Doing a Masters Dissertation in TESOL and Applied Linguistics PDF

DOING A MASTER’S DISSERTATION IN TESOL AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS Doing a Master’s Dissertation in TESOL and Applied Linguistics is a practical guide for master’s students tackling research and research writing for the first time. Structured for use in class or as part of an independent study, and di...

DOING A MASTER’S DISSERTATION IN TESOL AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS Doing a Master’s Dissertation in TESOL and Applied Linguistics is a practical guide for master’s students tackling research and research writing for the first time. Structured for use in class or as part of an independent study, and divided into the four stages of designing, researching, writing up and submitting a dissertation, this book: carefully guides readers from the very beginning of producing a research ­proposal, all the way through to assessment procedures and the provisions for resubmission; covers publishing your dissertation and applying for higher research degrees, including funding; addresses all the most fundamental concerns students have about master’s ­dissertations, including how to choose a topic and conducting a literature review;  draws upon examples from master’s dissertations from the UK, US and ­Australia and provides numerous ‘how-to’ tables and checklists; and includes activities and resources to facilitate master’s research and dissertation writing, as well as FAQs and solutions at the end of each chapter. Tailormade for MA students in TESOL or Applied Linguistics, this book is ­essential reading for students on these degrees around the world as well as for their s­ upervisors and programme directors. Lindy Woodrow is Honorary Senior Lecturer in TESOL at the University of Sydney, Australia. DOING A MASTER’S DISSERTATION IN TESOL AND APPLIED LINGUISTICS Lindy Woodrow First published 2020 by Routledge 2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN and by Routledge 52 Vanderbilt Avenue, New York, NY 10017 Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business © 2020 Lindy Woodrow The right of Lindy Woodrow to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by her in accordance with sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproduced or utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical, or other means, now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording, or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publishers. Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks or registered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanation without intent to infringe. British Library Cataloguing-in-Publication Data A catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data Names: Woodrow, Lindy, 1954- author. Title: Doing a master’s dissertation in TESOL and applied linguistics / Lindy Woodrow. Description: Abingdon, Oxon ; New York : Routledge, 2020. | Includes bibliographical references and index. Identifiers: LCCN 2019032146 (print) | LCCN 2019032147 (ebook) | ISBN 9781138587281 (hardback) | ISBN 9781138587298 (paperback) | ISBN 9780429504068 (ebook) Subjects: LCSH: Dissertations, Academic—Authorship. | Academic writing—Study and teaching. | Applied linguistics—Study and teaching. | English language—Study and teaching—Foreign speakers. Classification: LCC LB2369.W656 2020 (print) | LCC LB2369 (ebook) | DDC 808.06/6378—dc23 LC record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019032146 LC ebook record available at https://lccn.loc.gov/2019032147 ISBN: 978-1-138-58728-1 (hbk) ISBN: 978-1-138-58729-8 (pbk) ISBN: 978-0-429-50406-8 (ebk) Typeset in Bembo by Apex CoVantage, LLC CONTENTS List of Figures xii List of Tables xv Acknowledgementsxviii 1 Introduction 1 1.1 What is a dissertation? 1 1.2 The purpose of the dissertation 3 1.3 Managing the dissertation process 4 1.4 How to use this book 6 PART I Project design 9 2 Choosing a topic 11 2.1 How to choose a topic 11 2.1.1 Topics emerging from modules and assignments 11 2.1.2 Topics emerging from previous dissertations 12 2.1.3 Topics informed by personal interest 12 2.1.4 Topics informed by professional need 13 2.1.5 Topics based on supervisor expertise 13 2.1.6 Topics based on career trajectory 13 2.1.7 Reading 14 2.2 Researchable topics 14 2.3 Developing the topic 15 2.4 Changing topics 16 2.5 Dissertation title 16 vi Contents 3 Reviewing the literature 21 3.1 The purpose of the literature review 22 3.2 Stage one: broad review of the literature 22 3.2.1 Types of literature 24 3.3 Stage two: finding sources 25 3.3.1 Keeping track of reading 26 3.4 Stage three: reading skills 27 3.5 Role of theory and research 29 3.6 Avoiding plagiarism 29 4 Methodological approach 32 4.1 Research methodology 32 4.2 Research design 33 4.2.1 Quantitative methods 34 4.2.2 Qualitative methods 37 4.3 Types of research design 37 4.3.1 Survey research 37 4.3.2 Action research 38 4.3.3 Ethnography 38 4.3.4 Case study 39 4.4 Data collection methods 39 4.4.1 Questionnaires 39 4.4.2 Interviews 40 4.4.3 Focus groups 41 4.4.4 Observations 41 4.4.5 Corpus linguistics 42 4.4.6 Discourse analysis 42 4.5 Analysis 42 4.5.1 Quantitative analysis 43 4.5.2 Qualitative analysis 43 4.6 Sampling 45 4.7 Ethics 46 4.8 Validity and reliability 46 5 The dissertation proposal 51 5.1 The purpose of the proposal 51 5.2 Title/abstract 52 5.3 Proposal introduction 53 5.4 Purpose of the study 54 5.5 Background/literature review 54 5.6 Research questions 55 5.7 Methodology 57 5.8 Procedure/timeline 58  Contents vii 5.9 Appendix 59 5.10 Bibliography or references 59 5.11 Assessment and feedback 59 5.12 Using proposal feedback 60 6 Supervisors and supervision 63 6.1 Allocation of supervisors 63 6.2 Supervision by committee 64 6.3 Contact time 64 6.4 Roles of supervisor and student 65 6.5 Supervisory meetings 66 6.6 Problems with supervision 68 PART II The research procedure 71 7 The data collection procedure 73 7.1 Participants 73 7.1.1 Using fellow students 73 7.1.2 Using participants from home institution 74 7.1.3 Using students from the university language centre 74 7.1.4 Using intact classes 74 7.2 Recruiting participants 75 7.3 Modes of data collection 76 7.3.1 Textual data 78 7.3.2 Questionnaire data 79 7.3.3 Interviews 82 7.4 Unforeseen circumstances 84 7.4.1 Not getting permission to access participants 85 7.4.2 Participants do not respond 85 7.4.3 Insufficient or incorrect materials 85 7.4.4 Research site is inadequate 85 7.4.5 Participants turn up late 85 7.4.6 Recording device fails 86 8 Data Analysis 89 8.1 Keeping a research diary 89 8.2 Preparing the data for analysis 92 8.3 Quantitative data 92 8.3.1 Preparing the codebook 93 8.3.2 Screening the data 95 8.3.3 Describing the data 95 8.3.4 Further analysis 96 viii Contents 8.4 Qualitative data 98 8.4.1 Interviews and documents 98 8.4.2 Approaches to qualitative analysis 100 8.5 Getting help with research process 100 PART III Writing the dissertation 105 9 General writing guidelines 107 9.1 When to start writing 107 9.2 Organisation of a dissertation 109 9.3 General requirements of a dissertation 111 9.4 Academic writing 112 9.4.1 Audience 112 9.4.2 Purpose 112 9.4.3 Expectations 112 9.5 Features of academic style 112 9.5.1 Vocabulary 113 9.5.2 Grammar 113 9.5.3 Punctuation 114 9.6 Use the marking scheme while writing 115 9.7 Process of writing 116 10 Writing the literature review 119 10.1 The purpose of the literature review 119 10.2 Organisation of the literature review 120 10.3 Sources to include in the review 123 10.4 Critical reading and writing 124 10.5 Referring to the gap in knowledge 125 10.6 Citing 126 11 Writing the methodology chapter 131 11.1 The purpose of the methodology chapter 131 11.2 Organisation of the methodology chapter 132 11.2.1 Research questions 132 11.2.2 Methodological approach 132 11.2.3 The role of the researcher 133 11.2.4 The research context 133 11.2.5 Participants 134 11.2.6 Methods of data collection 137 11.2.7 Methods of data analysis 137  Contents ix 11.2.8 Reliability and validity 138 11.2.9 Ethics 140 11.3 Language in the methodology chapter 140 12 Writing the results and discussion chapters 144 12.1 The results chapter 144 12.1.1 The purpose of the results chapter 145 12.1.2 Organisation of results chapter 146 12.1.3 Reporting quantitative results 148 12.1.4 Using tables and graphics 148 12.1.5 Reporting qualitative results 149 12.2 The discussion chapter 152 12.2.1 The purpose of the discussion chapter 152 12.2.2 Organisation of the discussion chapter 155 12.2.3 Limitations of the study 156 12.2.4 Implications of the study 158 12.3 Language of results and discussion 158 13 Beginning and ending the dissertation 163 13.1 The introduction 163 13.2 The conclusion 166 13.3 The reference list 170 13.3.1 Digital object identifiers (DOIs) 172 13.3.2 Referencing software 172 PART IV Dissertation submission 177 14 The finishing touches 179 14.1 Title page 179 14.2 The dissertation abstract 179 14.3 Acknowledgements 183 14.4 The table of contents 183 14.5 Declaration 186 14.6 List of terms and abbreviations 186 14.7 Appendices 186 14.8 Editing and proof-reading 189 15 The examination and beyond 193 15.1 Examination of the dissertation 193 15.1.1 Who marks the dissertation? 193 x Contents 15.1.2 Dissertation assessment criteria 194 15.1.3 Feedback on the dissertation 195 15.2 The viva 198 15.2.1 Before the viva 198 15.2.2 During the viva 199 15.3 Oral presentations 200 15.4 After the dissertation 201 15.4.1 Resubmission 201 15.4.2 Using the dissertation as a pathway 201 15.4.3 Disseminating knowledge 202 15.4.4 Giving a conference presentation 203 15.4.5 Publishing a journal article 203 15.4.6 Differences between a dissertation and an article 204 15.4.7 Dissertation awards 205 16 Resources 208 16.1 Dissertation guides 208 16.2 Proposal writing guides 209 16.3 List of Routledge Handbooks on TESOL and applied linguistics 209 16.4 List of academic journals in TESOL and applied linguistics 210 16.5 Sources for the literature review 212 16.5.1 Referencing software 212 16.5.2 Referencing guides 213 16.5.3 Guides to the literature review 213 16.5.4 Digital object identifiers (DOIs) 213 16.6 Sources for research methodology 213 16.6.1 Statistical analysis software 214 16.7 Finding dissertations 214 16.8 Setting up a writing group 215 16.9 Academic writing links 215 16.10 Example of a research proposal with analysis 216 16.11 Examples of dissertation abstracts 226 16.11.1 Study using ethnography, text analysis, observations, interviews 226 16.11.2 Study using existing quantitative questionnaires and interviews utilising descriptive and inferential statistics 227 16.11.3 Study using a case study design 227 16.11.4 Study based on classroom discourse and observations 228  Contents xi 16.11.5 Action research study using an intervention 228 16.11.6 Study using existing textual data 229 16.11.7 Study trialling a pedagogical technique – story telling 229 16.11.8 In-depth qualitative study using a small sample 230 16.11.9 Study using a pre- and post-test design 231 16.12 Further weblinks 231 16.12.1 How to get published 231 16.12.2 The linguist list 232 16.12.3 Time management apps 232 16.12.4 Blogs 232 16.13 Dissertation checklist 232 Glossary235 Index240 FIGURES 2.1 Some examples of master’s dissertation titles 17 3.1 The purposes of reviewing the literature 22 3.2 Types of literature 24 3.3 Some databases in TESOL and applied linguistics 26 3.4 Example of reference in APA 6th edition using DOI 29 4.1 The major characteristics of a quantitative approach to research34 4.2 The major characteristics of a qualitative approach to research35 4.3 Action research cycle 38 4.4 Types of questionnaire questions 40 5.1 Example of a summary of a project from a master’s dissertation proposal 53 5.2 Example of background sections of a research proposal 55 5.3 Generic criteria for assessing a dissertation proposal 60 6.1 Examples from dissertation handbooks 64 6.2 Important stages of dissertation for discussion 67 6.3 Preparing for supervision meetings 68 7.1 Participant recruitment template 77 7.2 Example of a can-do scale with directions 80 7.3 Example of a five-point Likert scale with directions 81 8.1 What to include in a research diary 90 8.2 Strategies for organising data 92 8.3 Example of a five-point Likert scale used to measure in-class and out-of-class anxiety 93 8.4 Stages in quantitative analysis 97 8.5 Stages in analysis in a qualitative study 99  Figures xiii 9.1 Dissertation organisation, example 1 109 9.2 Dissertation organisation, example 2 110 9.3 Dissertation organisation, example 3 110 9.4 General requirements of a dissertation 111 9.5 Process of writing 117 10.1 Organisation of the literature chapter using headings, example 1 121 10.2 Organisation of the literature chapter using headings, example 2 121 10.3 The structure of literature chapter introductions, example 1 122 10.4 The structure of literature chapter introductions, example 2 122 10.5 The structure of literature chapter introductions, example 3 123 10.6 Example of critical writing: combining views in literature review124 10.7 Establishing a gap in knowledge, example 1 125 10.8 Establishing a gap in knowledge, example 2 125 10.9 Establishing a gap in knowledge, example 3 126 10.10 Synthesising studies 127 10.11 Author and research prominent citations 127 11.1 Organisation of the methodology chapter, example 1 133 11.2 Organisation of the methodology chapter, example 2 134 11.3 Organisation of the methodology chapter, example 3 135 11.4 Referring to methodological approach in a dissertation 135 11.5 Describing and selecting participants, example 1 136 11.6 Describing and selecting participants, example 2 136 11.7 Writing about analysis 137 11.8 Writing about reliability in a quantitative study 138 11.9 Writing about reliability and validity in a qualitative study 139 11.10 Example of referring to ethics approval 140 11.11 Tense in the methodology chapter 141 12.1 Criteria for selecting results 145 12.2 Examples of organisation of the results by research question 146 12.3 Organisation of results chapter by cases 147 12.4 Example of introduction to results by describing what will follow 147 12.5 Example of introduction to results chapter using summary of findings 148 12.6 Example of table and text reference in a quantitative study using correlations 150 12.7 List of tables and figures 150 12.8 Reporting interview results, example 1 151 12.9 Reporting interview results, example 2 151 12.10 Some examples of descriptors at a distinction level used in the assessment of discussion sections 153 xiv Figures 12.11 Referring to previous research in the discussion chapter 153 12.12 The purposes of the discussion chapter 154 12.13 Introduction to the discussion chapter 155 12.14 Conclusion to the discussion chapter 156 12.15 Suggested structure of the discussion chapter 157 12.16 Example of the limitations section 157 12.17 Language used in making claims 159 13.1 Structure of a master’s dissertation introduction 166 13.2 Examples of purpose statements 167 13.3 Examples of assessment criteria for a reference list 172 14.1 Sample title page 180 14.2 Typical structure of dissertation abstracts 181 14.3 Example of an acknowledgements section 184 14.4 Template for acknowledgements 184 14.5 Typical sections and ordering of a dissertation in the table of contents 185 14.6 Example of a declaration page 187 14.7 Example of a list of abbreviations 187 14.8 Examples of material that may be included in the appendix 188 14.9 Example of appendices 189 15.1 Example of a dissertation feedback form 196 15.2 Example of a dissertation examiner’s report 197 15.3 Some typical questions asked during oral examinations 199 15.4 Example of a referee form 203 TABLES 1.1 The major differences between a master’s course-work assignment and a dissertation 2 1.2 Time management diary template 4 2.1 Focusing the topic, example 1 15 2.2 Focusing the topic, example 2 16 3.1 Example of a broad literature review 23 3.2 Template for the initial literature review 24 3.3 Criteria for selecting literature sources 27 3.4 Some examples of citation management software 27 3.5 Template for reviewing the literature 27 3.6 Reading strategies 28 4.1 Comparison of steps in experimental and quasi-experimental research to examine vocabulary learning 36 4.2 Example of a qualitative research design to examine vocabulary learning 37 4.3 Some common types of analyses for quantitative data 44 4.4 Sampling in quantitative and qualitative research 45 4.5 Reliability and validity 47 5.1 Comparison of areas required in a research proposal from three universities 52 5.2 The Who? What? Where? and How? of introductory sections in a dissertation proposal 54 5.3 Some examples of types of research questions 56 5.4 Examples of poor research questions 56 5.5 Types of question words 57 5.6 Summarising research questions, methods and analysis 58 5.7 Sample timetable for research 58 xvi Tables 5.8 Checklist for the research proposal 60 6.1 Some typical supervisor and student roles 66 6.2 Example of a summary of a supervision session in the research design stage of the dissertation 69 7.1 Examples of sources of participants in master’s research projects 75 7.2 Guidelines for producing a participant information sheet77 7.3 Examples of text-based research projects 79 7.4 Methods of administering questionnaires 82 7.5 Advice for interviewing 83 7.6 Example of general interview question and prompts 84 8.1 Example of a research diary from the analysis phase of research 91 8.2 Example of a codebook for an anxiety study based on the questionnaire in Figure 8.3 94 8.3 Descriptive statistics in a quantitative study 95 8.4 Example of descriptive statistics reporting number and percentage96 8.5 Example of descriptive statistics using range 96 8.6 Example of mean (M) and standard deviation (SD) 96 8.7 Typical statistical analyses in master’s research studies 97 8.8 Non-parametric equivalents to parametric tests 98 8.9 Acceptability of getting help with collecting and analysing data 101 9.1 Avoiding procrastination in writing 108 9.2 Example of a writing diary 108 9.3 Academic style: vocabulary 113 9.4 Academic grammar 113 9.5 Common types of punctuation 114 10.1 Characteristics of the dissertation literature review chapter 120 10.2 Verbs for referring to the literature 127 11.1 Characteristics of a dissertation methodology chapter 131 12.1 Example of a table showing descriptive statistics in a quantitative study 149 12.2 Template for relating results to literature 154 13.1 Example of a master’s dissertation introduction 164 13.2 Example of a master’s dissertation conclusion chapter 168 13.3 Example of a master’s dissertation concluding paragraph 170 13.4 Example of an excerpt from a reference list in APA 6th edition 171 14.1 Dissertation abstract, example 1 181 14.2 Dissertation abstract, example 2 182 14.3 General editing checklist for organisation of the dissertation 190  Tables xvii 14.4 General editing checklist for language in the dissertation 190 15.1 Broad assessment criteria for a master’s dissertation 194 15.2 Breakdown of assessment criteria by dissertation section 195 15.3 Stages for viva oral examination 198 15.4 Some examples of positive and negative self-talk 200 15.5 Template for a short oral presentation about the dissertation 201 15.6 Publishing a journal article 204 15.7 Differences between a dissertation and journal article 205 16.1 Questions to ask when setting up a writing group 216 16.2 Sample proposal with comments 217 16.3 Checklist for editing the dissertation 232 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS The motivation for this book arose from many years teaching dissertation writing skills and my experience supervising with master’s dissertation students in Australia and the UK. I hope that this book helps students demystify process of doing a mas- ter’s dissertation.The book relies heavily on excerpts from master’s dissertations taken from UK, Australian and US dissertations. I would like to thank these dissertation writers who have provided me with their dissertations and those publicly available. I would like to thank the following writers for the use of extracts. Full biblio- graphic details are provided at the end of this section. Chapter 5:Y. Guo (2018) for the summary of the project taken from a research proposal. Chapter 7: J Anderson (2016) for interview questions and prompts. Chapter 11: M. Spencer (2018) for subheadings in the methodology chapter and referring to the methodological approach. N. Mai (2018) for describing participants and selection. J. Anderson (2016) for writing about analysis. A. Steinhoff (2018) for writing about reliability and writing about ethics. Q. Lin (2018) for writing about validity and reliability. Chapter 12: R. Forde (2018) for the introduction to results. R. Dry (2017) for interview results and the introduction to the discussion chapter. N. Mai (2018) for the conclusion to discussion chapter. Chapter 13: J. Anderson (2016) for the dissertation introduction. M. Spencer (2018) for the dissertation conclusion. Chapter 14: H. Zhou (2017) for the abstract and acknowledgements section. L. Da Silva (2016) for the dissertation abstract. Chapter 16: M. Spencer (2018) for his master’s research proposal. A. Turner (2012) for the dissertation abstract. A. Alzalam (2018) for the dissertation abstract. S. Jones (2011) for the dissertation abstract. S. Hazari (2014) for the dissertation  Acknowledgements xix abstract.Y. Chen (2018) for the dissertation abstract.W. Matsuoka (2009) for the dis- sertation abstract. R. Forde (2018) for the dissertation abstract. A. Steinhoff (2018) for the dissertation abstract. My thanks also go to the following dissertation writers whose work I have ­consulted and quoted: Alghamdy, S. (2016). Motivational strategies in an EFL classroom: Students’ Perceptions vs.Teachers’ Practices. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Alzalam, A. (2018). Culturally relevant materials: An inquiry into the role of faith. (Master’s ­Dissertation), University of Hull. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/alaa_dean_alzalam_university_of_hull_dissertation. pdf (Accessed 28 May, 2019) Anderson, J. (2016). A qualitative study into the role of initial teacher training courses in the profes- sional development of experienced non-native speaker teachers of English. (Master’s Dissertation), Kings College, London. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ default/files/attachments/mda2017_winner_jason_anderson_king_s_college_london. pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Asada, A. (2013). An investigation of the impact of bilingualism on the identity of a sample of bilingual English teachers. (Master’s Dissertation), Canterbury Christ Church University. Retrieved from www.asian-efl-journal.com/8681/thesis/an-investigation-of-the-impact-of-bilingualism- on-the-identity-of-a-sample-of-bilingual-english-teachers/ (Accessed 21 March, 2019). Awder, R. A. (UD). Investigating spelling errors of Kurd EFL learners in the eighth year of basic school. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Barrass, J. (2017). The intelligibility of Korean English pronunciation from a Lingua Franca ­perspective. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Oxford. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.­ britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/justin_barrass_university_of_oxford_ dissertation.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Campbell, E. (2016). Up, up and away! Taking off with SFG: An investigation into the impact of selected Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) concepts on students’ writing of a film review. (Mas- ter’s Dissertation), Aston University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.­britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_design_for_publication_2016_aston_ university.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Cardiff, P. (2015). Perspectives of EAP: Students’ perspectives of pre-sessional English courses at Newcastle University English Language Centre. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Chen, S. (2011). Genre features of personal statements by Chinese English-as-an-additional language writers: A corpus driven study. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Victoria. Chen,Y. (2017). The impact of storytelling on young learners’ motivation in English classes in primary school in China. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Cooper, C. (2016). Scaffolding during the initial reading of picture books in Japanese elementary school EFL classrooms: A qualitative study investigating how teachers and learners co-construct meaning during whole class picture book reading. (Master’s Dissertation), Sheffield Hallam University. Crofton, B. (2011). The usefulness of decision-forcing case studies in helping to prepare new and expe- rienced English language teachers. (Master’s Dissertation), Concordia University, Portland. Crofton-Martin, I. (2015). Perceptions of pronunciation in the EFL classroom. ­(Master’s Dissertation), Canterbury Christchurch University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.­britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/cantenbury_christ_church_­u niversity_isabel_ crofton-martin_dissertation.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) xx Acknowledgements Da Silva, L. (2016). Academic vocabulary: A corpus linguistic study on how Brazilian students write academic English. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Warwick. Retrieved from https:// englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/mda2017_special_ commendation_larissa_goulart_da_silva_university_of_warwick.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Dickson, B. (2015). Newspaper discourses on Andy Murray’s performance at Wimbledon: A con- trastive corpus driven investigation of successful and unsuccessful tennis match reports. (Master’s ­Dissertation), University of Stirling. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_stirling_university.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Dore, C. (2016). Perceptions of fluency. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Reading. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/disserta- tion_design_for_publication_2016_reading_university_cecilia_dore.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Dry, R. (2017). EAL in the mainstream: A Northumberland case study. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Ellman, M. (2017). “You’re more likely to pick up on stuff”: Evaluating the impact of video evidence on English language teachers’ post-observation reflections. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Birmingham. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/research-­ publications/elt-masters-dissertations/2017-2018-winners (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Fitriani, R. (2018). EFL students’ perceptions on translanguaging in the general English classroom at an Indonesian university. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Sydney. Forde, R. (2018). How can I teach this? Examining collaborative dialogic reflection and its impact on teacher learning. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Guo, Y. (2018). A research proposal on teacher beliefs and the usage of online teaching websites in Chinese as a foreign language classrooms. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Sydney. Hanisch, R. (2015). The effect of the implementation of an Extensive Reading Programme (ERP) in English language teaching (ELT) on the reading abilities and reading habits of 12–13 year old students in an Austrian Secondary Modern School. (Master’s Dissertation), Norwich Institute for Language Education. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_nile.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Hicking, R. (2015). Subtitles in authentic video listening: An exploration of the benefits of captions in relation to sensory preference types. (Master’s Dissertation), University College, London. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attach- ments/dissertation_for_publication_ucl.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Iyer, P. (2013). The effect of collaborative blogging on communicative skills in the writing of Thai EFL students. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Birmingham. Retrieved from http://asian- efl-journal.com/wp-content/uploads/2014/thesis/Purnima_Iyer_M_%20Dissertation. pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Jiang, J. (2015). A survey of English teachers’ ability to write reading comprehension questions in secondary schools in Beijing. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Warwick. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_ for_publication_warwick_university.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Jones, S. (2011). Investigating the F-move in teacher talk: A South Korean study on teachers’ beliefs and classroom practices. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Birmingham. Kelly, R. (2015). An exploration of Instagram to develop ESL learners’ writing proficiency. (Master’s Dissertation), Ulster University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_ulster_university.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019)  Acknowledgements xxi Le, Q. K. (2017). English final consonant clusters in the interlanguage of Northern Vietnamese young adult learners. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Lestari, S. B. (2014). Paraphrasing in high-scoring and low-scoring L2 integrated writing test task responses. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Warwick. Retrieved from https://­ englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/filefield_paths/paraphrasing_in_ high_scoring_and_low_scoring_l2_integrated_writing_v2.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Lin, Q. (2018). Assessing teacher verbal feedback using the SETT framework: A case study on three English classes in a high school in China. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Liu, X. (2018). The effects of indirect written corrective feedback on English learners at different pro- ficiency levels: A qualitative research. (Unpublished MEd research proposal), University of Sydney. Mai, N. (2018). Investigating the effects of code-mixed reading texts on vocabulary learning of ­Vietnamese adult learners. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Marsh, D. (2011). Using critical discourse analysis to raise critical language awareness in Japanese medical students: An exploratory action research project. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Birmingham. Retrieved from http://asian-efl-journal.com/wp-content/uploads/mgm/ downloads/64517300.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Matsuoka, W. E. (2009). Vocabulary learning opportunities in a commercial ELT coursebook. ­(Master’s Dissertation), University of Sydney. Nazari, A. (2015). English language lecturers’ views on dynamic assessment and its potential in higher education: Challenging the current status quo. (Master’s Dissertation), London Metropolitan University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/ attachments/dissertation_design_for_publication_2016_londonmetropolianuniversity. pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Newnham, S.-A. (2013). Text complexity in graded readers: A systemic functional look. (Master’s Dissertation), Marshal University. Retrieved from https://mds.marshall.edu/etd/498/ (Accessed 30 April, 2019) O’Donovan, E. (2016). Exploring culturally sensitive alternatives for the First Certificate in English. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Liverpool. Retrieved from https://englishagenda. britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_2016_ liverpool_university.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Ohlrogge, A. C. (2009). Academic vocabulary at the word and formula level: An examination of test- taker discourse. (Master’s Dissertation), Michigan State University. Philip, C. (2017). Positive and negative written corrective feedback: A mixed-method investigation of EAP teachers’ word choices. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Stirling. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/claire_philip_ university_of_stirling_dissertation.pdf (Accessed 1 March, 2019) Ring, N. M. (2016). My friend TED: Implementing effective listening strategies into academic listen- ing using TED talks. (Master’s Dissertation), Sheffield Hallam University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_ for_publication_sheffield_hallam_university.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Spencer, M. (2018). Synchronous online learning via Zoom Videoconferencing: A multimodal ­conversation analytic study of teacher-student interaction. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Steinhoff, A. (2018). The influence of pre-writing strategies on the quality of essay structure and topic sentences in ESL academic writing. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Sydney. Su, L. (2107). Identifying dyslexia in children learning English as an additional language: Primary school teachers’ perceptions of the main challenges: A Somerset study. (Master’s Dissertation), Bath Spa University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ xxii Acknowledgements default/files/attachments/laura_su_bath_spa_university_dissertation.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Tu, W. (2010). How universities in China introduce themselves in Chinese and English on the inter- net: A contrastive genre study. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Sydney. Wilson, O. (2013). Teachers’ motivational strategies and students’ motivated behaviour in the tertiary Australian ESL context. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Sydney. Xie, Y. (2017). Who do you hang out with? A mixed-methods study on how Chinese students’ social networks relate to their oral proficiency gains during study abroad. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Cambridge. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/ sites/default/files/attachments/yushan_xie_university_of_cambridge_dissertation.pdf (Accessed 24 May, 2019) Xu, J. (2013). An investigation of differences in the levels and types of writing anxiety experienced by Chinese postgraduates in the UK and China. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Zhou, H. (2017). An analysis of the misuse of English articles by Chinese University-level EFL students and its relationship to pedagogy. (Master’s Dissertation), Newcastle University. Zhu, J. (2017). The technical vocabulary of newspapers. (Master’s Dissertation),Western U ­ niversity. Retrieved from https://ir.lib.uwo.ca/etd/4872/ (Accessed 30 April, 2019) 1 INTRODUCTION This chapter defines a dissertation and outlines the purposes of a dissertation from both the university and the student viewpoint. It covers reasons for the dissertation that students may not have considered, such as providing a pathway for future study and publication. The chapter makes suggestions for using the book and an outline of the sections of this book. 1.1 What is a dissertation? According to the Oxford Advanced Learner’s dictionary a dissertation is “a long piece of writing on a particular subject especially one for a degree or diploma” (https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/). In British and Australian English, a dissertation refers to the document produced for a master’s degree, while a thesis refers to the document produced for doctoral degrees. In the US these terms are reversed, with a thesis referring to master’s study and a dissertation referring to the result of doctoral programme. At most universities a dissertation is required to qualify for a master’s degree. The dissertation is a text of around 15,000 words and is usually based on a piece of original research. Although alternative tasks may be acceptable, such as a literature review or a body of work, the educational principal underlying these is the same. The dissertation is sometimes referred to as a ‘capstone’ activity because it should push the student’s academic thinking to a higher level than is required for usual assignment work, thus allowing the student to reach his/her maximum potential. The time allowed for a dissertation is typically around six months to a year, includ- ing related research methodology course-work, and the dissertation is typically worth around one third of the total degree. At some universities the dissertation is the basis for 100% of the degree assessment. 2 Introduction Dissertation alternatives might include a literature review based on published works that reflect current thinking and research in a given area; a body of work, such as a needs analysis for a English course for a given group of learners; or a developed course and materials for a given group of learners. Students may choose the type of capstone activity they would like to do, and this decision would be informed by their personal and academic goals, such as using the work for profes- sional purposes or progressing to a higher research degree. This book focuses on the research-based dissertation as this is the most common type of task for master’s students in TESOL and applied linguistics. A dissertation is very different from the other types of assessment tasks for a master’s degree in TESOL or applied linguistics, and this is the main reason that students find the dissertation challenging. The main difference between an assign- ment and a dissertation is the level of freedom. In the dissertation component of the degree the student has a great deal of freedom concerning the content of the dissertation. Lecturer input is minimal because the student is expected to be inde- pendent; however, it must adhere to the recognised skills and norms expected in research. Table 1.1 presents a generalised view of the major differences between course-work assignments and dissertations. It should be remembered that course- work assignments can be extremely varied, this is especially true on master’s degrees that have a strong professional focus. TABLE 1.1  The major differences between a master’s course-work assignment and a dissertation Aspect Assignment Dissertation Purpose Demonstrate mastered course Demonstrate independent study. content. Demonstrate that student has Demonstrate ability to review completed required reading. literature in particular field. Reproduce knowledge about a Make a contribution to given subject. knowledge in a subject. May be very similar to other Needs to be original. students’ assignments. Type of task Range of tasks, for example, Written dissertation of around essay, oral presentation, group 15,000 words. project. Task content May have similar content for all Different content for each students. student. Linked to professional practice. May not be linked to professional practice. All students may complete Each student’s dissertation will be same task. different. Lecturer input Lectures, seminars. Large and One-to- one, or one to small small groups. group. (Continued)  Introduction 3 TABLE 1.1 (Continued) Aspect Assignment Dissertation General input supported by Focused topic, procedural and further reading. skills advice. Exact task and content No direct input from lecturer. provided by lecturer. Relevant reading lists and Guidance on skills to find reading references. sources. Great deal of lecturer input. Little lecturer input. Assessment Assessed by lecturer or tutor of Assessed by more than one course. examiner, may use examiner from outside department. Happens during semester/term Happens after end of semester/ time. term time. Can be formative, linked to Always summative, although the learning. proposal may be formative. Assessment criteria specific Assessment criteria specific to to task. research projects /dissertation. 1.2 The purpose of the dissertation The purpose of the dissertation may be viewed from two perspectives: that of the university and that of the student. From the university’s perspective the master’s dis- sertation is an essential part of the assessment of a master’s degree; it is what distin- guishes the master’s degree from other qualifications.The dissertation is designed to meet higher learning objectives attributable to postgraduates. From the university’s point of view the dissertation can be viewed as evidence of a student’s capability to do research, it can therefore be viewed as a basic qualification to do research. The dissertation is a learning task designed to extend a student’s knowledge and skills acquired through the taught element of the master’s course. From the student’s perspective the dissertation is typically worth around one third of the total marks of a master’s degree, so it is necessary not to fail the disser- tation in order to pass the degree. The dissertation may be important to a student for career purposes. If a student wishes to pursue further studies, such as a higher research degree like a PhD or Master’s by Research, then the grade on the disserta- tion is extremely important as it demonstrates the student’s research capability. It is also worth mentioning that funding for research is largely informed by course grades, in particular, the research component of the degree. The dissertation can be important to students who wish to implement change in the teaching and learning of languages in their own setting. Action research plays a vital role in developing knowledge and the application of research into language learning. From a more psychological viewpoint doing a dissertation can be a very challenging but satisfying. Most students experience a great sense of achievement upon completion of this research component of the master’s degree. 4 Introduction TASK 1.1 What do you think are the purposes of a dissertation? What does the dissertation mean to you personally? What attributes do you think master’s graduates should possess? 1.3 Managing the dissertation process For most master’s students, the dissertation process is a new type of learning activ- ity. Most students have experience of the process of completing academic assign- ments. While there are many different types of academic assignments, students are very familiar with written essay type assignments. Most students have written such academic texts since their schooldays. Typically, a course-work assignment involves answering a question or discussing a topic presented by the lecturer, completing reading based on a set reading list, taking notes and constructing a written account including a critical perspective. With the dissertation the student needs to choose the literature and construct an argument based on topic of his/her own choice.The student needs to select and use research methods to collect data. Many students underestimate the demands of the dissertation component of the master’s degree. It is important to remember that the dissertation is usually the equivalent of three master’s modules or units and is typically worth 60 credits. This amounts to 600 hours of study time, with most of this time being independent study (www.postgrad.com/uk_student_schedule/). Time management is often an issue with the dissertation. Students may decide to put off work on the dissertation until after they have completed all their course- work assignments. Some decide to take a holiday at the end of the taught compo- nent. This can be disastrous for the dissertation as there is insufficient time left to complete the study and make a good job of writing the dissertation. The best way to deal with time management is to plan academic tasks on a calendar. Table 1.2 TABLE 1.2 Time management diary template Month Supervision Activities Deadlines Feeling ✓ January February March April May June July August September October November December  Introduction 5 presents an example of a template that can help with time management for the dissertation. The table can be used to plan stages of the dissertation and list dead- lines. There is also a column for recording how the student is feeling, which can be informative. In the supervision column, as well as dates and tasks, it is a good idea to list outcomes and agreed tasks after each meeting. This is discussed more fully in Chapter 6 on Supervision. For those that prefer to work electronically there are several apps available for phones that can help with time management by having to do lists, diaries and reminders. Some examples of these are given at the end of this chapter. Managing the dissertation from a psychological point of view is important too. Nearly every student will experience a certain level of stress, as there is usually too much work for the time available. Some students experience a lack of confidence believing independent study and a dissertation is beyond their capabilities. This is referred to as ‘imposter syndrome’, where the students fear they may be discovered as being inadequate to the job in hand. This can lead to anxiety, which interferes with cognitive processes. Another issue is perfectionism. In this case the student wants the dissertation to be perfect and believes it can never be good enough; this can lead to procrastination. One activity that can be very helpful with research and writing the dissertation is keeping a research diary. This is a private diary that records thoughts and activi- ties related to the research process. This is discussed in more detail in Chapter 8. Cabraal (2013) has an excellent blog on the reasons to keep a research diary and how to go about it. Completing a dissertation can be a rewarding experience with students expe- riencing a great sense of achievement at the end of the process. This satisfaction is increased because of the independent element, which promotes ownership of the study and text. However, there are bound to be low points during the dissertation process; it is worth remembering these will be matched by high points, therefore it is useful to record mood and psychological states during the dissertation process. The dissertation should be set as a goal that is systematically completed and duly celebrated upon completion. This book offers advice on designing and executing a master’s research project and provides guidelines on how to write a dissertation. The book uses examples taken from recent TESOL and applied linguistics master’s dissertations in the UK, Australia and USA. The advice in this book is not intended to be prescriptive, as it is important to remember that requirements and expectations for academic work vary between universities and academic departments, so it is essential that the dis- sertation is informed by institutional norms. To achieve this the student must read the dissertation guidelines thoroughly, understand the assessment criteria used and examine past dissertations. Gaining a deep understanding of the requirements of the dissertation and asking questions about the norms and expectations of the dissertation is frequently referred to in this book. This approach is based on an academic literacies view (Lea and Street, 1998) common in current English for Academic Purposes (EAP) research. This theoretical perspective is based on the 6 Introduction notion that excellence in academic writing is based on context and that literacy is plural rather than unitary. So, for example, an essay written for a chemistry assign- ment and one written for a TESOL assignment are very different. TASK 1.2 Find the guidelines for the dissertation from your department. What are the objectives of the dissertation? How is the dissertation assessed? Looking at some examples of good dissertations, what do you think makes a good dissertation? 1.4 How to use this book This book follows the process of producing a dissertation from generating an idea, to writing the dissertation and options after examination. Part I addresses the design of the research; Part II is concerned with the process of collecting and analysing data; Part III focuses on the writing of the dissertation and Part IV discusses the examination of the dissertation. For this reason the chapters are able to stand alone. Some issues, such as assessment criteria, editing checklists and useful websites, are referred to in several chapters so it is not necessary to start at the beginning and read to the end. This book includes a great number of tables and figures designed to help with the thinking and execution of research and writing, such as the time management template in this chapter. Each chapter includes tasks to highlight points and advice given. These can be completed with a partner or individually. Working with others is always a valuable experience, and it is a good idea to set up a peer group to discuss aspects of the dis- sertation research and writing. This can be done quite informally by collaborating with a few friends enrolled in the same master’s programme or more formally as is presented in Chapter 16 about setting up a writing group. The advantages of par- ticipating in a writing group usually far outweigh the drawbacks in terms of time. Part I focuses on the design of a master’s research project and has five chapters. Chapter 2 looks at the process of developing and refining a worthwhile research topic. Chapter 3 is about reviewing the literature, an essential step in developing a research topic worth researching.This chapter focuses on how resources are selected and the process of reading and recording information. Chapter 4 covers the choice of methodological approach and research methods used in the study. The chapter looks at quantitative and qualitative approaches to research and describes the most common methods used to collect data in TESOL and applied linguistics research. Chapter 5 focuses on developing and writing a research proposal.This is an essential step in the research project process and is often an assessed component. An example of an annotated research proposal is presented in Chapter 16. Chapter 6 addresses the very important issue of supervision: how supervisors are allocated and what supervi- sion entails. It provides advice on how to optimize this method of instruction. Part II of the book focuses on the procedure of the research: the process of collecting and analysing data. Chapter 7 examines how to select participants and  Introduction 7 how to access and elicit different types of data. Chapter 8 concerns data analysis, both qualitative and quantitative. The chapter stresses the importance of keeping a research diary and outlines how this can be done. Part III of the book addresses issues in writing the dissertation. Chapter 9 pro- vides general writing guidelines for completing the dissertation. Chapter 10 focuses on how the literature chapter can be written by focusing on the purpose and typi- cal organisation of the chapter. It also has a section on being critical in reading and writing. Chapter 11 employs the same approach to writing about the methodology used in the study. This chapter includes a section on the characteristics of high and low scoring chapters. Chapter 12 shows how the results and discussion chapters can be presented. Qualitative and quantitative studies are considered; the chapter also considers the inclusion of limitations of the study and implications for practice and further research. Chapter 13 looks at beginning and ending dissertations by focus- ing on the introduction, the conclusion and the reference list. Part IV comprises two chapters. Chapter 14 presents the finishing touches to the dissertation and looks at how to construct a dissertation abstract, acknowledgements, table of contents and appendices. The chapter also has section on editing and proof- reading. Chapter 15 examines issues of examinations and beyond the submission. The chapter includes marking criteria and the inclusion of a viva component to the examination. The chapter then discusses options beyond the dissertation, which include applying for higher research degrees and publishing from the dissertation. Chapter 16 provides a list of resources that can be useful in writing a dissertation. These includes lists of academic journals, sources of literature, links to dissertations and other useful web pages. The book uses authentic example of dissertations to provide examples. Many of these dissertations are accessible online. Every chapter in this book has a simi- lar format. The chapter addresses the important information on the topic, this is accompanied by tasks. This book relies heavily on tables and figures that highlight the steps and organisation of tasks and texts that can be used in the student’s own project. Each chapter includes guidance for further reading about the topic, a sec- tion on some of the most common mistakes and a list of frequently asked questions about doing a dissertation. The book concludes with a glossary of common terms used in this book. References Cabraal, A. (2013). Keep a research journal: It’s important. Retrieved from https://anujacabraal. wordpress.com/2013/07/03/keep-a-research-journal-it-is-important/ Lea, M., & Street, B. (1998). Student writing in higher education: An academic literacies approach. Higher Education, 23(2): 157–172. Time management applications Any.do www.any.do/ Get it done https://getitdoneapp.com/ Trello https://trello.com/?truid=trbf098b-f460-2c5b-205a-931be112039c PART I Project design 2 CHOOSING A TOPIC Choosing a research topic for a dissertation is often difficult for students, and the wrong choice can have serious implications for success.This chapter addresses how to find a topic, issues in topic selection and what makes a topic researchable.The chapter then discusses focusing the topic and investigates the structure of dissertation titles. 2.1 How to choose a topic Many students find the selection of a topic quite daunting. This is quite under- standable as the dissertation commands a lot of effort and thinking time – around 600 hours of study time for a 60 credit point dissertation. So, the topic needs to be interesting, have good advice available and be reasonably easy to research in the given time frame. The best approach is to invest a great deal of thought about a suitable topic at the very beginning of the dissertation process.While topics develop and may change during the process of research, major changes to the topic can have serious outcomes as the time spent on the original topic probably does not con- tribute to the recommended study hours for the dissertation. There are a number of methods that can be used to select a topic for a dissertation. Obviously, the more prior knowledge a student has of the subject, the easier the project will be. This is because it takes wide reading to gain a base level knowledge in a given area. Good topics build on prior knowledge and prior experience. The following section pro- vides some ideas for finding a suitable researchable topic for a master’s dissertation. 2.1.1 Topics emerging from modules and assignments The dissertation is set to push students to an intellectual ceiling, so ideally it should be based on the work and tasks included in the taught component of the master’s degree. It is useful to think about the modules or units of study that are 12 Project design most interesting. Perhaps the student particularly enjoyed one of the assignments and got a high grade or positive feedback. This would be a good area for a dis- sertation topic. Another idea is to go through the notes and materials for each module and make a list of areas that stimulate interest. One problem with using modules and assignments to inform the development of a dissertation topic is that the selection of the dissertation topic probably needs to be made before the module is taught completely. Often in master’s degrees up to 50% of course assignments will be due at the end of the term, and by this stage the dissertation needs to be well underway. 2.1.2 Topics emerging from previous dissertations Another useful method of identifying topics is to look at dissertations from previ- ous cohorts of master’s students. However, it is important to remember that each dissertation needs to have an element of originality, so the topic cannot be exactly the same as previous dissertations. One method of achieving this is to read the con- clusions or implications section of a dissertation and look at the recommendations for further research, using this as a basis for the dissertation topic. TASK 2.1 Identify key subject areas that occur in your modules. Identify key areas of expertise of the academic staff on your master’s course. Identify common topics in previous dissertations. 2.1.3 Topics informed by personal interest Some students are passionate in their choice of dissertation topic, so the choice of topic is an easy choice. For example, MA student Susan is an English teacher and felt she was discriminated against in terms of employment opportunities because she is a non-native English speaker. She believes that preference is given to native English speakers when recruiting teachers. So, she decided to investigate attitudes toward native and non-native English speaker teachers (NNESTs) at a number of language centres. In this case Susan needs to be aware of personal bias. Research questions need to have more than one possible answer and the researcher needs to under- stand that the answer may not align with their expectations. So, Susan needs to be prepared for there to be no evidence of discrimination in the centres she investigates. A topic needs to be researchable. To start with, Susan needs to have a suitable supervisor, so there would have to be a member of the staff who knows about NNESTs or has expertise in attitude research. She would also need to have access to several language centres.  Choosing a topic 13 2.1.4 Topics informed by professional need Some students choose topics based on a professional need. For example, David from Thailand decided to design and conduct a needs analysis of the English language students at his university as a preamble to designing a more relevant university Eng- lish for Academic Purposes (EAP) course. The dissertation is an excellent oppor- tunity for practitioners to devote time and research to pedagogical aspects. In this approach it may be possible to implement an action research project trialling a new method and approaches and making an evaluation of these. Such projects are valu- able in instigating change for the better in language teaching settings. 2.1.5 Topics based on supervisor expertise Sometimes students look at the expertise of their lecturers and choose a topic they may have published on. Initially this seems like a good idea. The lecturer could provide excellent supervision because they are knowledgeable about the topic and familiar with the research methods associated with this topic. However, it must be remembered that the dissertation is an independent task. Students usually do not have more than 4–6 hours supervision time and supervisors often have many super- visees. If the topic does not fall within the master’s degree curriculum then it is not a good idea to choose it. For example, I have published widely on language learn- ing anxiety; however, this was not included in the MA applied linguistics course on which I taught. Thus, the students do not have any background in the area and it would not be a good choice of topic for any students on this degree course. Some students want to have the most well-known academic in their department as their supervisor. There can be issues with this, as senior academics often have a varied and intensive work load; they also may travel a lot so they may not be able to spend as much time providing feedback to students as their more junior colleagues. 2.1.6 Topics based on career trajectory Some students may have a very clear career trajectory. For example, Fiona wants to become head of the testing unit in her department. So, she chose an important area in testing which would stand her in good stead for developing the testing unit and subsequently being promoted.To this end, she might aim to publish a journal article based on her master’s research, which would further enhance her career. Some students have the goal of doing a higher research degree such as a PhD after the master’s course and use the dissertation as a vehicle for gaining research experience. In this case it would be a good idea to choose a topic related to the intended PhD. One method is to use the master’s as a pilot or preliminary study for the future PhD project. However, it needs to be remembered that the research in the master’s dissertation cannot be included as part of the PhD as each degree needs to have its own unique data set. 14 Project design TASK 2.2 Topic selection Decide on three possible topics you could choose for your master’s dissertation. List the broad topic and why you would want to conduct research into this topic. Topic Motivation Topic 1 Topic 2 Topic 3 Motivation: assignments/modules personal interest/passion professional interest/need supervisor expertise career trajectory 2.1.7 Reading The basis of all good research projects is reading. The importance of a strong theo- retical and research base for projects cannot be overemphasised. Looking at recent journal articles from reputable academic journals can highlight current interest and trends in research. Chapter 16 provides a list of journals in TESOL and applied lin- guistics. One way of finding suitable topics, like with dissertations, is to look at the final section of the journal article where it refers to recommendations for further research. Every article has such a section. 2.2 Researchable topics Topics need to be researchable or doable.The time available for a master’s dissertation is short, so research projects need to be small.This should be reflected in all aspects of the study: literature review, data collection and data analysis. In the literature review the sources need to be available in the university library or online. Relying on the interlibrary loan service can be time consuming and sometimes unavailable. In terms of reviewing the literature, the area needs to be reasonably accessible. A totally new and complex theoretical perspective would present too many challenges for a master’s project. The data for a master’s project needs to be easily gathered. Familiar sources easily accessible are best, for example, using participants from the student’s university or language school. Students should also consider the nature of ethics approval when considering data collection methods.All research projects need ethics approval if using people in the study. Some universities make this easy by having departmental approval while others have complex and time-consuming central ethics approval procedures. In this case students may prefer to conduct a text-based study that does not need ethics approval, for example, discourse analysis of texts. The data analysis techniques need to be relatively simple too. So, a complex quantitative study using, for example, structural equation modelling would be too time consuming unless the student is already familiar with this statistical technique. Similarly, the software used to analyse data needs to be thought about.There are software programmes that greatly help with the analysis of data – for example, SPSS for quantitative data and NVivo for qualitative data – but these programmes need to be mastered and this may take too long.  Choosing a topic 15 Sometimes students decide to research a topic because it has not been done before.This alone is not sufficient, there may be a good reason why the area has not been researched. For example, the data may be too difficult to get or there is no answer to the question. A research topic needs to be worthy of investigation, if you know the answer to the research question there is no point researching the topic. Some students worry about originality and the contribution to knowledge their dissertation will make. While both are necessary, they may be very modest. For example, this can be achieved simply by changing the setting or participants of a previous study. Of course if the student intends the master’s dissertation to be treated as a preliminary study of a future PhD in the field, more consideration needs to be given to significance and originality. 2.3 Developing the topic After choosing a broad topic area the topic needs to be focused until a specific title for the dissertation emerges. Deciding on the dissertation topic will be based on the limitations discussed previously, that is, access to the literature, to the research site and to the participants. Being specific is the easiest way to narrow the focus of the topic. Too broad a topic can lead to a lack of focus in reading the literature. Table 2.1 and Table 2.2 provide examples of how topics can be focused. Refine- ment is achieved by considering variables, participants, setting, the gap in knowl- edge and data. Included in this refinement are the strengths the researcher can bring to the study; for example, in Table 2.1 Peng is a native Chinese speaker, thus giving her an advantage in talking with her participants about sensitive issues. TABLE 2.1 Focusing the topic, example 1 (Peng) Topic Focus Anxiety Broad Language anxiety Broad Speaking anxiety of English language learners Refine based on variable Speaking anxiety of Chinese English language learners Refine based on participants Speaking anxiety of Chinese English language learners at Refine based on setting Newcastle University Language Centre Speaking anxiety of Chinese English language learners Refine based on context at Tyne University Language Centre during oral presentation classes Want to know why students are anxious; as a cause Refine aspect and effect this is too difficult, the focus should be on why the students think they are anxious Reading indicates not many studies using qualitative Gap in knowledge methods Use qualitative rather than quantitative methods Refine according to methodology/data Use Chinese to uncover deep perspective on speaking Strengths anxiety of this group 16 Project design TABLE 2.2 Focusing the topic, example 2 (Phil) Topic Focus Vocabulary learning Broad University of Bangkok English Department Refine based on setting EAP course Refine based on context Generate specific wordlist Refine based on outcome/aspect Of local value – University in Thailand Gap in knowledge Create a corpus of all reading texts from EAP Refine based on data course, which will be the basis of a corpus analysis Access to materials at home university Strengths Peng is very interested in anxiety. In particular, she would like to investigate why some of her students seem to get very anxious when speaking in English. After refining her topic, she decided to conduct a qualitative study on why students think they get anxious when speaking in English. Phil is interested in helping his EAP students with vocabulary in his home uni- versity in Thailand. After his reading he decided to develop a specific wordlist that students could use to help with academic writing. TASK 2.3 Focusing the dissertation topic Using the template in either Table 2.1 or Table 2.2 and the topics you identified in Task 2.2, narrow the focus of your chosen topics. 2.4 Changing topics It is important to make the final decision about the dissertation topic as soon as possible. Changing topics in the dissertation process is not a good idea. The time allocation for completion of a research-based dissertation in most master’s degrees is very short, so if a student decides to change his/her topic then this time can be greatly reduced, and the time invested in the original topic is lost. 2.5 Dissertation title The title of a master’s dissertation may change throughout the research process. However, an initial title should be drafted very early on in the research process because it provides focus for the study and is required for the proposal. The title is usually the basis for the allocation of dissertation supervisors. Titles usually can be refined based on feedback from the research proposal or refined before submitting the final dissertation. Titles typically contain information about the key concepts of the study. A good title should capture the essence of the study.Titles are best thought about in terms of  Choosing a topic 17 descriptors that can be searched. Some titles include a snazzy first clause intended to grab the reader’s attention. This is usually followed by further detail after a hyphen. Titles can include information about the purpose of the study, variables, theory, methodology, participants and the context of the study. Figure 2.1 lists the titles of highly ranked master’s dissertations from the British Council master’s dissertation competition in 2016. 1. Perceptions of fluency. (Dore, 2016) 2. Exploring culturally sensitive alternatives for the first certificate in English. (O’Donovan, 2016) 3. My friend TED: Implementing effective listening strategies into academic listening using TED talks. (Ring, 2016) 4. English language lecturers’ views on dynamic assessment and its potential in higher education: Challenging the current status quo. (Nazari, 2015) 5. Up, up and away! Taking off with SFG: An investigation into the impact of selected Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) concepts on students’ writing of a film review. (Campbell, 2016) 6. The effects of the implementation of an extensive reading programme in ELT on the reading abilities and reading habits of 12– 13 year old students. in an Austrian secondary modern school. (Hanisch, 2015) 7. An exploration of Instagram to develop ESL learners writing proficiency. (Kelly, 2015) 8. Subtitles in authentic video listening: An exploration of the benefits of captions in relation to sensory preference types. (Hicking, 2015) 9. Newspaper discourses on Andy Murray’s performance at Wimbledon: A contrastive corpus- driven investigation of successful and unsuccessful tennis match reports. (Dickson, 2015) 10. A survey of English teachers’ ability to write reading comprehension questions in classroom teaching in secondary schools in Beijing. (Jiang, 2015) FIGURE 2.1 Some examples of master’s dissertation titles 18 Project design TASK 2.4 Title construction Looking at Figure 2.1, do you have a clear idea about the topic from the title? Make comments about the titles in terms of the following aspects: Level of detail Use of hyphen Methodology Type of study, eg exploratory study Theory Variables Creativity Based on your discussion, draft some possible titles for your study. Summary This chapter has discussed the selection of a suitable topic for a master’s dissertation. The chapter proposed starting points for topic selection such as interest, previous assignments, supervisor expertise and career objectives. The chapter examined how to refine a topic based on particular foci, such as variables and context. The chapter concluded with a section on developing a dissertation title. Common mistakes in choosing a topic Choosing a topic that is too broad Choosing a topic that is too complex Changing topic during dissertation course Choosing an unfamiliar topic, for example, one not referred to during taught component Choosing a topic that requires a lengthy ethics approval process Choosing a topic with inaccessible data or participants FAQs 1 How do I choose a topic? The most common ways to help choose a topic are assignments, reading, ­personal interest, professional need and supervisor expertise. 2 Should I choose a topic that relates to a well-known name in the department? This is a common motivator for choice of topic because the input from this person will be cutting edge. But of course, the professor in question can only supervise a finite number of students. It may be the case that the professor in question has many other commitments, which means the amount of supervi- sion input may suffer. 3 Can I get my supervisor to choose my topic? Usually, no. The dissertation is designed to demonstrate independent study, so the topic must be chosen by the student. However, sometimes academics may  Choosing a topic 19 recruit students to help with a large-scale research project, and this section of the project may be used for the dissertation.This is quite rare at a master’s level in TESOL and applied linguistics. 4 Should I choose a topic that is popular in current publications? This is a good idea in principle; however, it is important that the amount of research and the prevailing research perspective in that area is considered in light of the contribution the dissertation will make to knowledge. 5 Should I choose a topic many people have done before or a very unusual topic? There is no right answer to this question.The topic needs to reflect an element of originality, which may be difficult with widely researched projects. It also needs to be important; it is possible that an unusual topic has not been investi- gated because it is not important or it is impossible to research. 6 Should I choose a topic related to my highest scoring assignment? This is a good starting point for choosing a topic, as the initial reading will have been done and assessment of the assignments will include valuable feedback. Further reading Wray and Bloomer’s (2012) book has some very good suggestions for researchable topics in linguistics and language, although not many suggestions in TESOL. Each chapter addresses a broad topic and lists sources, themes and research in the area. Bui’s (2014) book How to write a master’s thesis has a chapter devoted to select- ing a research topic. This also includes advice on generating research questions and would be a useful source when writing the dissertation proposal. References Bui,Y. N. (2014). How to write a master’s thesis (2nd ed.). Los Angeles, CA: Sage. Campbell, E. (2016). Up, up and away! Taking off with SFG: An investigation into the impact of selected Systemic Functional Grammar (SFG) concepts on students’ writing of a film review. (Master’s Dissertation), Aston University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.british- council.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_design_for_publication_2016_ aston_university.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Dickson, B. (2015). Newspaper discourses on Andy Murray’s performance at Wimbledon: A con- trastive corpus-driven investigation of successful and unsuccessful tennis match reports. (Master’s Dissertation), Stirling University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_stirling_university.pdf (Accessed 15 May, 2019) Dore, C. (2016). Perceptions of fluency. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Reading. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/disserta- tion_design_for_publication_2016_reading_university_cecilia_dore.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Hanisch, R. (2015). The effect of the implementation of an Extensive Reading Programme (ERP) in English language teaching (ELT) on the reading abilities and reading habits of 12–13 year old students in an Austrian Secondary Modern School. (Master’s Dissertation), Norwich Institute for Language Education. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/ default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_nile.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) 20 Project design Hicking, R. (2015). Subtitles in authentic video listening: An exploration of the benefits of captions in relation to sensory preference types. (Master’s Dissertation), University College, London. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attach- ments/dissertation_for_publication_ucl.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Jiang, J. (2015). A survey of English teachers’ ability to write reading comprehension questions in secondary schools in Beijing. (Master’s Dissertation), University of Warwick. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_ for_publication_warwick_university.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Kelly, R. (2015). An exploration of Instagram to develop ESL learners’ writing proficiency. (Master’s Dissertation), Ulster University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil. org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_ulster_university.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Nazari, A. (2015). English language lecturers’ views on dynamic assessment and its potential in higher education: Challenging the current status quo. (Master’s Dissertation), London Metropolitan University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/ attachments/dissertation_design_for_publication_2016_londonmetropolianuniversity. pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) O’Donovan, E. (2016). Exploring culturally sensitive alternatives for the First C ­ ertificate in English. (Master’s degree), University of Liverpool. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.­ ­ britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_for_publication_2016_­ liverpool_university.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Ring, N. M. (2016). My friend TED: Implementing effective listening strategies into academic listen- ing using TED talks. (Master’s Dissertation), Sheffield Hallam University. Retrieved from https://englishagenda.britishcouncil.org/sites/default/files/attachments/dissertation_ for_publication_sheffield_hallam_university.pdf (Accessed 30 April, 2019) Wray, A., & Bloomer, A. (2012). Projects in linguistics and language studies: A practical guide to researching language. London: Hodder Education. 3 REVIEWING THE LITERATURE A good dissertation topic arises from reviewing the literature in the field. R ­ eviewing the literature starts at the very beginning of the dissertation process and continues until the final, submission of the dissertation. The term ‘literature’ in academic parlance refers to the body of work about an academic subject. This literature is made up of textbooks, journal articles, reports, corpora etc. During the taught component of a master’s degree, reading lists of appropriate literature are usually available; however, with the dissertation, students need to devise a reading list themselves based on a literature search. It can be a dif- ficult task to select what to read, how to find sources and how to read the sources efficiently and critically. The literature review in a dissertation should be viewed from two perspectives: First, as a process, searching for the literature, recording and critiquing sources. ­Second, as a product that reflects the organisation of an argument and the writing of the literature review chapter in the dissertation.This chapter is about the process, Chapter 10 refers to writing the literature review chapter. This chapter divides reviewing the literature into three stages: stage one refers to broad reading to identify a topic using sources such as dictionaries and online sources, stage two refers to the process of finding and selecting the sources and stage three refers to reading and recording information. The chapter examines the skills needed to find the literature to support a topic from theoretical and research per- spectives. It addresses decisions concerning what to review and how to review it, and includes discussion of using internet sources and how to avoid plagiarism. TASK 3.1 What do you think is the purpose of reviewing the literature in your field? What skills are needed to review the literature? 22 Project design Provide researcher with a grounding in topic Provide an overview of the topic Identify key scholars in field Identify main research studies Identify key theories Identify main methodology and methods Find gap in knowledge FIGURE 3.1 The purposes of reviewing the literature 3.1 The purpose of the literature review In the initial project design stage of the dissertation it is valuable to consider the general purpose of reviewing the literature. Figure 3.1 lists some of the purposes the literature review fulfils. 3.2 Stage one: broad review of the literature In the first instance it is a good idea to conduct a broad review of the literature to become familiar with the topic. Introductory textbooks, general edited books, Wikipedia and subject dictionaries are useful starting points. This background reading should be for information purposes and are usually not referred to in the final dissertation because they do not match the criteria for selected literature (see Table 3.3). From there, chapters from edited books, subject encyclopaedias, chapters from handbooks and published reviews are valuable resources. Rout- ledge published an excellent range of handbooks in applied linguistics. Each of these handbooks contains a large selection of chapters on specific topics, these are state-of-the-art papers written by experts in the field. The series covers a wide range of topics in TESOL and applied linguistics, but a good starting point would  Reviewing the literature 23 be the Routledge handbook of applied linguistics (Simpson, 2011) or the Routledge handbook of English language teaching (Hall, 2016). A list of titles of these with links to the contents is in Chapter 16. Another useful source is Language Teaching, an academic journal that frequently publishes literature reviews. They include two types of articles valuable to dissertation writers at this stage: state-of-the-art articles and research timelines. With the literature review at this stage it is best to choose very recent publications as this will present current thinking in the area and relevant references to further reading. Table 3.1 outlines the types of literature that can be useful in the preliminary stages of reviewing the literature. The procedure for the first stage of the literature review has been applied to the topic of academic writing of international students. In stage one of the literature review, the aim should be to identify the major arguments, theories and methods concerned with the topic. Table 3.2 provides a template for the broad literature review. It is useful to think about the gap in knowl- edge between what you know and what you need to know, and then move on to the major characteristics of the topic in terms of theory, research and methodology. TABLE 3.1 Example of a broad literature review Area and type of source Source Definitions of academic writing www.yourdictionary.com/academic-writing Introductory textbook Charles, M., & Pecorari, D. (2016). Introducing – Good for major scholars, main English for academic purposes. Abingdon: theoretical perspectives and links to Routledge. further readings Introductory textbook on teaching Paltridge, B., Harbon, L., Hirsh, D., Shen, H., academic writing Stevenson, M., Phakiti, A., &Woodrow, L. – To identify what academic writing (2009). Teaching academic writing. Ann Arbor: is and considerations in teaching University of Michigan Press. Encyclopaedia entry (Wikipedia) https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Academic_ – For overview writing Handbook articles Starfield, S. (2016). English for specific – Good for major perspectives, theories purposes. In G. Hall (Ed.), Handbook and research of English language teaching. Abingdon: Routledge. Basturkmen, H., & Wette, R. (2016). English for academic purposes. In Hall, G. (Ed.), Routledge handbook of English language teaching. Charles, M. (2013). English for academic purposes. In B. Paltridge & S. Starfield (Eds.), The handbook of English for specific purposes. Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell. Literature review Paltridge, B. (2004). Academic writing. Language Teaching, 37(2), 87–105. 24 Project design TABLE 3.2 Template for the initial literature review Task Notes What do I know about the subject? What do I need to know? Definitions of major terms 1. 2. 3. Main scholars in field 1. 2. 3. Major theories in field Main research methodology and methods in the field List of further readings: research theory methodology methods TASK 3.2 Using Table 3.1 and Table 3.2, conduct a broad literature review of your topic. 3.2.1 Types of literature There are many possible types of literature that may be relevant to a research pro- ject. Figure 3.2 lists some of these. While this seems very large, in practice the majority of sources come from academic journals and books. encyclopaedias dictionaries handbooks statistics textbooks monographs books reports conference papers journal articles newspaper articles archives blogs corpora wordlists dissertations theses FIGURE 3.2 Types of literature  Reviewing the literature 25 It is important to be aware of the top journals in the field. The Institute for Scientific Information (ISI) publishes yearly impact factors based on citations for high ranking journals. For example, the top-ranking journal in linguistics is Applied Linguistics with an impact factor of 3.593 in 2017. While it is useful to identify top journals, not all journals subscribe to the list and in some fields there are very few ISI journals. TASK 3.3 Make a list of the top journals in your field. Are they ISI journals? Using the list, conduct a search of each journal for your topic. 3.3 Stage two: finding sources There are a few ways that sources can be found. The internet is the first place most students will look. Searching using Google will produce a very long list of sources, such as Wikipedia, books, articles and blogs, however, not all of these are suitable. After the initial broad review, reliable sources need to be selected. The best place to begin searching for literature is the university library. The first search should be of the catalogue, then the library’s databases. A database is a large collection of academic materials such as abstracts, citations, reports, articles, books and theses. Many of the databases have full-text access. Databases are very useful because the quality of the sources is assured, unlike a Google search. In TESOL and applied linguistics the databases listed in Figure 3.3 may be useful. TASK 3.4 What databases do you have access to through your university library? Experiment with search terms from your topic. What sources are available? When deciding what to read it is important to assess the reliability of the sources. The essential quality of a source is that it is peer reviewed. Peer review means that text has been evaluated by others. So, journal articles, for example, are usually reviewed by two or more experts in the field before being accepted for publication. Material on the internet – for example, Wikipedia, blogs and lecture notes – may not be peer reviewed. Consideration should be given to the authority of the source. Is the author an established expert in the field? Sometimes sources available online do not have an obvious author, these sources should not be used as there is no way of knowing whether the author is an expert in the field. The focus of the source needs to be considered: Is the source a research paper?