming of age. In much the same way the network of high-speed Shinkansen or bullet trains, started in 1964, have come to represent the ability of the Japanese to use advanced technologies to produce better and cheaper goods. Page 15  Created by Turbolearn AI Environmental Issues The 1960s saw the growth of civil society movements as industrialisation had been pushed with utter disregard to its effect on health and the environment. Grass-roots pressure groups began to demand recognition of these problems as well as compensation for the victims. Regulations Government action and new legal regulations helped to improve conditions. From the mid-1980s there has been an increasing decline in interest in environmental issues as Japan enacted some of the strictest environmental controls in the world. Today, as a developed country it faces the challenge of using its political and technological capabilities to maintain its position as a leading world power. China Modern History The modern history of China has revolved around the question of how to regain sovereignty, end the humiliation of foreign occupation and bring about equality and development. Groups Chinese debates were marked by the views of three groups: Early reformers such as Kang Youwei or Liang Qichao tried to use traditional ideas in new and different ways to meet the challenges posed by the West. Republican revolutionaries such as Sun Yat-sen, the first president of the republic, were inspired by ideas from Japan and the West. The Communist Party of China (CCP) wanted to end age-old inequalities and drive out the foreigners. Encounter Page 16  Created by Turbolearn AI The beginning of modern China can be traced to its first encounter with the West in the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries when Jesuit missionaries introduced Western sciences such as astronomy and mathematics. The Opium Trade The demand for Chinese goods like tea, silk, and porcelain created a trade imbalance with the West. Western goods weren't as popular in China, so payments had to be made in silver. The East India Company discovered opium, grown in India, as a new trade option. They sold opium in China, exchanged the earned silver for letters of credit in Canton, and then used the silver to buy Chinese goods for sale in Britain. This system formed a triangular trade route between Britain, India, and China. Qing Reforms and Resistance Qing reformers like Kang Youwei and Liang Qichao aimed to strengthen China through: Modernizing the administrative system Creating a new army Establishing a modern educational system Setting up local assemblies for constitutional government They sought to protect China from colonization, learning from the examples of countries like Poland and India. Liang Qichao emphasized the need to make Chinese people aware of their national identity to resist Western influence, pointing to India's exploitation by the East India Company as a cautionary tale. Changing Traditional Ways of Thinking Confucianism, based on the teachings of Confucius, emphasized: Good conduct Practical wisdom Proper social relationships It influenced Chinese attitudes, provided social standards, and underpinned political theories and institutions. Page 17  Created by Turbolearn AI However, it was now seen as a barrier to new ideas and institutions. Students were sent to Japan, Britain, and France to learn modern subjects. Many Chinese students went to Japan in the 1890s, bringing back new ideas and becoming leading republicans. The Chinese even adopted Japanese translations of European words due to the shared ideographic script. In 1905, the centuries-old Chinese examination system was abolished. The Examination System Entry to the elite ruling class was mainly through this examination. The examination required writing an eight-legged essay [pa-ku wen] in classical Chinese in a prescribed form. The examination was held twice every three years, at different levels. Only 1-2% of those allowed to sit passed the first level, usually by age 24, to become "beautiful talent." Before 1850, there were about 526,869 civil and 212,330 military provincial degree holders. Since there were only 27,000 official positions, many lower-level degree holders did not have jobs. The examination was a barrier to science and technology development as it demanded only literary skills. Establishing the Republic The Manchu empire was overthrown, and a republic was established in 1911 under Sun Yat-sen. Sun Yat-sen's program, the Three Principles (San min chui), included: Nationalism: Overthrowing the Manchu dynasty and foreign imperialists Democracy: Establishing a democratic government Socialism: Regulating capital and equalizing landholdings The social and political situation remained unstable. May Fourth Movement Page 18  Created by Turbolearn AI On May 4, 1919, a demonstration in Beijing protested the post-war peace conference decisions. The movement attacked tradition and called for saving China through science, democracy, and nationalism. Revolutionaries advocated for: Driving out foreigners Removing inequalities Reducing poverty Reforms like simple language in writing Abolishing foot-binding Promoting women's equality Economic development After the republican revolution, the country entered a period of turmoil. The Guomindang (the National People's Party) and the CCP emerged as major forces. The Guomindang Sun Yat-sen's ideas formed the basis of the Guomindang's political philosophy. They identified clothing, food, housing, and transportation as the four great needs. After Sun's death, Chiang Kai-shek became the leader and launched a military campaign to control warlords and eliminate communists. He advocated a secular and rational Confucianism and sought to militarize the nation. Chiang Kai-shek encouraged women to cultivate chastity, appearance, speech, and work within the household. The Guomindang's social base was in urban areas. Urban Conditions Industrial growth was slow and limited. In cities like Shanghai, an industrial working class of 500,000 emerged by 1919. Most were petty urbanites, traders, and shopkeepers. Urban workers, particularly women, earned very low wages, worked long hours, and faced bad conditions. Increased individualism led to discussions about women's rights, family, love, and romance. Page 19  Created by Turbolearn AI Social and Cultural Shifts The spread of schools and universities helped social and cultural change. Journalism flourished, reflecting new thinking. The popular Life Weekly introduced readers to new ideas and leaders like Mahatma Gandhi and Kemal Ataturk. The Rise of the Communist Party of China (CCP) The Guomindang retreated when the Japanese invaded China in 1937. The war weakened China, with prices rising 30% per month between 1945 and 1949. Rural China faced ecological and socio-economic crises. The CCP, founded in 1921, was influenced by the Russian Revolution and the Comintern. Mao Zedong based his revolutionary program on the peasantry, making the CCP a powerful force. Mao's Approach Mao's radical approach in Jiangxi (1928-1934) involved: Organizing a strong peasants council (soviet) Confiscating and redistributing land Supporting rural women's associations Promulgating a new marriage law Mao stressed the need for an independent government and army. He conducted surveys to examine exploitation levels and advocated for social problem solutions. The Long March and New Program Page 20  Created by Turbolearn AI The Guomindang blockade forced the CCP on the Long March (1934-35) to Shanxi. In Yanan, they developed a program to: End warlordism Carry out land reforms Fight foreign imperialism This won them a strong social base. After the war, the Communists established themselves in power. Establishing the New Democracy: 1949-1965 The People's Republic of China government was established in 1949. It was based on the principles of the New Democracy, an alliance of all social classes. Unlike the dictatorship of the proletariat that the Soviet Union said it had established. Critical areas of the economy were put under government control. Private enterprise and private ownership of land were gradually ended. The Great Leap Forward movement in 1958 aimed to rapidly industrialize the country. People were encouraged to set up steel furnaces in their backyards. People's communes were started in rural areas. Mao aimed to create a socialist man with five loves: fatherland, people, labor, science, and public property. Mass organizations were created for farmers, women, students, and other groups. Conflicting Visions: 1965-1978 Page 21  Created by Turbolearn AI The conflict between Maoists and those who emphasized expertise culminated in the Great Proletarian Cultural Revolution in 1965. The Red Guards were used to campaign against old culture, customs, and habits. Students and professionals were sent to the countryside to learn from the masses. Ideology was more important than professional knowledge. Denunciations and slogans replaced rational debate. The Cultural Revolution caused turmoil, weakened the Party, and disrupted the economy and educational system. From the late 1960s, emphasis was placed on social discipline and building an industrial economy. Reforms from 1978 Deng Xiaoping introduced a socialist market economy while maintaining party control. In 1978, the Party declared its goal as the Four Modernizations (science, industry, agriculture, defense). Debate was allowed as long as the Party was not questioned. New ideas emerged, but demands for democracy were suppressed. In 1989, student demonstrators at Tiananmen Square were repressed. The post-reform period has seen debates on developing China. Critics question increasing inequalities and the emphasis on the market. There is a revival of traditional ideas and Confucianism. The Story of Taiwan Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan in 1949 and established the Republic of China. Taiwan had been a Japanese colony since 1895. Massive demonstrations in 1947 led the GMD to kill many leading figures. The GMD established a repressive government, but carried out land reforms and modernized the economy. Taiwan's economy has been steadily growing, and the gap between rich and poor has been declining. Taiwan has transformed into a democracy since the death of Chiang in 1975. Most countries have only trade missions in Taiwan. Re-unification with the mainland remains a contentious issue. The Story of Korea Page 22  Created by Turbolearn AI Beginnings of Modernization During the late nineteenth century, Korea's Joseon Dynasty faced internal and external pressures, leading to modernization reforms. Imperial Japan annexed Korea in 1910, ending the Joseon Dynasty. Koreans demonstrated against colonial rule and sought independence. Japanese colonial rule ended in 1945 after Japan's defeat in World War II. A Post-War Nation Following liberation, the Korean Peninsula was divided along the 38th parallel, with the Soviets managing the North and the U.N. managing the South. This division became permanent as separate governments were established in both the North and the South in 1948. In June 1950, the Korean War broke out, becoming a proxy war of the Cold War era. The war ended in an armistice agreement in 1953, leaving Korea divided. South Korea relied on economic assistance from the USA. Syngman Rhee was elected as South Korea's first president in 1948 but extended his administration through illegal constitutional amendments. In April 1960, citizens protested against a rigged election in the April Revolution, forcing Rhee to resign. In May 1961, the Democratic Party government was overthrown in a military coup led by General Park Chung-hee. Rapid Industrialization under Strong Leadership Page 23  Created by Turbolearn AI In October 1963, Park Chung-hee was elected president and adopted a state- led, export-oriented policy for economic growth. The government's five-year economic plans favored large corporate firms and emphasized expanding employment. Korea shifted from import substitution industrialization (ISI) towards exports. The government supported labor-intensive light industrial products and later shifted to value-added heavy and chemical industries. In 1970, the New Village (Saemaul) Movement was introduced to modernize the agricultural sector. Korea achieved economic growth through strong leaders, bureaucrats, industrialists, and a capable labor force. A high level of education and open economic policy also contributed to economic growth. Economic growth was the foundation of the Park administration's long-term power. In October 1972, Park declared the Yusin Constitution, which granted the president complete authority. The Park administration ended in October 1979 when Park Chung-hee was assassinated. Continued Economic Growth and Calls for Democratization After Park Chung-hee's death, another military coup led by Chun Doo-hwan was staged in December 1979. In May 1980, protests demanding democracy in the face of Chun's military faction were suppressed, notably the Gwangju Democratization Movement. Chun became president through an indirect election under the Yusin Constitution. The Chun administration strengthened the suppression of democratization influences. Economic development led to urbanization, improved education levels, and media advancements, increasing citizens' awareness of political rights. In May 1987, citizens participated in a large-scale struggle for democratization, the June Democracy Movement, forcing the Chun administration to allow direct elections. Page 24  Created by Turbolearn AI Korean Democracy and the IMF Crisis The first direct election since 1971 was held in December 1987, electing Roh Tae-woo. In December 1992, Kim Young-sam, a civilian, was elected president, marking a shift away from military rule. Under the export-driven policy, several companies grew to global prominence. Korea joined the Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) in 1996. Korea faced a foreign currency crisis in 1997, which was dealt with through emergency financial support from the International Monetary Fund (IMF). Kim Dae-jung was elected president in December 1997, marking a peaceful transfer of power. In 2016, the candlelight protests led by citizens peacefully demonstrated for the president's resignation. Paths to Modernization Industrial societies have followed unique paths to modernization, influenced by their historical conditions. The histories of Japan and China, along with Taiwan and Korea, exemplify the diverse routes to building independent and modern nations. Japan's Modernization Japan successfully maintained its independence and integrated traditional practices into new ways. However, its elite-driven modernization led to aggressive nationalism, a repressive regime that suppressed dissent, and a colonial empire that fostered hatred in the region and distorted internal development. Japan's modernization occurred within an environment dominated by Western imperial powers. While emulating them, Japan also sought its own solutions. Japanese nationalism was driven by conflicting desires: liberating Asia from Western domination and building an empire. Transformation of social and political institutions involved creatively using traditions in new ways, rather than simply reviving or preserving them. Page 25  Created by Turbolearn AI The Meiji school system, modeled on European and American practices, introduced new subjects but primarily aimed to create loyal citizens. A course on morals that emphasized loyalty to the emperor was mandatory. Changes in family and daily life combined foreign and indigenous ideas to create something new. China's Modernization China's path to modernization differed significantly. Foreign imperialism, both Western and Japanese, combined with a hesitant Qing dynasty, weakened government control, and led to political and social disorder, causing widespread suffering. Warlordism, banditry, and civil war, along with the brutal Japanese invasion and natural disasters, severely impacted the population. The 19th and 20th centuries saw a rejection of traditions and a search for national unity and strength. The Chinese Communist Party (CCP) fought to end traditions that they believed kept the masses in poverty, women subjugated, and the country undeveloped. While advocating for power to the people, the CCP established a highly centralized state. The Communist program initially promised hope, but its repressive political system transformed ideals of liberation and equality into manipulative slogans. Nevertheless, it eliminated centuries-old inequalities, expanded education, and raised awareness among the people. The CCP has implemented market reforms, leading to significant economic growth, but the political system remains tightly controlled. Chinese society now faces increasing inequalities and a resurgence of previously suppressed traditions. This raises questions about how China can develop while preserving its heritage. Page 26