Empires in East Asia (600-1350) PDF

Empires in East Asia, 600-1350 Previewing Main Ideas RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Buddhism, which had reached China from India, spread from China to Japan. Both Hindu and Buddhist missionaries from India spread their religions across Southeast Asia. Geography W...

Empires in East Asia, 600-1350 Previewing Main Ideas RELIGIOUS AND ETHICAL SYSTEMS Buddhism, which had reached China from India, spread from China to Japan. Both Hindu and Buddhist missionaries from India spread their religions across Southeast Asia. Geography Why might the Khmer Empire, rather than Korea or Japan, be more open to influence from India? EMPIRE BUILDING The Tang Dynasty built China into the most powerful and advanced empire in the world. Later, China fell to another group of empire builders, the Mongols. Geography Locate the Great Wall on the map. Why do you think the Chinese constructed the wall along their northern border? CULTURAL INTERACTION Chinese culture spread across East Asia, influencing Korea, Japan, and much of mainland Southeast Asia. The Mongol conquests led to interaction between settled and nomadic peoples across Asia. Geography Why would China tend to exert a strong influence over other parts of East Asia? INTERNET RESOURCES Interactive Maps Go to classzone.com for: Interactive Visuals Research Links Maps Interactive Primary Sources Internet Activities Test Practice Primary Sources Current Events Chapter Quiz 320 321  Which Chinese invention would be most useful to your society? Imagine yourself in the year 1292. You have spent the last 17 years traveling in China—the world’s most advanced country. Your own civilization is on the other side of the world. It, too, is very sophisticated, but it lacks many of the innovations you have seen on your travels. During your stay in China, you were of great assistance to the emperor. As a going-away present, he asks you to choose one of the inventions shown here to take back to your own society. He also will provide you with the knowledge of how to create the invention of your choice. Silk makes a luxurious cloth— soft to the touch but also amazingly strong and warm. The magnetic compass can help sailors navigate the open sea. Gunpowder can be used for fireworks or made into explosive weapons. Paper is a relatively inexpensive and easy- to-produce surface for writing and printing. EXAM I N I NG the ISSU ES Which invention would most improve the quality of life? Which might be the most profitable? What benefits and drawbacks might there be to introducing the item into your society? Discuss these questions with your classmates. In your discussion, remember what you have learned about the spread of new ideas. As you read about China in this chapter, see how its ideas spread from the East to the West. 322 Chapter 12  1 Tang and Song China MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING During the Chinese inventions from this Tang movable Tang and Song dynasties, China period, such as printing, Taizong type experienced an era of prosperity gunpowder, and the compass, Wu Zhao gentry and technological innovation. changed history. SETTING THE STAGE After the Han Dynasty collapsed in A.D. 220, no emperor was strong enough to hold China together. Over the next 350 years, more than 30 local dynasties rose and fell. Finally, by 589, an emperor named Wendi had united northern and southern China once again. He restored a strong central government. Under the next two dynasties, the Tang and the Song, China experienced a prolonged golden age. It became the richest, most powerful, and most advanced country in the world. The Tang Dynasty Expands China TAKING NOTES Comparing and Wendi declared himself the first emperor of the Sui (sway) Dynasty. The dynasty Contrasting Use a lasted through only two emperors, from 581 to 618. The Sui emperors’ greatest Venn diagram to note accomplishment was the completion of the Grand Canal. This waterway con- the similarities and nected the Huang He and the Chang Jiang. The canal provided a vital route for differences between the Tang and Song dynasties. trade between the northern cities and the southern rice-producing region of the Chang delta. About a million peasant men and women toiled five years to dig the more Tang only than 1,000-mile waterway. Perhaps as many as half of the workers died on this Both project. Thousands more toiled and died rebuilding the Great Wall. The endless Song only labor on state projects turned the people against the Sui Dynasty. Overworked and overtaxed, they finally revolted. In 618, a member of the imperial court assassinated the second Sui emperor. Tang Rulers Create a Powerful Empire While short-lived, the Sui Dynasty built a strong foundation for the great achievements of the next dynasty, the Tang (tahng). The Tang Dynasty ruled for nearly 300 years (618–907). The Tang emperor who began these achievements was Tang Taizong. His brilliant reign lasted from 626 to 649. Under the Tang rulers, the empire expanded. Taizong’s armies reconquered the northern and western lands that China had lost since the decline of the Han Dynasty. By 668, China had extended its influence over Korea as well. The ruler during the campaign in Korea was the empress Wu Zhao (woo jow). From about 660 on, she held the real power while weak emperors sat on the throne. Finally, in 690, Empress Wu assumed the title of emperor for herself—the only woman ever to do so in China. Empires in East Asia 323  Tang rulers further strengthened the central government of China. They expanded the network of roads and canals begun by the Sui. This helped to pull Tang Taizong 600–649 the empire together. They also promoted foreign The man who restored trade and improvements in agriculture. China to its glory was a Scholar-Officials To manage their large empire, distinguished general the Tang rulers needed to restore China’s vast named Li Shimin. He bureaucracy. They did this by reviving and expand- seized the imperial throne in 626 after killing his ing the civil service examination system begun by brothers and forcing his the Han Dynasty. The relatively few candidates father, the first Tang who passed the tough exams became part of an elite emperor, to step aside. As group of scholar-officials. emperor, Li Shimin took In theory, the exams were open to all men, even the title Taizong, meaning “Great Ancestor.” commoners. However, only the wealthy could Taizong’s military campaigns extended China’s borders north to Manchuria, south to afford the necessary years of education. Also, men Vietnam, and west to the Aral Sea. At home, with political connections could obtain high posi- aided by his gifted advisers, Taizong reformed tions without taking the exams. Despite these the government organization and law code. flaws, the system created a remarkably intelligent These became models for all of East Asia. and capable governing class in China. Before the Wu Zhao 625–705 Tang Dynasty, a few noble families dominated the At the age of 13, the country. As the examination system grew in impor- beautiful Wu Zhao arrived tance, talent and education became more important at the court of Tang than noble birth in winning power. As a result, Recognizing Taizong to become one of many moderately wealthy families shared in Effects the emperor’s secondary China’s government. What resulted wives. After Taizong’s from the revival death, she became a The Tang Lose Power To meet the rising costs of and expansion of favored wife of his son government, Tang rulers imposed crushing taxes in the civil service and successor. Wu Zhao the mid-700s. These brought hardship to the people system? soon rose above rival but failed to cover the costs of military expansion wives and became the and new building programs. emperor’s chief wife, or empress. For many years, Empress Wu virtually ruled Moreover, the Tang struggled to control the vast China on behalf of her sickly husband. After empire they had built. In 751, Muslim armies his death, two of their sons briefly held the soundly defeated the Chinese at the Battle of Talas. throne. Frustrated by their lack of ability, she As a result, Central Asia passed out of Chinese con- took the throne herself at the age of 65. She trol and into foreign hands. After this time, border was 80 when she finally lost power. A strong attacks and internal rebellions steadily chipped leader, Wu Zhao continued the work begun by Taizong to build and expand China. away at the power of the imperial government. Finally, in 907, Chinese rebels sacked and burned the Tang capital at Ch’ang-an and murdered the last Tang emperor, a child. The Song Dynasty Restores China After the fall of the Tang Dynasty, rival warlords divided China into separate kingdoms. Then, in 960, an able general named Taizu reunited China and pro- claimed himself the first Song (sung) emperor. The Song Dynasty, like the Tang, lasted about three centuries (960–1279). Although the Song ruled a smaller empire than either the Han or the Tang, China remained stable, powerful, and prosperous. Song armies never regained the western lands lost after 751. Nor did they regain northern lands that had been lost to nomadic tribes during the Tang decline. For a time, Song emperors tried to buy peace with their northern enemies. They paid hefty annual tributes of silver, silk, and tea. This policy, however, ultimately failed 324 Chapter 12  to stop the threat from the north. In the early 1100s, a Manchurian people called the Jurchen conquered northern China and established the Jin Empire. The Jurchen forced the Song to retreat south across the Huang He. After 1127, the Song emperors ruled only southern China. The Song rulers established a grand new capital at Hangzhou, a coastal city south of the Chang Jiang. Despite its military troubles, the dynasty of the Southern Song (1127–1279) saw rapid economic growth. The south had become the economic heartland of China. Merchants in southern cities grew rich from trade with Chinese in the north, nomads of Central Asia, and people of western Asia and Europe. An Era of Prosperity and Innovation During the Tang and Song dynasties, China’s population nearly doubled, soaring to 100 million. By the Song era, China had at least ten cities with a population of 1 million each. China had become the most populous country in the world. It also had become the most advanced. Science and Technology Artisans and scholars made important technological advances during the Tang and Song eras. Among the most important inventions were movable type and gunpowder. With movable type, a printer could arrange blocks of individual characters in a frame to make up a page for printing. Previously, printers had carved the words of a whole page into one large block. The develop- ment of gunpowder, in time, led to the creation of explosive weapons such as bombs, grenades, small rockets, and can- nons. Other important inventions of this period include porcelain, the mechanical clock, paper money, and the use of the magnetic compass for sailing. (See the Social History feature on pages 328–329.) The 1000s to the 1200s was a rich period for Chinese Making mathematics. The Chinese made advances in arithmetic and Inferences algebra. Many mathematical ideas, such as using negative Acupuncture How might the numbers, spread from China southward and westward. During the Song Dynasty, the Chinese spread of mathe- carefully studied human anatomy Agriculture The rapid growth of China resulted in part matical ideas from from advances in farming. Farmers especially improved the and created charts and models of the China affect other body. These helped to improve the countries? cultivation of rice. In about the year 1000, China imported a practice of acupuncture, a system of new variety of fast-ripening rice from Vietnam. This allowed treatment that involves inserting the farmers to harvest two rice crops each year rather than slender needles into the body at one. To make sure that farmers knew about this improved specific points, depending on the variety, Chinese officials distributed seedlings throughout nature of the problem. the country. The agricultural improvements enabled China’s In recent years, this ancient practice has gained some acceptance farmers to produce more food. This was necessary to feed in mainstream Western medicine. the rapidly expanding population in the cities. More and more practicing doctors are Trade and Foreign Contacts Under the Tang and Song seeking training in acupuncture emperors, foreign trade flourished. Tang imperial armies methods. And mainstream doctors are increasing their referrals to guarded the great Silk Roads, which linked China to the acupuncture specialists. In 2001 West. Eventually, however, China lost control over these alone, Americans made about 20 routes during the long Tang decline. After this time, Chinese million visits to acupuncturists, merchants relied increasingly on ocean trade. Chinese seeking treatment for everything from advances in sailing technology, including use of the mag- migraine headaches to drug netic compass, made it possible for sea trade to expand. Up dependency. and down China’s long coastline, the largest port cities in the Empires in East Asia 325  world bustled with international trade. Merchant ships carried trade goods to Korea and Japan. They sailed across the Indian Ocean to India, the Persian Gulf, and even the coast of Africa. Chinese merchants established trading colonies around Southeast Asia. Many foreign traders, mostly Arabs, resided in Chinese cities. Through trade and travel, Chinese culture spread throughout East Asia. One major cultural export was Buddhism. This religion spread from China to Vietnam, Korea, and Japan. The exchange of goods and ideas was two-way. For example, foreign religions, including Islam and some Eastern sects of Christianity, spread to China and won followers. A Golden Age of Poetry and Art The prosperity of the Tang and Song dynasties nourished an age of artistic brilliance. The Tang period produced great poetry. Two of its most celebrated poets were Li Bo, who wrote about life’s pleasures, and Tu Fu, who praised orderliness and Confucian virtues. Tu Fu also wrote critically about war and the hardships of soldiers. Once he himself was captured by rebels and taken to Ch’ang-an, the capital city. He had sent his family to the village of Fuzhou for safety. Here he describes their separation: PRIMARY SOURCE The same moon is above Fuzhou tonight; Analyzing From the open window she will be watching it alone, Primary Sources What themes The poor children are too little to be able to remember Ch’ang-an. does Tu Fu explore Her perfumed hair will be dampened by the dew, the air may be too chilly in this poem? on her delicate arms. When can we both lean by the wind-blown curtains and see the tears dry on each other’s face? TU FU, “Moonlight Night” Chinese painting reached new heights of beauty during the Song Dynasty. Painting of this era shows Daoist influence. Artists emphasized the beauty of nat- ural landscapes and objects such as a single branch or flower. The artists did not Birds and flowers use bright colors. Black ink was their favorite paint. Said one Song artist, “Black were favorite subjects for Song is ten colors.” painters. ▼ 326 Chapter 12  Changes in Chinese Society China’s prosperity produced many social changes during the Tang and Song periods. Chinese society became increasingly mobile. People moved to the cities in growing numbers. The Chinese also experienced greater social mobility than ever before. The most important avenue for social advancement was the civil service system. Levels of Society During Tang and Song times, the power of the old aristocratic families began to fade. A new, much larger upper class emerged, made up of scholar-officials and their families. Such a class of powerful, well-to-do people is called the gentry. The gentry attained their status through education and civil serv- ice positions rather than through land ownership. Below the gentry was an urban middle class. It included merchants, shopkeepers, skilled artisans, minor officials, and others. At the bottom of urban society were laborers, soldiers, and servants. In the countryside lived the largest class by far, the peasants. They toiled for wealthy landowners as they had for centuries. The Status of Women Women had always been subservient to men in Chinese society. Their status further declined during the Tang and Song periods. This was especially true among the upper classes in cities. There a woman’s work was deemed less important to the family’s prosperity and status. Changing attitudes affected peasant families less, however. Peasant women worked in the fields and helped produce their family’s food and income. One sign of the changing status of women was the new custom of binding the feet of upper-class girls. When a girl was very young, her feet were bound tightly with cloth, which eventually broke the arch and curled all but the big toe under. This Making produced what was admiringly called a “lily-foot.” Women with bound feet were Inferences crippled for life. To others in society, such a woman reflected the wealth and pres- How did the tige of her husband, who could afford such a beautiful but impractical wife. practice of foot The social, economic, and technological transformations of the Tang and Song binding reflect the periods permanently shaped Chinese civilization. They endured even as China changing status of Chinese women? fell to a group of nomadic outsiders, the Mongols, whom you will learn about in Section 2. SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Tang Taizong Wu Zhao movable type gentry USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. How are the accomplishments 3. How did the Tang Dynasty 6. RECOGNIZING EFFECTS What impact did improvements in of the two dynasties similar? benefit from the accomplish- transportation have on Tang and Song China? ments of the Sui? 7. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS “Gaining power 4. What steps did the Tang take to depends on merit, not birth.” Do you agree with this view restore China’s bureaucracy? of China under the Tang and Song? Explain. Tang only 5. Describe the urban social 8. PRIMARY SOURCES How do the feelings expressed in Tu Both classes that emerged during Fu’s poem on page 326 still relate to life today? Song only the Tang and Song periods. 9. WRITING ACTIVITY EMPIRE BUILDING Write two short paragraphs, one discussing how Tang and Song emperors strengthened China’s empire, and the other discussing how they weakened it. CONNECT TO TODAY CREATING A LIST Gunpowder is used in the making of fireworks. Conduct research to find interesting facts about fireworks in the United States—the number produced in a year, the amount of gunpowder in a typical firework, and so on. Present your findings in a list titled “Fun Facts About Fireworks.” Empires in East Asia 327 Tang and Song China: People and Technology The Tang and Song dynasties were eras of major technological advancement in China. The technologies improved China as a country and, in turn, helped people conduct their daily business. Much of China’s technology spread to other parts of the world where it improved the lives of the people living there. The table on this page identifies some of that movement. RESEARCH LINKS For more on Tang and Song China, go to classzone.com Porcelain ▼ Marco Polo was the first to describe the pottery found in China as porcelain. The plain piece shown here is an early example of porcelain work from the Song Dynasty. A piece like this might be used daily. Later porcelain work, such as the distinctive blue and white porcelain of the Ming Dynasty, became more decorative. Porcelain, however, was a luxury reserved for the middle and upper classes of Chinese society. Inventions of Tang and Song China Description Impact Porcelain Bone-hard, white ceramic made of a special Became a valuable export—so associated Late 700s clay and a mineral found only in China with Chinese culture that it is now called china; technology remained a Chinese secret for centuries Mechanical Clock in which machinery (driven by running Early Chinese clocks short-lived; idea for clock water) regulated the movements mechanical clock carried by traders to 700s medieval Europe Printing Block printing: one block on which a whole Printing technology spread to Korea and Block printing: 700s page is cut; movable type: individual char- Japan; movable type also developed later Movable type: 1040 acters arranged in frames, used over and over in Europe Explosive powder Made from mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and First used for fireworks, then weapons; 800s charcoal technology spread west within 300 years Paper money Paper currency issued by Song government to Contributed to development of large- 1020s replace cumbersome strings of metal cash scale commercial economy in China used by merchants Magnetic Floating magnetized needle that always points Helped China become a sea power; compass (for north-south; device had existed in China for technology quickly spread west navigation) centuries before it was adapted by sailors for 1100s use at sea SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Charts 1. Making Inferences Which inventions eventually affected warfare and exploration? 2. Forming and Supporting Opinions Which of these inventions do you think had the greatest impact on history? Why? 328 Movable Type ▼ LEGACY OF TANG AND Traditionally, an entire page of characters was carved into a block SONG CHINA of wood from which prints were made. Pi Sheng, a Chinese alchemist, came up with the idea of creating individual characters Printing that could be reused whenever needed. Later, a government U.S. publishers produced official created rotating storage trays for the characters. 122,108 books in 2000. As you have read, Tang rulers restored China’s system of The Library of Congress, the scholar-officials. Thus, education and printed materials became largest library in the world, has important to a larger part of Chinese society. over 18 million books. The world’s best-selling book is the Bible. Since 1815, around 2.5 billion copies of the Bible The trays allowed the typesetter to have been sold. quickly find the characters. The typesetter would then order the characters in a tray that would be used Porcelain to produce the printed pages. The two The United States imported wheels held about 60,000 characters. 423,041 one-piece toilet bowls and tanks in 2002. Of those, 302,489 came from China. In 2001, a Chinese newspaper reported the production of possibly the world’s largest porcelain kettle—just under 10 feet tall, about 6 feet in diameter, and weighing 1.5 tons. Explosive Powder In 2002, the United States imported over 90 percent of its fireworks from China. The largest single firework was used at a Japanese festival in 1988. It weighed over 1,000 pounds, and its burst was over half a mile wide. Explosive Powder ▼ Around A.D. 900, Chinese alchemists first discovered that the right mixture of saltpeter, sulfur, and charcoal could be explosive. The Chinese initially used the powder for fireworks, then for military applications. It is now commonly referred to as gunpowder. The device shown here is a modern 1. Forming and Supporting Opinions reproduction of an ancient rocket launcher. Of all the inventions listed on these The Chinese tied gunpowder charges to pages, which do you think had the arrows, balanced them, and placed them most lasting impact? Why? in a holder. The holder helped aim the See Skillbuilder Handbook, page R20. rockets, and its flared shape spread the rockets over a large area. 2. Hypothesizing What are some modern inventions that you believe will still have an impact 1,000 years from now? 329  2 The Mongol Conquests MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES EMPIRE BUILDING The The Mongols built the largest pastoralist Pax Mongols, a nomadic people from unified land empire in world clan Mongolica the steppe, conquered settled history. Genghis Khan societies across much of Asia. SETTING THE STAGE While the Chinese prospered during the Song Dynasty, a great people far to the north were also gaining strength. The Mongols of the Asian steppe lived their lives on the move. They prided themselves on their skill on horseback, their discipline, their ruthlessness, and their courage in battle. They also wanted the wealth and glory that came with conquering mighty empires. This desire soon exploded into violent conflict that transformed Asia and Europe forever. TAKING NOTES Nomads of the Asian Steppe Following Chronological Order Use a chart to list A vast belt of dry grassland, called the steppe, stretches across the landmass of the series of events Eurasia. The significance of the steppe to neighboring civilizations was twofold. leading to the creation First, it served as a land trade route connecting the East and the West. Second, it of the Mongol Empire. was home to nomadic peoples who frequently swept down on their neighbors to plunder, loot, and conquer. Genghis g Khan Geography of the Steppe There are two main expanses of the Eurasian steppe. unites Mongols The western steppe runs from Central Asia to eastern Europe. It was the original home of some of the ancient invaders you have read about, including the Hittites. The eastern steppe, covering the area of present-day Mongolia, was the first home of the Huns, the Turks, and the Mongols. Very little rain falls on the steppe, but the dry, windswept plain supports short, hardy grasses. Seasonal temperature changes can be dramatic. Temperatures in Mongolia, for example, range from –57°F in winter to 96°F in the summer. Rainfall is somewhat more plentiful and the The Steppe 80°E climate milder in the west than in the east. 0 1,000 Miles For this reason, movements of people have SIBERIA 40°E 0 2,000 Kilometers historically tended to be toward the west Moscow ASIA EUROPE and the south. TEPPE Kiev ERN S ST WE EASTERN The Nomadic Way of Life Nomadic peo- Aral Sea Karakorum S T E P P E C as ples were pastoralists—that is, they Constantinople T pian Tashkent G O B I DES E R 40°N Beijing Sea herded domesticated animals. They were Samarkand Kashgar CHINA constantly on the move, searching for good Kaifeng pasture to feed their herds. But they did not INDIA wander. Rather, they followed a familiar 330 Chapter 12  seasonal pattern and returned on a regular basis to the same campsites. Keeping claim to land that was not permanently occupied was difficult. Battles frequently arose among nomadic groups over grassland and water rights. Asian nomads practically lived on horseback as they followed their huge herds over the steppe. They depended on their animals for food, clothing, and housing. Their diet consisted of meat and mare’s milk. They wore clothing made of skins and wool, and they lived in portable felt tents called yurts. Steppe nomads traveled together in kinship groups called clans. The members of each clan claimed to be descended from a common ancestor. Different clans sometimes came together when they needed a large force to attack a common enemy or raid their settled neighbors. Steppe Nomads and Settled Societies The differing ways of life of nomadic and settled peoples resulted in constant interaction between them. Often, they engaged in peaceful trade. The nomads exchanged horses, for example, for basic items they lacked, such as grain, metal, cloth, and tea. Nomads were accustomed to scarcity and hardship. They prided themselves on their toughness. However, they were sometimes tempted by the rich land and relative wealth of townspeople and took what they wanted by force. As a result, settled peoples lived in constant fear of raids. Time and again in history, nomadic peoples rode out of the steppe to invade border towns and villages. When a state or empire was strong and organized, it could protect its fron- tier. If the state or empire became divided and weak, the nomads could increase their attacks and gain more plunder. Making Inferences Occasionally, a powerful nomadic group was able to con- How might a strong, organized quer a whole empire and become its rulers. Over genera- empire defend its tions, these nomadic rulers often became part of the Genghis Khan 1162?–1227 frontier? civilization they conquered. Temujin, according to legend, was born with a blood clot in his fist. In The Rise of the Mongols his lifetime, his hands were often For centuries, the Mongol people had roamed the eastern covered with the blood of others. When Temujin was about nine, the steppe in loosely organized clans. It took a military and Tatars, a rival people, poisoned his political genius to unite the Mongols into a force with a father. For a time, he and his family single purpose—conquest. lived in extreme poverty, abandoned Genghis Khan Unites the Mongols Around 1200, a by their clan. When in manhood he fought and defeated the Tatars, he Mongol clan leader named Temujin sought to unify the slaughtered every male taller than a Mongols under his leadership. He fought and defeated his cart axle. rivals one by one. In 1206, Temujin accepted the title While driven by revenge, Genghis Genghis Khan, or “universal ruler” of the Mongol clans. also loved conquest. He once Over the next 21 years, Genghis led the Mongols in remarked to his personal historian: conquering much of Asia. His first goal was China. After Man’s greatest good fortune is to invading the northern Jin Empire in 1211, however, his chase and defeat his enemy, seize his total possessions, leave his attention turned to the Islamic region west of Mongolia. married women weeping and Angered by the murder of Mongol traders and an ambas- wailing, [and] ride his [horse]. sador at the hands of the Muslims, Genghis launched a campaign of terror across Central Asia. The Mongols destroyed one city after another—Utrar, Samarkand, RESEARCH LINKS For more on Genghis Khan, go to classzone.com Bukhara—and slaughtered many inhabitants. By 1225, Central Asia was under Mongol control. Empires in East Asia 331  Genghis the Conqueror Several characteristics lay behind Genghis Khan’s stunning success as a conqueror. First, he was a brilliant organizer. He assembled his Mongol warriors into a mighty fighting force (see below). Following the model of the Chinese military, Genghis grouped his warriors in armies of 10,000. These in turn were organized into 1,000-man brigades, 100-man companies, and 10-man squads. He put his most battle-proven and loyal men in command of these units. Second, Genghis was a gifted strategist. He used various tricks to confuse his enemy. Sometimes, a small Mongol cavalry unit would attack, then pretend to gal- lop away in flight. The enemy usually gave chase. Then the rest of the Mongol army would appear suddenly and slaughter the surprised enemy forces. Finally, Genghis Khan used cruelty as a weapon. He believed in terrifying his enemies into surrender. If a city refused to open its gates to him, he might kill the entire population when he finally captured the place. The terror the Mongols inspired spread ahead of their armies, which led many towns to surrender with- Summarizing What were out a fight. As one Arab historian wrote, “In the countries that have not yet been some of the tactics overrun by them, everyone spends the night afraid that they may appear Genghis Khan used there too.” in war? The Mongol Empire Genghis Khan died in 1227—not from violence, but from illness. His successors continued to expand his empire. In less than 50 years, the Mongols conquered ter- ritory from China to Poland. In so doing, they created the largest unified land empire in history. (See the map on page 334.) Under his armor, each A Mighty Fighting Force cavalry warrior wore silk underwear, which arrows Mongol soldiers were superb horsemen, having often did not pierce. The spent all their lives in the saddle. Annual game warriors could use the silk to help pull the arrow roundups gave young men the chance to practice cleanly out of a wound. skills they would use in battle and gave their leaders the opportunity to spot promising warriors. When on the move, each soldier was accompanied by three extra horses. By changing mounts, soldiers could stay in the saddle for up to ten days and nights at a time. When charging toward a target, they covered as much as 120 miles a day. If food was scarce, a Mongol soldier might make a small gash in the neck of one of his horses and sustain himself by drinking the blood. A key to Mongol horsemanship was the stirrup, which was invented on the steppe in the second century B.C. Stirrups enabled a mounted warrior to stand, turn, and shoot arrows behind him. The cavalry warrior’s weapons included leather armor, a lance, a dagger, a bow and arrows, and his stout, sturdy horse. 332 Chapter 12  The Khanates After Genghis’s death, his sons and grandsons continued the campaign of conquest. Armies under their leadership drove south, east, and west out of inner Asia. They completed their conquest of northern China and invaded Korea. They leveled the Russian city of Kiev and reached the banks of the Adriatic Sea. The cities of Venice and Vienna were within their grasp. However, in the 1250s the Mongols halted their westward campaign and turned their attention to Persia. By 1260, the Mongols had divided their huge empire into four regions, or khanates. (See the map on page 334.) These were the Khanate of the Great Khan (Mongolia and China), the Khanate of Chagatai (Central Asia), the Ilkhanate (Persia), and the Khanate of the Golden Horde (Russia). A descendant of Genghis ruled each khanate. The Mongols as Rulers Many of the areas invaded by the Mongols never recovered. The populations of some cities were wiped out. In addition, the Mongols destroyed ancient irrigation systems in areas such as the Tigris and Euphrates val- leys. Thus, the land could no longer support resettlement. While ferocious in war, the Mongols were quite tolerant in peace. They rarely imposed their beliefs or way of life on those they conquered. Over time, some Mongol rulers even adopted aspects of the culture of the people they ruled. The Ilkhans and the Golden Horde, for example, became Muslims. Growing cultural differences among the khanates contributed to the eventual splitting up of the empire. The Mongol Peace From the mid-1200s to the mid-1300s, the Mongols imposed stability and law and order across much of Eurasia. This period is sometimes called the Pax Mongolica, or Mongol Peace. The Mongols guaranteed safe passage for trade caravans, travelers, and missionaries from one end of the empire to another. Mongol women took primary responsibility A Mongol army was like a moving city. The for the needs of the camp, milked the cavalry of 10,000 was accompanied by an even livestock, and treated the wounded. Some greater number of family members and by tens also fought as warriors. of thousands of horses and livestock. When attacking, however, the warriors would leave the caravan, separate into different groups, and attack their enemy on multiple fronts. The khan and other leaders had great mobile yurts pulled by teams of oxen. SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Visual Sources Making Inferences Name at least three things that allowed the Mongol army to be self-sufficient. 333  le °N irc ic C 60 t Arc The Mongol Empire, 1294 Border of Mongol Empire Campaigns of Genghis Khan Campaigns of his successors Vienna Venice Route of Marco Polo Moscow EUROPE Am Great Wall °N RUSSIAN ur 40 Kiev PRINCIPALITIES R. R. D an u b a Volg KHANATE e I L. Baikal Sea R. STEPPE KHANATE OF THE of JA PA N rty GREAT KHAN sh OF THE ASIA Japan Karakorum R GOLDEN HORDE. Constantinople B lac (KIPCHAK) KOREA kS M ea GOBI ed L. Balkhash DESERT Beijing ite Aral Ca rr Sea Yellow spia n S e a a E ne Balasaghun Sea 20° an CHAGATAI Se Tashkent K H A N A T E °N Ti a East gris Bukhara Kaifeng ow g He 20 Kashgar China R.) R. Samarkand a CH INA n H u el l Hangzhou Sea 140 Baghdad (Y iang Eu TIBET gJ PACIFIC °E ph R.) (Ya hian tze ra 40° E OCEAN tes ILKHANATE Kabul ng C 80° E R Red S. (PERSIA) ARABIA Lhasa Pers dia H IM Ph 60° E R. ia ea AL A YA S To In 0 1,000 Miles G n u lf us an ili G pp nd I ge INDIA sR in 0 2,000 Kilometers. South es Pagan VIETNAM C hina GEOGRAPHY SKILLBUILDER: Interpreting Maps MIEN Sea 120° M Vijaya 100° E Bay of e k 1. Region What khanate controlled Russia? Persia? Korea? Bengal E on gR 2. Region What parts of Asia did the Mongols fail to control? Trade between Europe and Asia had never been more active. Ideas and inventions traveled along with the trade goods. Many Chinese innovations, such as gunpowder, reached Europe during this period. Other things spread along with the goods and the ideas. Some historians speculate that the epidemic of bubonic plague that devastated Europe during the 1300s was first spread by the Mongols. (See Chapter 14.) The disease might have traveled along trade routes or have been passed to others by infected Mongol troops. For a brief period of history, the nomadic Mongols were the lords of city-based civilizations across Asia, including China. As you will read in Section 3, China continued to thrive under Mongol rule. SECTION 2 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. pastoralist clan Genghis Khan Pax Mongolica USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Which of the listed events do 3. In what ways did steppe 6. MAKING INFERENCES What characteristics of their culture you think is the most nomads and the people of do you think contributed to the Mongols’ military important? Why? neighboring settled societies success? Explain your response. interact? 7. ANALYZING MOTIVES What do you think drove Genghis Genghis g Khan 4. Why was terror an important Khan to conquer a great empire? Explain your answer. unites weapon for Genghis Khan? 8. FORMING AND SUPPORTING OPINIONS “The Mongols Mongols 5. What happened to the Mongol were great conquerors but poor rulers.” Do you agree Empire in the years after with this statement? Why or why not? Genghis Khan’s death? 9. WRITING ACTIVITY CULTURAL INTERACTION Write a brief essay discussing the impact of interaction between the Mongols and the various cultures that they conquered. INTERNET ACTIVITY Today, most Mongols live in the country of Mongolia. Use the Internet to INTERNET KEYWORD find information on Mongolian ways of life. Then create an illustrated Mongolia report comparing ways of life today and in Genghis Khan’s time. 334 Chapter 12  3 The Mongol Empire MAIN IDEA WHY IT MATTERS NOW TERMS & NAMES CULTURAL INTERACTION The influence of Chinese ideas Kublai Khan Marco Polo As emperor of China, Kublai on Western civilization began Khan encouraged foreign trade. with the Mongols’ encourage- ment of trade. SETTING THE STAGE Kublai Khan, the grandson of Genghis Khan, assumed the title Great Khan in 1260. In theory, the Great Khan ruled the entire Mongol Empire. In reality, the empire had split into four khanates. Other descendants of Genghis ruled Central Asia, Persia, and Russia as semi-independent states. So, Kublai focused instead on extending the power and range of his own khanate, which already included Mongolia, Korea, Tibet, and northern China. To begin, however, he had to fulfill the goal of his grandfather to conquer all of China. Kublai Khan Becomes Emperor TAKING NOTES Recognizing Effects The Chinese held off Kublai’s attacks for several years. However, his armies Use a web diagram to finally overwhelmed them in 1279. Throughout China’s long history, the Chinese show the impact of feared and fought off invasions by northern nomads. China sometimes lost terri- Kublai Khan on tory to nomadic groups, but no foreigner had ever ruled the whole country. With East Asia. Kublai’s victory, that changed. Beginning a New Dynasty As China’s new emperor, Kublai Khan founded a new dynasty called the Yuan (yoo AHN) Dynasty. It lasted less than a century, until 1368, when it was overthrown. However, the Yuan era was an important Kublai Khan period in Chinese history for several reasons. First, Kublai Khan united China for the first time in more than 300 years. For this he is considered one of China’s great emperors. Second, the control imposed by the Mongols across all of Asia opened China to greater foreign contacts and trade. Finally, Kublai and his successors tolerated Chinese culture and made few changes to the system of government. Unlike his Mongol ancestors, Kublai abandoned the Mongolian steppes for China. He did not share his ancestors’ dislike of the settled life. On the contrary, he rather enjoyed living in the luxurious manner of a Chinese emperor. He main- tained a beautiful summer palace at Shangdu, on the border between Mongolia and China. He also built a new square-walled capital at the site of modern Beijing. Kublai built this palace to enhance his prestige, but his new capital meant something more. Previously, the Great Khans had ruled their empire from Mongolia. Moving the capital from Mongolia to China was a sign that Kublai intended to make his mark as emperor of China. Failure to Conquer Japan After conquering China, Kublai Khan tried to extend his rule to Japan. In 1274 and again in 1281, the Great Khan sent huge fleets Empires in East Asia 335 ▲ This detail from a 13th-century against Japan. The Mongols forced Koreans to build, sail, and provide provisions Japanese scroll for the boats, a costly task that almost ruined Korea. Both times the Japanese depicts Japanese turned back the Mongol fleets. warriors fighting off The second fleet carried 150,000 Mongol, Chinese, and Korean warriors—the a Mongol warship. largest seaborne invasion force in history until World War II. After 53 days, Japanese warriors had fought the invaders to a standstill. Then, on the following day, the sky darkened and a typhoon swept furiously across the Sea of Japan. Mongol ships were upended, swamped, and dashed to bits against the rocky shore, despite their sailors’ attempts to escape onto the open sea. For centuries afterward, the Japanese spoke reverently of the kamikaze, or “divine wind,” that had saved Japan. Mongol Rule in China Early in Kublai Khan’s reign, one of his Chinese advisers told him, “I have heard that one can conquer the empire on horseback, but one cannot govern it on horse- back.” This advice illustrates the problems Kublai faced as emperor. Mongol ways would not work in a sophisticated civilization like China’s. Besides, the number of Mongols in China was few compared to the huge native population. Kublai would need to make use of non-Mongol officials to help him rule successfully. The Mongols and the Chinese The Mongol rulers had little in common with their Chinese subjects. Because of their differences, the Mongols kept their sepa- rate identity. Mongols lived apart from the Chinese and obeyed different laws. They kept the Chinese out of high government offices, although they retained as many Chinese officials as possible to serve on the local level. Most of the highest Making government posts went to Mongols or to foreigners. The Mongols believed that Inferences foreigners were more trustworthy since they had no local loyalties. How might the Despite his differences with the Chinese, Kublai Khan was an able leader. He Chinese have felt restored the Grand Canal and extended it 135 miles north to Beijing. Along its about their lack of power in Kublai’s banks he built a paved highway that ran some 1,100 miles, from Hangzhou to government? Beijing. These land and water routes ensured the north a steady supply of grain and other goods from the southern heartland. Foreign Trade Foreign trade increased under Kublai Khan. This was largely due to the Mongol Peace, which made the caravan routes across Central Asia safe for trade and travel. Traders transported Chinese silk and porcelain, which were greatly valued in Europe and western Asia, over the Silk Roads and other routes. These traders also carried with them such Chinese products and inventions as printing, gunpowder, the compass, paper currency, and playing cards. 336 Chapter 12  Kublai further encouraged trade by inviting foreign merchants to visit China. Most of them were Muslims from India, Central Asia, and Persia. Many European traders and travelers, including Kublai Khan 1215–1294 Christian missionaries, also reached China. As ruler of both China and Marco Polo at the Mongol Court The most the Mongol Empire, Kublai famous European to visit China in these years was a Khan straddled two worlds. young Venetian trader, Marco Polo. He traveled by He built luxurious palaces, dressed as a Chinese caravan on the Silk Roads with his father and uncle, emperor, and supported arriving at Kublai Khan’s court around 1275. Polo the work of Chinese artists. had learned several Asian languages in his travels, However, he remained a and Kublai Khan sent him to various Chinese cities Mongol warrior at heart. on government missions. Polo served the Great The Great Khan is said to Khan well for 17 years. In 1292, the Polos left China have planted a plot of grass from the steppe in Analyzing Motives the gardens at Beijing to remind himself of his Why do you and made the long journey back to Venice. home. He also loved to hunt and enclosed a think Kublai Khan Later, during a war against Venice’s rival city, large hunting ground at his palace at Shangdu. employed Marco Genoa, Marco Polo was captured and imprisoned. Polo? In prison he had time to tell the full story of his Marco Polo 1254?–1324 travels and adventures. To his awed listeners, he The man who described spoke of China’s fabulous cities, its fantastic Kublai Khan to Europeans left behind very little wealth, and the strange things he had seen there. He information about himself. mentioned the burning of “black stones” (coal) in According to Polo, Kublai Chinese homes. (Coal as a fuel was little known in recognized his “merit and Europe.) He also recorded the practical workings of worth” and sent him on Kublai’s government and aspects of Chinese life. special missions around the empire. His impressions of Here is his description of trade in Beijing: China became the basis of his book, but he described PRIMARY SOURCE few actual events about his life. [M]ore precious and costly wares are imported into Since his book first appeared, people have Khan-balik [Beijing] than into any other city in the debated whether Polo even visited China. He is world.... All the treasures that come from India— not mentioned in Chinese accounts of this time. precious stones, pearls, and other rarities—are brought His tales also fail to mention such common here. So too are the choicest and costliest products of features of China as tea, acupuncture, or foot Cathay [China] itself and every other province. binding. On his deathbed, Polo was asked if his MARCO POLO, The Travels of Marco Polo travel stories were true. He replied that he had told barely half of what he had seen. A fellow prisoner gathered Polo’s stories into a book. It was an instant success in Europe, but RESEARCH LINKS For more on Kublai Khan most readers did not believe a word of it. They and Marco Polo, go to classzone.com thought Polo’s account was a marvelous collection of tall tales. It was clear to Marco Polo, however, that the civilization he had visited was the greatest in the world. The End of Mongol Rule During the last years of Kublai Khan’s reign, weaknesses began to appear in Mongol rule. In an attempt to further expand his empire, Kublai sent several expe- ditions into Southeast Asia. His armies and navies suffered many humiliating defeats at a huge expense of lives and equipment. Heavy spending on fruitless wars, on public works, and on the luxuries of the Yuan court burdened the treasury and created resentment among the overtaxed Chinese. This presented problems that Kublai’s less able successors could not resolve. Empires in East Asia 337  850 1215 1275 Gunpowder Genghis Kahn invades Marco Polo invented northern China. reaches China. SUI TANG SONG SOUTHERN SONG YUAN 500 A.D. 800 A.D. 1100 A.D. 1400 A.D. 627 751 1126 1260 Tang Taizong Chinese lose Song Dynasty Kublai becomes emperor. Battle of Talas. retreats to becomes 690 1024 1040 south. Great Kahn. Empress Wu Zhao Government issues Movable assumes throne. paper money. type invented Yuan Dynasty Overthrown Kublai Khan died in 1294. After his death, the Yuan Dynasty began to fade. Family members continually argued over who would rule. In one eight-year period, four different khans took the throne. Rebellions broke out in many parts of China in the 1300s. The Chinese had long resented their Mongol rulers, and the Mongol humiliation of the Chinese only increased under Kublai Khan’s successors. The rebellions were also fueled by years of famine, flood, and disease, along with growing economic problems and official cor- ruption. In 1368, Chinese rebels finally overthrew the Mongols. The rebel leader Analyzing Causes founded a new dynasty, the Ming, which you will read about in Chapter 19. What factors contributed to the Decline of the Mongol Empire By the time of the collapse of the Yuan Dynasty, decline and fall of the entire Mongol Empire had disintegrated. The government of the Ilkhanate in the Yuan Dynasty? Persia fell apart in the 1330s. The Chagatai khans ruled Central Asia until the 1370s. Only the Golden Horde in Russia stayed in power. The Golden Horde ruled Russia for 250 years. As you read in Chapter 11, Ivan III finally led Russia to independence from Mongol rule in 1480. The rise and fall of Mongol rule affected civilizations from eastern Europe to China. Kublai Khan had tried to extend this influence to Japan but had failed. However, several centuries earlier, the Japanese had embraced the influence of an outside culture—China. This development is described in Section 4. SECTION 3 ASSESSMENT TERMS & NAMES 1. For each term or name, write a sentence explaining its significance. Kublai Khan Marco Polo USING YOUR NOTES MAIN IDEAS CRITICAL THINKING & WRITING 2. Select one of the entries. 3. Why did the Mongols employ 6. EVALUATING DECISIONS Judging from the events of the Did this event make China foreigners rather than Chinese Yuan Dynasty, do you think the Mongol policies toward stronger or weaker? in high gove