Humanistic Approach to Research Unit 1 PDF

HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO RESEARC H UNIT 1 Part I  Humanistic Research: What it is? It typically emphasizes Humanistic research qualitative methods and refers to a broad range of interpretive appr...

HUMANISTIC APPROACH TO RESEARC H UNIT 1 Part I  Humanistic Research: What it is? It typically emphasizes Humanistic research qualitative methods and refers to a broad range of interpretive approaches scholarly activities rather than quantitative focused on human or experimental methods. culture, values, Here are some key expressions, and aspects of humanistic experiences. research AS HUMAN, SUPERSEDE THE SUM OF THEIR PARTS; THEY CANNOT BE REDUCED TO COMPONENTS. Some Basic HAVE THEIR EXISTENCE IN A UNIQUELY HUMAN CONTEXT, AS WELL AS IN A COSMIC ECOLOGY. Tenants of ARE AWARE AND ARE AWARE OF BEING AWARE – humanisti I.E., THEY ARE CONSCIOUS. HUMAN CONSCIOUSNESS ALWAYS INCLUDES AN c thinking AWARENESS OF ONESELF INTHE CONTEXT OF OTHER PEOPLE. Have the ability to make choices and, with that, responsibility. Are intentional, aim at goals, are aware that they cause future events, and seek meaning, value, and creativity 1. Focus on Human Experience: Humanistic research explores human life and culture, including literature, art, philosophy, history, and languages. It aims to understand and interpret the complexities of human experience and expression. 2.Qualitative Methods: Unlike the quantitative methods common in the natural and social sciences, humanistic research often relies on qualitative methods. These can include textual analysis, hermeneutics, ethnography, phenomenology, and critical theory. 3. Interpretive and Critical Approaches: Humanistic researchers interpret texts, artifacts, and cultural practices, often seeking to uncover deeper meanings and insights. They may also engage in critical analysis, questioning and challenging existing interpretations and ideologies 4. Interdisciplinary Nature: Humanistic research often crosses disciplinary boundaries, integrating insights from literature, philosophy, history, cultural studies, and other fields. This interdisciplinary approach allows for a more comprehensive understanding of human culture and society. 5. Subjectivity and Reflexivity: Humanistic researchers recognize the role of subjectivity in their work, acknowledging their own perspectives and biases. They often reflect on their positionality and how it influences their research. 6. Value of the Individual and the Particular: Humanistic research values the uniqueness of individual experiences and particular contexts. It often focuses on specific cases, events, or texts to draw broader insights. 7. Ethical and Aesthetic Dimensions: This type of research considers the ethical and aesthetic dimensions of human life, exploring questions of meaning, value, beauty, and morality. In Sum: Humanistic research plays a crucial role in enriching our understanding of the human condition, offering insights into how we make sense of our world and our place within it. Part II Early Humanism (the terminology was coined later) ◦A worldview centered on the nature and importance of humanity, emerging from the study of Classical antiquity. ◦Began in Italy and spread across Western Europe in the 14th, 15th, and 16th centuries. ◦Included Latin and Ancient Greek literatures, grammar, rhetoric, history, poetry, and moral philosophy. Tenets of early humanism From Revival of Theocentric to Classical Individualism Anthropocentri Learning c Empirical and Education Secularism Rational Reform Inquiry Civic Humanism  Notable Figures of early Humanism 1304–1374 1370–1444 Francesco Petrarch (1304-1374): Leonardo Bruni (1370-1444): An Often called the "Father of Italian humanist who promoted the Humanism," Petrarch emphasized study of Greek and Roman texts, the study of classical texts and the Bruni's writings on history and civic value of human achievement.. humanism were influential. Giovanni Boccaccio (1313-1375): Desiderius Erasmus (1466-1536): A Known for his works that combined leading figure in Northern classical themes with contemporary Renaissance humanism, Erasmus issues, Boccaccio contributed to the advocated for religious reform and humanist emphasis on literature and the application of humanist principles storytelling. to Christian life. 1313–1375 1466–1536 Francesco Petrarca ◦Invention of the Sonnet ◦emphasized the study of classical texts and the pursuit of knowledge. ◦first to develop the concept of the “Dark Ages” Promoted local/ spoken language/ Vernacular- Italian language Promoted classical Latin Linguistic analysis could prove many fraudulences of church documents “Donation of Constantine” Promoted classical Greek & Roman literature Giovanni Boccaccio ◦ The Decameron: A collection of 100 tales told by ten characters during the Black Death pandemic. ◦ On Famous Women: A work that profiles notable women from history and mythology ◦ attempted to rediscover and reinterpret ancient texts & set literary standards Leonardo Bruni or Leonardo Aretino ◦Chancellor of Florence from 1427 until his death in 1444. ◦Studia Humanitatis: referring to the study of human endeavors distinct from theology and metaphysics. This concept became central to the Renaissance humanist movement ◦First Modern Historian: History of the Florentine People, 12 Books Marsilio Ficino (1433-99): Platonist Philosopher, patroned by Medici family ◦Promoted “neo-platonism” (Platonism + Catholicism) ◦Ideal vision of hierarchy- in which God followed by human is at the top, plants at the bottom ◦Platonic Love- all universe is connected by love  Giovanni Pico della Mirandola Oration on the (1463-1494) Dignity of Man ◦Commitment towards deciphering “universal truths” ◦God Had created humans with unlimited potential “to him it is granted to have whatever he chooses, to be whatever he wills” Desiderius Erasmus Roterodamus ◦Christian Humanist from Netherlands ◦Erasmus recognized that the future vitality of Christianity rested in the hands of lay people, not the clergy. ◦His strong emphasis on the “inner religion” resulted in an understanding of Christianity practiced without reference to the church. Early Humanism ◦Central position of Humans in the Cosmic order ◦The words is first used in an academic paper 1589 ◦Dublin Review denounced it as ‘heathen’ in 1895 – as it was contra-theism ◦The word got acceptance by early mid 20th Century ◦Secular Humanism cantered around “mankind” Part III Versions of Humanist Manifestoes ◦I Manifesto: 1933 ◦II Manifesto: 1973 ◦III Manifesto: 2003 ◦All 3 Manifestos: Does not believe in higher power or personal deity ◦Manifesto I: Optimistic, Short. Headed by Roy Wood Sellers (critical realist, evolutionary materialist), Raymand Bragg, 34 signatories- a religious movement to replace previous religions – critical about profiteering, egalitarian concern, emphasized mutual cooperation 1973 ◦Manifesto II:,Realistic, Anti Racist, Against Nuclear weapons, emphasizing human rights, right to divorce, Right to birth control, right to abort pregnancy, advocates fairer capitalism, Paul Kurtz & Edwin Wilson. Quotes: ◦No Deity can save us, we have to save ourselves ◦We are responsible for what we are and what we will be ◦Humanist Manifesto” 1933 ◦Then appeared “Christian humanism” in 1940s ◦It become “secular humanism” in 1960s ◦Later, denounced for being species centric & not accommodating “trans-human” expansion (technological & psychoanalytical) ◦Karl Popper used it as “humanitarianism” in “open society & its enemies”  2003 Manifesto ◦Manifesto III: Optimistic, Very Short, authored by American humanist association ◦Encourages Scientific Analysis & Critical Intelligence ◦Ethics should be framed according to human needs & interests tested by experience ◦Treat each persons as having inherent worth and dignity ◦Make informed choice in the context of freedom consonant with responsibility ◦Peace, Justice & opportunity for all  EARLY HUMANISM IS A SECULAR RELIGION, AN INSTITUTION WITH IDEALS. METHODOLOGICALLY, IT IS COUNTER RACISM, AND AN EGALITARIAN IDEAL. IT IS AN IDEAL FOR “GOOD SOCIETY” Part IV  Greek Humanism Greek humanism persisted among the successors of Plato and Aristotle, but, although it included lasting values, it was not an offering to all mankind. Renaissance Humanism Later Renaissance humanism was a worldview centered on the nature and importance of Humanism/ humanity that emerged from the study of Classical antiquity. Post Humanism Marxist Humanism = theoretical humanism, practical humanism, Means of production Dignity of labour Alienation of labour Wealth inequality  Existential Humanism Existential humanism is a philosophical perspective that validates the human subject as struggling for self-knowledge and self-responsibility Other Forms of Humanism Secular Humanism Secular humanism is a philosophy, belief system, or life stance that embraces human reason, logic, secular ethics, and philosophical naturalism, while specifically rejecting religious dogma, supernaturalism  Civic Humanism ◦ Civic Humanism, also known as classical republicanism, is a political philosophy developed in the Renaissance. ◦ It draws on ideas from classical antiquity, including Aristotle, Polybius, and Cicero. Civic humanism involves the fusion of participatory political engagement with classical learning ◦ The term was originally developed by historian Hans Baron in the 20th century- in his book, The Crisis of the Early Italian Renaissance (1955) Part V(a)  Human rights are inherent to all human beings, regardless of race, sex, nationality, ethnicity, language, religion, or any other status. These fundamental rights include: Offshoots of Civil and Political Rights: These encompass Humanism: the right to life and liberty, freedom from slavery and torture, freedom of opinion and Human expression, and the right to participate in government and elections. Rights Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights: These include the right to work, education, health, food, and housing. They focus on improving living conditions and ensuring a dignified life for all Part V(b)  Positivism is a philosophical school that asserts that genuine knowledge is either true by definition or positive—meaning it’s derived from a posteriori Offshoot of facts through reason and logic based on sensory experience. Humanism: In other words, positivists reject Positivism other ways of knowing, such as intuition, introspection, or religious faith, considering them meaningless.  Scientific Knowledge is positive/ testable/ systematic Scientific knowledge alone is authentic Positivism Science based on a posteriori facts It is not based on a priory assumptions  Father of Positivism (mid 19th C- 1798- 1857) Stages: Auguste Empirio Criticism Comte Logical positivism Logical empiricism Merged with Analytical Philosophy  Knowledge has to be based on factual data or Main Pure Logic that can be Premises mathematically proven Rejects Metaphysical or Theological Specultion  Logic of inquiry is same across disciplines: Unity of Science Goal of science is to predict necessary & sufficient conditions for any phenomenon for prediction purpose 5 Main Inquiry should be empirically observable & testable Principles Science should be logical & objective- should not be guided by values Science is not Commonsense.  Comte's Social Positivism 2 Types of Positivism Logical Positivism/ Logical empiricism: combines empiricism & Rationalism  Subjectivity and context cannot be ruled over by Objectivity & Universalism Limits of Positivism, Empiricism & Objectivism Critics point out that human behavior is influenced by context and subjective meanings, which are often overlooked by empirical observation. They argue that understanding society requires an appreciation of the motives, beliefs, and values of individuals, which cannot be captured through purely quantitative data.  Ideological neutrality Limits of questioned Positivism… The claim of value-free research has been heavily critiqued for its naïveté. Critics maintain that researchers’ values inevitably influence the choice of research topics, the formulation of hypotheses, and the interpretation of data, calling into question the possibility of truly neutral social science.  Supporting the status quo Limits of Positivism… Unintended consequences: By focusing on empirical data and shunning normative concerns, positivist research may inadvertently maintain existing power structures. Critics argue that without a critical lens, social science can become complicit in perpetuating social inequities. Part V(b2)  Limits of Positivism ◦ Anthropocentricism: Anthropocentrism is a philosophical viewpoint that asserts human beings as the central or most significant entities in the world. This belief is deeply embedded in many Western religions and philosophies. Here are some key points about anthropocentrism ◦ Anthropocentrism regards humans as separate from and superior to nature. It holds that human life has intrinsic value, while other entities (such as animals, plants, and mineral resources) exist primarily as resources for human benefit. ◦ Some anthropocentric thinkers adopt a “cornucopian” viewpoint, rejecting claims that Earth’s resources are limited. They argue that technology will solve future scarcity problems, rendering legal controls unnecessary. ◦ Others propose “prudential” or “enlightened” anthropocentrism. This view acknowledges ethical obligations toward the environment but justifies them in terms of obligations toward other humans. For instance, environmental pollution negatively affects people’s lives. Principle of Human Being to Sensible Being Human Humanism  ◦Human Being: ◦ The term “human being” typically Human refers to our biological existence— the physical form we inhabit. It Being to encompasses our genetic makeup, Being physiology, and sensory experiences. Human ◦ As human beings, we navigate the world through our senses, emotions, and intellect. We perceive, feel, think, and interact with others. Being Human: ◦ Now, let’s delve deeper. “Being human” transcends mere biology. It encompasses our consciousness, self- awareness, and capacity for empathy, creativity, and moral reasoning. ◦ To be human is to grapple with existential questions: Who am I? What is my purpose? How do I relate to others and the universe? ◦ It involves recognizing our interconnectedness with all life forms, acknowledging our imperfections, and seeking growth and understanding. END OF THE UNIT 1 Unit 2 PART I Science In a Free Society What is What is unique Science about Science  Democracy of values Vs Science Expertise Vs Public Supervision Relative and Experience of Science absolute aspect of truth Causation & Science is one Methodological Output cannot be among the Frailty of Science the Judging factor ideologies PART II Humanist Approaches in Psychology ◦ The third force of psychology ◦ First Force: Psychoanalysis/ Psychodynamism ◦ Second Force: Behaviourism ◦ Third Force: Humanism ◦ Fourth Force: Transpersonal Psychology  Humanist Psychology 01 02 03 04 Abraham alternative to Focus on : self- human Maslow is the psychoanalytic actualization potential key figure and behavioral and personal movement of approaches potential the 1960s and 1970s. Behaviorism emphasizes the importance of observable actions and scientific studies and suggests that behavior is shaped by the environment. Humanism, on the other hand, emphasizes the study of the whole person and inner feelings.  Focus: Behaviorism emphasizes observable behaviors and the ways they are learned through interaction with the environment Key Concepts: ◦ Classical Conditioning: Learning through Behaviouris association, where a neutral stimulus m becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus, eliciting a conditioned response. ◦ Operant Conditioning: Learning through consequences, where behaviors are shaped by rewards (reinforcements) or punishments. Criticism: Often criticized for ignoring internal mental states and emotions, focusing solely on external behaviors  Focus: Humanism emphasizes the study of the whole person, including inner feelings, thoughts, and the drive for personal growth and self-fulfillment. Key Concepts: ◦ Self-Actualization: The innate drive to achieve one’s Humanism fullest potential. ◦ Personal Agency: The belief that individuals have free in will and are responsible for their own actions. ◦ Holism: The idea that behavior can only be understood Psychology by considering the whole person, including their subjective experiences. Methodology: Often uses qualitative methods such as case studies, interviews, and personal narratives to understand individual experiences. Criticism: Sometimes seen as lacking scientific rigor due to its focus on subjective experience  Posthumanism is a philosophical outlook that challenges conventional Posthumanism ideas about what it means to & be human. Transhumanism, Transhumanis m on the other hand, focuses on how we could use technology to boost our abilities.  Founder: Sigmund Freud. Focus: Uncovering unconscious thoughts and emotions, often rooted in childhood experiences. Psychoanalys Techniques: Free association, dream analysis, and exploring defense mechanisms. is Goal: To bring unconscious conflicts to consciousness, helping individuals understand and resolve deep-seated issues. View of Human Nature: Often seen as deterministic, emphasizing the influence of past experiences and unconscious drives of behaviour  Founders: Carl Rogers and Abraham Maslow. Focus: Personal growth, self-awareness, and Humanistic self-actualization. Techniques: Client-centered therapy, Gestalt Psychotherap therapy, and existential therapy. y Goal: To help individuals achieve their full potential and develop a positive self-concept. View of Human Nature: Emphasizes free will, self-determination and inherent necessity of humans for self-actualization Humanism Trans Humanism Rational thinking Technological enhancement: Personal Extended Life autonomy Moral values Cognitive and sensory enhancement Cultural and Ubermensch / educational Overman refinement  HUMANIST PSYCHOLOGY & PSYCHOTHERAPY Josef Garai’s 3 Principles Josef Garai is an Art Psychologist. His principles: 1. Laid emphasis on life-problem solving 2. encouraged of self-actualization through creative expression; and 3. related self-actualization to intimacy and trust in interpersonal relations and the search for self- transcendent life goals ◦ Objective of Therapeutic Research is problem solving, beyond analysis  Psychology should focus on: (a) personal freedom, Existential Approach (b) meaning, and (Frankl, 1963 ) (c) the search for values. Encourage, “Will To Meaning” (Rollo May, 1961) “courage to create “: creativity as a struggle against disintegration and as a means to bring into existence “new kinds of being” liberating the individual from fears and anxieties and helping the person to live life to the fullest Leading persons toward a state of mindfulness (B. Moon, 1995). empowerment is therapeutic PERSON-CENTERED APPROACH The goal of person- centered therapy is to “people are capable of Trust in the “inner assist people in expressing rather than person” to make the becoming more repressing their own “journey of self- autonomous, maladjustments and exploration and self- spontaneous, and moving toward a more discovery” confident (Rogers, 1951, healthful way of life”. 1969) Active and Unconditional Empathetic “Seeing” Acceptance - empathetic listening  GESTALT APPROACH (Joseph The word “Gestalt” refers to the whole form or Zinker,1977; configuration which is Mala greater than the sum of its parts. Betensky, 1973; Janie The therapist is also part of Rhyne, 1995) the overall “Gestalt” and is considered part of the whole configuration.  what is beyond the self is important to the person’s TRANSPERSO well-being. NAL APPROACH A person is defined by (Maslow, factors outside the person 1968) Ecological assessment & self-transcendence Humanistic psychology, for historically quite obvious reasons, has close ties with traditional spiritual thought. Post-Humanism (Beyond Humanism) ◦Posthumanism examines the idea of moving beyond traditional humanism, which often centers on human beings as the most significant entities in the universe. ◦ It questions anthropocentr ism, the belief that human s are the central or most i mportant elements of exis Maslow's "A Theory of Metamotivation" (1967)  those ultimate hu- man capacities and potentialities" Trans- Humanist Psychology Fourth Force psychology is free-floating. Individuals and groups are extended carte blanche to interpret the various subject matters as natural, supernatural, supra-natural, "or any other designated classifi- cation."  EcoPsychology Ecopsychology also emphasizes the concept of the “ecological unconscious,” which suggests that our minds are deeply connected to the natural world, even if we are not always aware of it1. This field encourages practices that bring people closer to nature, such as nature therapy, wilderness retreats, and eco-friendly living. ◦Transhumanism is a philosophical and scientific movement that advocates for the use of current and emerging technologies to enhance human capabilities and improve the human condition. ◦This includes technologies like genetic engineering, artificial intelligence (AI), nanotechnology, and Cyborg Developments  ◦ Humanism in political science refers to an intellectual tradition that places human values, dignity, and agency at the center of political thought and institutions. Humanism ◦ Humanist traditions have significantly influenced the development of political in political theories and practices, especially concerning ideas of governance, ethics, rights, and civic science responsibility. ◦ Within political science, various forms of humanism—including early humanism, Marxist humanism, civic humanism, secular humanism, existential humanism  ◦ The history of humanist movements reveals a rich and diverse intellectual tradition that has evolved over centuries. ◦ From its classical roots in ancient Greece and Rome to Renaissance humanism, Enlightenment secularism, Marxist Humanist humanism, and posthumanist thought, humanism has consistently sought to Politics in enhance human dignity, reason, and freedom. History ◦ While humanist movements have taken different forms in various cultural and political contexts, they remain united by the belief in the potential for human beings to shape their own destinies and improve their societies through ethics, reason, and collective action. 1. Classical Roots (Ancient Greece and Rome) 2. Humanism’s intellectual origins can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome, where philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Seneca emphasized human rationality, ethics, and the potential for self-improvement 3. Renaissance Humanism (14th to 16th Centuries) 4. Enlightenment Humanism (17th and 18th Centuries) 5. Humanism in the 19th Century: Romanticism, Idealism, and Marxism 6. Humanism in the 20th Century: Secular, Civic, and Marxist Humanism 7. Humanist Movements in the Global South (20th and 21st Centuries) 8. Humanism in the 21st Century: Posthumanism and Transhumanism  Greek Humanism: ◦ Humanism’s intellectual origins can be traced back to ancient Greece and Rome, where philosophers like Socrates, Plato, Aristotle, Cicero, and Seneca emphasized human rationality, ethics, and the potential for self-improvement ◦ In ancient Greece, humanism focused on the development of individual virtue (arete) and rational inquiry. ◦ The idea of logos (reason) as the guiding principle of human life emerged from philosophers like Socrates and Aristotle, who stressed the capacity for humans to shape their own destinies through reason and reflection.  Roman thinkers such as Cicero and Seneca incorporated Greek humanism into their own intellectual traditions, emphasizing civic virtue, justice, and the importance of human rationality in governance and Roman ethics. Humanism Cicero’s notion of humanitas encapsulated ideals of education, ethical conduct, and public duty. Renaissance Humanism (14th to 16th Centuries) ◦ Renaissance humanism, which arose in Italy in the 14th century, marked the revival of classical learning and the application of these ideas to contemporary life. This period represented a turning point in humanism, as it placed the individual at the center of intellectual, artistic, and social life Enlightenment Humanism (17th and 18th Centuries) ◦ The Enlightenment of the 17th and 18th centuries represented another major phase of humanist thought. ◦ Building on Renaissance humanism, Enlightenment thinkers emphasized reason, science, and the pursuit of knowledge to improve human life. ◦ They advocated for secularism, individual rights, and political reform The English Civil War (1642–1651) ◦The English Civil War (1642–1651) was a series of armed conflicts and political struggles between the Royalists, loyal to King Charles I, and the Parliamentarians, who sought greater control over governance. It profoundly influenced the future of English constitutionalism, the monarchy, and parliamentary democracy. ◦Absolute Monarchy vs. Parliamentary Power ◦Anglican Church vs. Puritans  ◦ This revolution led to the development of ideas about constitutional government, limited monarchy, and the rule of law. ◦ The works of Thomas Hobbes and John Locke were heavily influenced by this Contributio period. ◦ Hobbes: In Leviathan, Hobbes emphasized n to the need for a strong, centralized authority to avoid the chaos of civil war, introducing Political early notions of social contract theory. ◦ Locke: In Two Treatises of Government, Thought Locke argued for the natural rights of individuals, including life, liberty, and property, and justified the overthrow of tyrannical governments, laying the groundwork for liberal democracy. The American Revolution (1775–1783) ◦ The American Revolution (1775–1783) was a political and military conflict between the Thirteen American Colonies and Great Britain that resulted in the colonies gaining independence and forming the United States of America. ◦ It was driven by political, economic, and philosophical tensions and was a crucial event in the development of modern democratic and republican ideas. ◦ Contribution to Political Thought: The American Revolution was heavily influenced by Enlightenment thinkers, such as Locke, and it introduced ideas about republicanism, popular sovereignty, and individual rights. ◦ Federalism and the separation of powers in the U.S. Constitution reflected a concern with limiting government authority to protect liberty.  ◦ The French Revolution (1789–1799) was a period of profound social, political, and economic upheaval in France that fundamentally transformed French society and had a lasting impact on The French global history. Revolution ◦ It resulted in the end of absolute monarchy, the rise of democratic ideals, (1789– and the spread of revolutionary principles across Europe and beyond. 1799) The revolution is often seen as one of the most significant events in modern history, as it introduced ideas of liberty, equality, and fraternity, which became central to modern democratic thought. ◦ Contribution to Political Thought: The French Revolution expanded on ideas of liberty, equality, fraternity, and secularism. It also radicalized political theory through its critique of absolute monarchy, aristocracy, and church authority. ◦ Thinkers like Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Maximilien Robespierre contributed to the development of ideas about the general will, direct democracy, and popular sovereignty. ◦ The revolution inspired a wave of republicanism and influenced left-wing political thought, including socialism and communism, seen later in the works of Karl Marx.  ◦ The Haitian Revolution (1791–1804) was one of the most significant events in world history, marking the first The Haitian successful slave revolt and the establishment of Haiti as the first Revolution independent Black republic. It was deeply influential not only in the context (1791– of Caribbean and Latin American politics 1804) but also for political thought globally. The revolution fundamentally challenged colonialism, slavery, and the racial hierarchies of the time. ◦ Contribution to Political Thought: The Haitian Revolution was the first successful slave rebellion, leading to the establishment of Haiti as a free republic and challenging the global systems of colonialism and slavery. ◦ It broadened the application of revolutionary ideals of liberty and equality to include enslaved peoples, influencing abolitionist movements worldwide. ◦ This revolution questioned the European-centric views of freedom and human rights, especially in the context of race and colonial exploitation. The 1848 Revolutions in Europe ◦ The Revolutions of 1848, also known as the Springtime of Nations, were a series of interconnected uprisings and revolutionary movements that swept across Europe in 1848. These revolutions were driven by a mix of social, political, and economic factors, and their participants sought to challenge the conservative monarchies and aristocracies that had dominated Europe since the Congress of Vienna in 1815, following the defeat of Napoleon. Although the revolutions varied by country, they shared common goals of liberal reforms, national unification, and increased political participation. ◦ It was against Social Inequality, Political Repression, Rise of Nationalist Altruism, Liberalism, Rise of Working Class- affected all the Western European Nations ◦ Contribution to Political Thought: Often referred to as the "Springtime of Nations," these revolutions were a series of democratic and nationalist uprisings across Europe. They sought to overthrow old monarchies and establish democratic governments, inspired by liberal, socialist, and nationalist ideas. ◦ Thinkers like Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels were heavily influenced by the failures and successes of these revolutions. Marx's Communist Manifesto (1848) was a call to arms during this period, advocating for class struggle and the abolition of capitalist systems. ◦ These movements also contributed to the development of modern nationalism and constitutionalism. Voltaire, Immanuel Kant, John Locke, and Jean- Jacques Rousseau emphasized the use of reason to challenge traditional authority, particularly the power of the church and monarchy. Enlightenment humanism laid the groundwork for democratic ideals and the development of modern liberalism, influencing revolutionary movements such as the American and French Revolutions.  Humanism in the 19th Century: During the 19th century, humanist thought Romanticis underwent a transformation, shaped by the Industrial Revolution, political upheavals, and m, Idealism, the rise of new philosophical movements. and Marxism  ◦ In reaction to the rationalism of the Enlightenment, Romantic thinkers like Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, Friedrich Schiller, and Romantic William Wordsworth emphasized human emotions, creativity, and the connection Humanism: between humans and nature. ◦ Romantic humanism focused on the importance of individual expression and the sublime experience of the natural world.  ◦ German idealism, particularly the works of Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel and Friedrich Schelling, viewed human history as a process Idealist of self-realization and the unfolding of human freedom. Humanism: ◦ This tradition emphasized the dialectical development of human consciousness and the idea of progress toward greater autonomy and ethical life.  ◦ Building on Hegelian dialectics, Karl Marx introduced a humanist critique of capitalism, arguing that economic systems dehumanized Marxist individuals by reducing them to commodities. ◦ Marxist humanism, later developed by Humanism: thinkers like Georg Lukács and Herbert Marcuse, focused on overcoming alienation and creating conditions for human freedom and fulfillment.  Alienation: Marxist humanism draws heavily from Marx's Economic and Philosophic Manuscripts of 1844, especially his theory of alienation. Marxist Marx argued that under Humanism- capitalism, workers are alienated from the products of their labor, Tenet No 1: the labor process itself, their own essence, and other workers. Alienation Marxist humanists stress the importance of overcoming this alienation to achieve genuine human freedom  Human Essence and Species- Being: Marxist humanists emphasize the concept of species-being (Gattungswesen), the idea that human beings are Tenet No 2: naturally creative and Human cooperative. Essence and Marxists argue that capitalism suppresses these essential traits Species-Being by treating people as mere economic entities (proletariat) rather than as complete human beings with the capacity for self- actualization.  Critique of Bureaucratic Socialism: Marxist humanists often criticize the dehumanizing aspects of bureaucratic socialism Tenet No 3: as seen in the Soviet Union and other communist regimes. Critique of Bureaucratic They argue that these regimes Socialism: reduced Marxism to a mechanistic and deterministic science, ignoring the humanist elements in Marx’s writings that stress individual freedom and creativity.  Marxist humanism represents a diverse range of thought that reinterprets Marx’s ideas to emphasize human creativity, freedom, and alienation within capitalist and socialist systems. Diversity It critiques both the dehumanizing aspects of capitalism and authoritarian versions of within Marxist socialism, advocating for a return to the human-centered elements in Marx's early Humanism writings. Proponents such as Lukács, the Frankfurt School, Erich Fromm, and Jean-Paul Sartre introduced varying degrees of psychological, existential, and cultural interpretations into Marxist theory, thereby enriching its humanist dimensions.  But, Marx himself was moving Early Marx towards was Humanist Structuralism in his laler writings  ◦ Lukácsian Humanism ◦ The Frankfurt School Humanism and Post Diversity Humanism ◦ Erich Fromm’s Psychoanalytic Humanism within ◦ The Praxis School Marxist ◦ Herbert Marcuse's Revolutionary Humanism Humanism ◦ Jean-Paul Sartre’s Existential Marxism ◦ Italian Marxist Humanism  ◦ The Russian Revolution of 1917 was a pair of significant political revolutions in Russia that ultimately led to the downfall of the centuries-old Tsarist autocracy and the rise of the Soviet Union under The Bolshevik (Communist) rule. Russian ◦ The Revolution took place in the context of World War I, which exacerbated social, Revolution economic, and political issues within the Russian Empire. of 1917 ◦ The events of 1917 are often divided into two key phases: the February Revolution and the October Revolution. ◦ Contribution to Political Thought: The Russian Revolution led to the overthrow of the tsarist regime and the establishment of a communist state under Lenin and the Bolsheviks. ◦ It gave rise to Marxism-Leninism, which combined Marx's ideas about class struggle with Lenin's theories on vanguardism and the dictatorship of the proletariat. ◦ The revolution sparked global communist movements and significantly influenced 20th-century geopolitics, inspiring anti- imperial and anti-capitalist revolutions worldwide.  ◦ The Chinese Revolution refers to a series of events and political movements that took place in China during the early to mid-20th century, culminating in the The establishment of the People's Republic of China in 1949 under the leadership of Chinese the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) and its leader, Mao Zedong. Revolution ◦ The revolution was complex and (1949) multifaceted, involving the fall of the Qing Dynasty, a prolonged civil war between the Nationalists and Communists, and significant ideological, social, and economic transformations. ◦ Contribution to Political Thought: The Chinese Revolution, led by Mao Zedong, resulted in the establishment of the People's Republic of China and introduced Maoism, an adaptation of Marxism-Leninism. ◦ Maoism emphasized the role of the peasantry in revolution and introduced the concept of "continuous revolution" to prevent the emergence of a bureaucratic ruling class.  ◦ The Cuban Revolution (1953–1959) was The Cuban a significant armed revolt that led to the Revolution overthrow of Cuban dictator Fulgencio Batista and the establishment of a (1953– socialist state under Fidel Castro. ◦ It marked a pivotal moment in Latin 1959) American history and had lasting effects on global geopolitics, particularly in the context of the Cold War. ◦Contribution to Political Thought: The Cuban Revolution, led by Fidel Castro and Che Guevara, contributed to Latin American political thought and the spread of socialism in the region. ◦It inspired the development of Guevarism, which focused on guerrilla warfare and the role of the revolutionary vanguard, and influenced liberation movements in Latin America, Africa, and Asia.  ◦ The American Civil Rights Movement was a decades-long struggle by African Americans and other marginalized groups to achieve equal rights and end The racial discrimination in the United States. ◦ The movement peaked during the 1950s American and 1960s, though its roots can be traced back to earlier periods of Civil Rights resistance to slavery and segregation. Movement ◦ It played a crucial role in reshaping American political thought, influencing the principles of equality, justice, and civil liberties, and catalyzing significant changes in U.S. laws and society. The Iranian Revolution (1979) ◦The Iranian Revolution of 1979, also known as the Islamic Revolution, was a pivotal event that resulted in the overthrow of the Pahlavi monarchy, led by Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi, and the establishment of an Islamic Republic under the leadership of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini. ◦This revolution transformed Iran from a secular, Western- oriented state into a theocratic regime based on Islamic principles. ◦Contribution to Political Thought: The Iranian Revolution overthrew the secular monarchy and established an Islamic Republic under Ayatollah Khomeini. It introduced a unique fusion of political Islam and anti-imperialism. ◦The revolution inspired Islamic political movements worldwide and provided a model for how religion could be integrated with governance in opposition to Western secular models. Humanism in the 20th Century: Secular, Civic, and Marxist Humanism ◦ The 20th century saw humanist movements responding to the challenges of war, totalitarianism, and the search for universal human rights. ◦ Humanism during this period evolved into various strands, each focusing on different aspects of human potential and ethics.  ◦ Post-World War II: Secular humanism gained prominence in the mid-20th century, particularly after the devastation of the two world wars and the rise of authoritarian regimes. ◦ It was driven by the need to establish a human- Secular centered ethical framework that rejected totalitarianism, religious dogma, and ideology. Humanism ◦ Humanist Manifesto: The Humanist Manifesto I (1933) and Humanist Manifesto II (1973) articulated a secular, ethical philosophy that emphasized the importance of reason, science, democracy, and human rights in building a better world. The manifesto promoted a vision of society free from religious and authoritarian constraints. Civic Humanism: ◦ Postcolonial Movements: In the aftermath of decolonization, humanist ideas were integrated into political movements advocating for democracy, human rights, and self-determination. Civic humanism promoted the active participation of citizens in shaping their political communities, emphasizing human dignity and political freedom. ◦ International Human Rights: Following the creation of the United Nations and the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948), humanism became closely tied to global human rights advocacy. Humanist principles influenced the development of international norms regarding individual freedoms, equality, and dignity, leading to global campaigns for civil, political, and economic rights.  ◦ Cold War Era: In the mid-20th century, Marxist humanism emerged as a response to both capitalist exploitation and the Marxist authoritarian tendencies of Soviet-style socialism. Thinkers like Herbert Marcuse, Humanism Erich Fromm, and Jean-Paul Sartre critiqued dehumanizing aspects of both systems, arguing for a human-centered Marxism focused on freedom, creativity, and alienation.  Humanist In the 20th century, Movements humanist movements in the also took root in the Global South, where they Global intersected with anti- South (20th colonial struggles, and 21st indigenous rights, and the fight for social justice. Centuries)  ◦African humanism, influenced by traditional communal values and resistance to colonialism, emphasized the importance of human dignity, community, and Africa: collective responsibility. ◦Julius Nyerere's philosophy of Ujamaa in Tanzania, for instance, combined humanist ideals with African socialism, advocating for self-reliance and social equality.  ◦ In Latin America, liberation theology combined Christian ethics with Marxist humanism, emphasizing the need for social Latin justice, human dignity, and the fight against economic exploitation. America: ◦ Thinkers like Paulo Freire also contributed to a humanist pedagogy focused on empowering marginalized communities through education.  ◦ In Asia, humanist ideas were embedded in political movements for independence and social reform. ◦ Figures like Mahatma Gandhi in India promoted non-violence, human dignity, Asia: and the rejection of materialism, while in China, thinkers like Hu Shih and Lu Xun championed humanist values in education and intellectual life during the May Fourth Movement.  Humanism in In the 21st century, the 21st humanism continues Century: to evolve, particularly Posthumanism in response to and technological Transhumanis advances and m globalization.  ◦ Posthumanist thought challenges traditional humanist ideas by questioning the centrality of "the human" in philosophy and ethics. Posthumanis ◦ Posthumanism emphasizes the interdependence between m: humans, technology, and the environment, critiquing anthropocentrism and exploring the implications of AI, biotechnology, and climate change on human identity.  Transhumanism advocates for the use of technology to enhance human abilities and transcend biological limitations. Transhumanis Figures like Nick Bostrom m: promote the ethical use of science to extend human life, improve cognitive abilities, and ensure human well-being in the face of technological change.