Anatomy Final Syllabus - Diabetes PDF

Anotomy Final Syllabus Diabetes Definition : Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels, which can lead to various complications if left untreated. Signs and Symptoms : 1. Increased thirst and hunger 2. Frequent urination 3. Fatigue 4. Blurred vision 5. Slow hea...

Anotomy Final Syllabus Diabetes Definition : Diabetes is a metabolic disorder characterized by high blood sugar levels, which can lead to various complications if left untreated. Signs and Symptoms : 1. Increased thirst and hunger 2. Frequent urination 3. Fatigue 4. Blurred vision 5. Slow healing of cuts and wounds 6. Tingling or numbness in hands and feet 7. Recurring skin, gum, or bladder infections Causes: 1. Insulin deficiency: Inability of the pancreas to produce enough insulin. 2. Insulin resistance: Body's cells become resistant to insulin, making it harder for glucose to enter cells. 3. Genetics: Family history and genetic predisposition. 4. Obesity: Excess body fat, particularly around the abdominal area. 5. Physical inactivity: Sedentary lifestyle. 6. Age: Risk increases with age, especially after 45. 7. Other medical conditions: Certain conditions, such as polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), can increase the risk of developing diabetes. Risk Factors : 1. Family history 2. Age 3. Obesity 4. Physical inactivity 5. Previous history of gestational diabetes 6. History of cardiovascular disease 7. Certain ethnicities (e.g., African American, Hispanic/Latino, American Indian) Type 1 Diabetes: 1. Definition: An autoimmune disease in which the body's immune system attacks and destroys the insulin-producing beta cells in the pancreas. 2. Symptoms: Rapid onset of symptoms, often in childhood or adolescence. 3. Treatment: Insulin therapy, via injections or an insulin pump. Type 2 Diabetes: 1. Definition: A metabolic disorder characterized by insulin resistance and impaired insulin secretion. 2. Symptoms: Gradual onset of symptoms, often in adulthood. 3. Treatment: Lifestyle changes (diet, exercise, weight loss), oral medications, and/or insulin therapy. Treatment : 1. Lifestyle changes: Healthy diet, regular exercise, weight loss, and stress management. 2. Oral medications: Metformin, sulfonylureas, meglitinides, thiazolidinediones, and SGLT- 2 inhibitors. 3. Insulin therapy: Insulin injections or an insulin pump. 4. Monitoring: Regular blood glucose monitoring and HbA1c tests. 5. Complications management: Regular check-ups and treatment for potential complications, such as cardiovascular disease, kidney disease, and nerve damage. Fasting Blood Sugar Levels Definition Fasting blood sugar (FBS) measures the level of glucose in the blood after an overnight fast of at least 8 hours. Normal Range: 1. Normal: Less than 100 mg/dL 2. Impaired Fasting Glucose (IFG): 100-125 mg/dL 3. Diabetes: 126 mg/dL or higher Factors Affecting Blood Sugar Levels : 1. Food intake: Consuming high-carbohydrate or high-sugar foods can raise blood sugar levels. 2. Physical activity: Regular exercise can lower blood sugar levels. 3. Medications: Certain medications, such as steroids and certain psychiatric medications, can raise blood sugar levels. 4. Stress: Stress can raise blood sugar levels. 5. Sleep: Poor sleep quality or duration can raise blood sugar levels. Importance of Monitoring Blood Sugar Levels : 1. Diagnosis: Monitoring blood sugar levels helps diagnose diabetes and prediabetes. 2. Treatment: Regular monitoring helps adjust treatment plans, such as medication or insulin therapy. GIT : GIT stands for Gastrointestinal Tract. Definition of GIT The Gastrointestinal Tract (GIT) is a long, hollow, muscular tube that extends from the mouth to the anus. It is responsible for the digestion, absorption, and elimination of nutrients, vitamins, and minerals from the food we eat. Functions of GIT 1. Ingestion: Taking in food through the mouth. 2. Mechanical Digestion: Breaking down food into smaller particles through chewing, mixing, and churning. 3. Chemical Digestion: Breaking down carbohydrates, proteins, and fats into simpler molecules using enzymes. 4. Absorption: Transferring nutrients, vitamins, and minerals from the digestive tract into the bloodstream. 5. Elimination: Removing waste products from the body through defecation. Components of GIT 1. Mouth 2. Esophagus 3. Stomach 4. Small intestine (duodenum, jejunum, and ileum) 5. Large intestine (colon, rectum, and anus) 6. Accessory organs (liver, pancreas, and gallbladder) Importance of GIT The Gastrointestinal Tract 1. Provides essential nutrients for energy, growth, and repair. 2. Supports immune function and defense against pathogens. 3. Regulates blood sugar levels and hormone production. 4. Maintains healthy skin, hair, and nails. 5. Influences mental health and mood. Small Intestine The small intestine, also known as the small bowel, is a long, thin, tubular structure that connects the stomach to the large intestine. It plays a crucial role in the digestion and absorption of nutrients. Different Parts of the Small Intestine The small intestine is divided into three main sections: 1. Duodenum: The first section of the small intestine, connecting the stomach to the small intestine. 2. Jejunum: The middle section of the small intestine, accounting for about 40% of the small intestine's length. 3. Ileum: The final section of the small intestine, connecting to the large intestine. Functions of Different Components Duodenum 1. Receives bile and pancreatic juice: The duodenum receives bile from the liver and gallbladder, as well as pancreatic juice from the pancreas, to facilitate fat digestion. 2. Neutralizes stomach acid: The duodenum's mucous lining helps neutralize stomach acid. 3. Absorbs iron and calcium: The duodenum is the primary site for iron and calcium absorption. Jejunum 1. Absorbs carbohydrates, proteins, and fats: The jejunum's walls are lined with finger-like projections called villi, which increase the surface area for nutrient absorption. 2. Absorbs vitamins and minerals: The jejunum absorbs various vitamins and minerals, including vitamin B12. Ileum 1. Absorbs vitamin B12 and bile salts: The ileum is responsible for absorbing vitamin B12 and bile salts, which are essential for fat digestion. 2. Stores and absorbs nutrients: The ileum stores and absorbs nutrients, including carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. Other Important Structures 1. Villi: Finger-like projections on the intestinal wall that increase the surface area for nutrient absorption. 2. Microvilli: Tiny projections on the surface of intestinal cells that further increase the surface area for nutrient absorption. 3. Peyer's patches: Lymphoid follicles in the ileum that help filter out pathogens and other foreign substances. Large Intestine The large intestine, also known as the colon, is a muscular tube that connects the small intestine to the anus. Its primary function is to absorb water, electrolytes, and vitamins, and to eliminate waste products. Components of the Large Intestine The large intestine consists of the following components: 1. Caecum: The first part of the large intestine, connecting to the small intestine. 2. Ascending colon: The part of the colon that ascends upwards from the caecum. 3. Transverse colon: The part of the colon that crosses the abdominal cavity. 4. Descending colon: The part of the colon that descends downwards towards the rectum. 5. Sigmoid colon: The S-shaped part of the colon that connects to the rectum. 6. Rectum: The final part of the large intestine, storing stool until elimination. 7. Anus: The opening at the end of the rectum, through which stool is eliminated. Functions of Different Components Each component of the large intestine has specific functions: 1. Caecum: Receives feces from the small intestine and absorbs water and electrolytes. 2. Ascending colon: Absorbs water, electrolytes, and vitamins, and mixes the feces with mucus. 3. Transverse colon: Continues to absorb water and electrolytes, and stores feces. 4. Descending colon: Further absorbs water and electrolytes, and stores feces. 5. Sigmoid colon: Stores feces and eliminates gas. 6. Rectum: Stores stool until elimination and helps maintain continence. 7. Anus: Eliminates stool through the anal sphincter. Other Important Functions The large intestine also performs other important functions: 1. Water absorption: The large intestine absorbs water, helping to concentrate the feces. 2. Electrolyte absorption: The large intestine absorbs electrolytes, such as potassium, sodium, and chloride. 3. Vitamin production: The large intestine is home to a diverse community of microorganisms that produce certain vitamins, such as vitamin K and biotin. 4. Waste elimination: The large intestine eliminates waste products, including undigested carbohydrates, proteins, and fats. STOMACH Anatomy The stomach is a hollow, muscular, and sac-like organ located in the upper left quadrant of the abdominal cavity, just below the diaphragm. It connects the esophagus to the small intestine. Layers The stomach wall consists of four layers: 1. Mucosa: Innermost layer, containing glands that secrete digestive enzymes and mucus. 2. Submucosa: Layer of connective tissue beneath the mucosa, containing blood vessels and nerves. 3. Muscularis: Layer of smooth muscle that contracts and relaxes to mix food with digestive juices. 4. Serosa: Outermost layer, a thin membrane that surrounds the stomach. Function 1. Mechanical digestion: Mixing food with digestive juices through muscular contractions. 2. Chemical digestion: Secretion of digestive enzymes (pepsin, gastric amylase) to break down proteins and carbohydrates. 3. Storage: Holding food for several hours to allow for digestion. 4. Absorption: Absorbing some nutrients, such as alcohol and certain medications. Blood Supply 1. Left gastric artery: Branch of the celiac trunk. 2. Right gastric artery: Branch of the hepatic artery. 3. Gastroepiploic arteries: Branches of the gastroduodenal artery. 4. Short gastric arteries: Branches of the splenic artery. Nerve Supply 1. Vagus nerve: Provides parasympathetic innervation, stimulating digestion. 2. Sympathetic nerves: Provide sympathetic innervation, inhibiting digestion. 3. Enteric nervous system: A network of neurons that regulates digestive functions. Chemical digestion in the stomach involves the breakdown of proteins and fats into smaller molecules using digestive enzymes and acids. Digestive Enzymes and Acids 1. Pepsin: A proteolytic enzyme that breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids. 2. Gastric amylase: A carbohydrate-digesting enzyme that breaks down starches into simple sugars. 3. Gastric lipase: A fat-digesting enzyme that breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. 4. Hydrochloric acid (HCl): A strong acid that maintains the stomach's acidic pH, denatures proteins, and activates pepsin. Process of Chemical Digestion 1. Food enters the stomach: Food from the esophagus enters the stomach, where it's mixed with digestive enzymes and acids. 2. Pepsin activation: HCl activates pepsin, which breaks down proteins into peptides and amino acids. 3. Protein denaturation: HCl denatures proteins, making them more accessible to pepsin. 4. Carbohydrate digestion: Gastric amylase breaks down starches into simple sugars. 5. Fat digestion: Gastric lipase breaks down triglycerides into fatty acids and glycerol. 6. Chyme formation: The partially digested food mixture, now called chyme, is formed. Alzheimer's disease and dementia: Alzheimer's Disease Definition Alzheimer's disease is a progressive neurological disorder that affects memory, thinking, and behavior. It is the most common form of dementia, accounting for 60-80% of dementia cases. Signs and Symptoms 1. Memory loss: Forgetting recent events, learning new information, or recalling familiar words and names. 2. Communication difficulties: Trouble finding the right words, following conversations, or understanding written or spoken language. 3. Problem-solving difficulties: Trouble with abstract thinking, making decisions, or judging time and space. 4. Mood changes: Becoming easily agitated, anxious, or depressed. 5. Personality changes: Becoming passive, suspicious, or withdrawn. 6. Disorientation: Trouble understanding the time, date, or location. 7. Motor function decline: Trouble with coordination, balance, or movement. Causes 1. Genetics: Family history and genetic mutations (e.g., APP, PS1, and APOE). 2. Age: Risk increases with age, especially after 65. 3. Lifestyle factors: Sedentary lifestyle, poor diet, and lack of cognitive stimulation. 4. Medical conditions: Diabetes, hypertension, high cholesterol, and cardiovascular disease. Treatment 1. Medications: Cholinesterase inhibitors (e.g., donepezil) and memantine to manage symptoms. 2. Cognitive training: Programs to improve memory, attention, and cognitive function. 3. Behavioral therapy: Techniques to manage behavioral symptoms, such as agitation and aggression. 4. Support and care: Assistance with daily activities, social support, and respite care. Dementia Definition Dementia is a broad term describing a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, difficulty with communication, problem-solving, and other thinking abilities. Signs and Symptoms Similar to Alzheimer's disease, including: 1. Memory loss 2. Communication difficulties 3. Problem-solving difficulties 4. Mood changes 5. Personality changes 6. Disorientation 7. Motor function decline Causes 1. Alzheimer's disease: The most common cause of dementia. 2. Vascular dementia: Caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, often due to stroke or small vessel disease. 3. Lewy body dementia: Characterized by abnormal protein clumps in the brain. 4. Frontotemporal dementia: A group of diseases affecting the front and temporal lobes of the brain. 5. Mixed dementia: A combination of Alzheimer's disease and another type of dementia. Treatment 1. Medications: Similar to Alzheimer's disease, including cholinesterase inhibitors and memantine. 2. Cognitive training: Programs to improve memory, attention, and cognitive function. 3. Behavioral therapy: Techniques to manage behavioral symptoms, such as agitation and aggression. 4. Support and care: Assistance with daily activities, social support. Parkinson's disease: Definition Parkinson's disease is a progressive neurological disorder that affects movement, balance, and coordination. It is characterized by the death of nerve cells (neurons) in the brain that produce dopamine, a neurotransmitter that regulates movement. Signs and Symptoms 1. Tremors: Shaking or trembling of hands, arms, legs, or jaw 2. Rigidity: Stiffness and inflexibility of muscles 3. Bradykinesia: Slowness of movement 4. Postural instability: Impaired balance and coordination 5. Dyskinesia: Involuntary movements 6. Dystonia: Abnormal postures or movements 7. Cognitive impairment: Memory loss, confusion, and difficulty with problem-solving 8. Mood changes: Depression, anxiety, and mood swings 9. Sleep disturbances: Insomnia, daytime fatigue, and restless leg syndrome 10. Autonomic dysfunction: Constipation, urinary incontinence, and orthostatic hypotension Causes 1. Genetics: Mutations in genes such as SNCA, PARK2, and DJ-1 2. Environmental factors: Exposure to pesticides, heavy metals, and other toxins 3. Age: Risk increases with age, especially after 60 4. Brain injury: Traumatic brain injury or stroke Risk Factors 1. Family history: Having a first-degree relative with Parkinson's disease 2. Age: Increasing age, especially after 60 3. Sex: Men are more likely to develop Parkinson's disease than women 4. Head injury: Traumatic brain injury or stroke 5. Pesticide exposure: Exposure to pesticides, such as organophosphates Treatment 1. Medications: Dopamine replacement therapy (levodopa, dopamine agonists), MAO-B inhibitors, COMT inhibitors, and anticholinergics 2. Deep brain stimulation: Surgical implantation of an electrode in the brain to stimulate dopamine production 3. Physical therapy: Exercise programs to improve mobility, balance, and strength 4. Occupational therapy: Strategies to improve daily functioning and independence 5. Speech therapy: Techniques to improve communication and address speech difficulties 6. Lifestyle modifications: Regular exercise, balanced diet, stress management, and adequate sleep Note: While there is no cure for Parkinson's disease, early diagnosis and treatment can significantly improve symptoms and quality of life. Dementia Definition Dementia is a broad term that describes a decline in cognitive function, including memory loss, difficulty with communication, problem-solving, and judgment. It is a syndrome, not a disease, and is caused by various underlying factors. Signs and Symptoms 1. Memory Loss: Forgetting recent events, conversations, or learning new information. 2. Communication and Language: Difficulty finding the right words, following conversations, or understanding written or spoken language. 3. Problem-Solving and Judgment: Trouble with abstract thinking, making decisions, or judging time and space. 4. Mood Changes: Becoming easily agitated, anxious, or depressed. 5. Personality Changes: Becoming passive, suspicious, or withdrawn. 6. Disorientation: Difficulty understanding the time, place, or situation. 7. Motor Function: Trouble with coordination, balance, or movement. Causes 1. Alzheimer's Disease: The most common cause of dementia, accounting for 60-80% of cases. 2. Vascular Dementia: Caused by reduced blood flow to the brain, often due to a series of small strokes. 3. Lewy Body Dementia: Characterized by abnormal protein clumps in the brain. 4. Frontotemporal Dementia: A group of diseases that affect the front and temporal lobes of the brain. 5. Mixed Dementia: A combination of Alzheimer's disease and another type of dementia. Treatmen While there is no cure for dementia, various treatments can help manage symptoms, slow disease progression, and improve quality of life. Medications 1. Cholinesterase Inhibitors: Donepezil (Aricept), rivastigmine (Exelon), and galantamine (Razadyne) can help improve cognitive function. 2. Memantine: Can help slow disease progression in moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease. Structure and functions of Brain Different parts of the brain and their functions: Cerebrum The cerebrum is the largest part of the brain, responsible for processing sensory information, controlling movement, and managing higher-level cognitive functions. Cerebral Cortex The cerebral cortex is the outer layer of the cerebrum, responsible for: 1. Sensory perception: Interpreting sensory information from the environment. 2. Motor control: Coordinating voluntary movements. 3. Cognitive functions: Managing thought, emotion, and memory. Basal Ganglia The basal ganglia are a group of structures deep within the cerebrum, involved in: 1. Movement control: Regulating voluntary movements. 2. Habit formation: Facilitating the formation of habits. Hippocampus The hippocampus is a structure within the temporal lobe, essential for: 1. Memory formation: Consolidating new memories. 2. Spatial navigation: Helping to navigate through spaces. Cerebellum The cerebellum is located at the base of the brain, responsible for: 1. Motor coordination: Coordinating movements. 2. Balance and posture: Maintaining balance and posture. 3. Learning new motor skills: Facilitating the learning of new motor skills. Brainstem The brainstem connects the cerebrum to the spinal cord, responsible for: 1. Regulating vital functions: Controlling breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. 2. Arousal and alertness: Regulating levels of consciousness. 3. Pain modulation: Processing and regulating pain. Midbrain The midbrain is the upper part of the brainstem, involved in: 1. Auditory and visual processing: Processing auditory and visual information. 2. Eye movement control: Coordinating eye movements. Pons The pons is the middle part of the brainstem, responsible for: 1. Sleep and arousal: Regulating sleep and wakefulness. 2. Pain modulation: Processing and regulating pain. Medulla Oblongata The medulla oblongata is the lower part of the brainstem, responsible for: 1. Regulating vital functions: Controlling breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure. 2. Swallowing and digestion: Coordinating swallowing and digestion. Other Structures Other important brain structures include: 1. Amygdala: Processing emotions, such as fear and anxiety. 2. Hypothalamus: Regulating body temperature, hunger, and thirst. 3. Thalamus: Relaying sensory information to the cerebral cortex. 4. Pineal gland: Producing melatonin, regulating sleep-wake cycles. Functions of brain 1. Controls Movement and Balance: The brain sends signals to muscles to move and maintain balance. It coordinates physical actions and reflexes. 2. Enables Thought and Reasoning: The brain processes information, enables problem-solving, and facilitates decision-making. 3. Regulates Emotions and Mood: The brain manages emotions, influencing mood, motivation, and emotional responses. 4. Facilitates Learning and Memory: The brain absorbs, stores, and retrieves information, enabling learning and memory. 5. Processes Sensory Information: The brain interprets sensory data from sight, sound, touch, taste, and smell, helping us understand the world. Structure and Function of Neurons: Structure of a Neuron 1. Dendrites: Branching extensions that receive signals from other neurons. 2. Cell Body (Soma): The central part of the neuron where the cell's genetic material is located. 3. Axon: A long, thin extension that carries signals away from the cell body to other neurons, muscles, or glands. 4. Axon Terminals: The ends of the axon where signals are transmitted to other neurons. 5. Myelin Sheath: A fatty, insulating layer that surrounds the axon, facilitating the transmission of signals. 6. Nodes of Ranvier: Gaps in the myelin sheath where the axon is exposed, allowing for rapid transmission of signals. Function of a Neuron 1. Signal Reception: Dendrites receive signals from other neurons through synapses. 2. Signal Integration: The cell body integrates the signals received from dendrites, determining whether to generate an action potential. 3. Action Potential: If the integrated signal is strong enough, the neuron generates an action potential, a brief electrical impulse that travels down the axon. 4. Signal Transmission: The action potential reaches the axon terminals, releasing neurotransmitters into the synapse. 5. Signal Termination: The neurotransmitters bind to receptors on adjacent neurons, transmitting the signal. Types of Neurons 1. Sensory Neurons: Transmit signals from sensory receptors to the central nervous system. 2. Motor Neurons: Transmit signals from the central nervous system to muscles or glands. 3. Interneurons: Process and integrate information within the central nervous system. Neurotransmitters 1. Excitatory Neurotransmitters: Increase the likelihood of an action potential (e.g., glutamate, aspartate). 2. Inhibitory Neurotransmitters: Decrease the likelihood of an action potential (e.g., GABA, glycine). Neurons are the fundamental building blocks of the nervous system, and their structure and function enable the transmission and processing of information throughout the body. Spinal Vertebra: Here are the main parts of the spinal vertebra: 1. Body: The main weight-bearing part of the vertebra. 2. Vertebral Arch: The bony structure that forms the posterior (back) part of the vertebra. 3. Spinous Process: The bony projection at the back of the vertebra. 4. Transverse Processes: The bony projections on either side of the vertebra. 5. Articular Processes: The joints that connect the vertebra to adjacent vertebrae. 6. Vertebral Foramen: The opening through which the spinal cord passes. The spinal vertebrae, including their names and distribution: Cervical Vertebrae (7) 1. C1 (Atlas) 2. C2 (Axis) 3. C3 4. C4 5. C5 6. C6 7. C7 (Vertebra Prominens) Thoracic Vertebrae (12) 1. T1 2. T2 3. T3 4. T4 5. T5 6. T6 7. T7 8. T8 9. T9 10. T10 11. T11 12. T12 Lumbar Vertebrae (5) 1. L1 2. L2 3. L3 4. L4 5. L5 Sacrum (5 fused vertebrae) 1. S1 2. S2 3. S3 4. S4 5. S5 Coccyx (4 fused vertebrae) 1. Co1 2. Co2 3. Co3 4. Co4 The spinal vertebrae are distributed along the spinal column, providing support, flexibility, and protection for the spinal cord. Cranial Nerves 12 cranial nerves, their types, functions, and sources: Cranial Nerves 1. Olfactory Nerve (I) - Type: Sensory - Function: Smell and odor detection - Source: Olfactory receptors in the nasal cavity 2. Optic Nerve (II) - Type: Sensory - Function: Vision - Source: Retina of the eye 3. Oculomotor Nerve (III) - Type: Motor - Function: Eye movement, pupil constriction, and lens accommodation - Source: Midbrain 4. Trochlear Nerve (IV) - Type: Motor - Function: Eye movement (superior oblique muscle) - Source: Midbrain 5. Trigeminal Nerve (V) - Type: Mixed (sensory and motor) - Function: Facial sensation, chewing, and swallowing - Source: Pons 6. Abducens Nerve (VI) - Type: Motor - Function: Eye movement (lateral rectus muscle) - Source: Pons 7. Facial Nerve (VII) - Type: Mixed (sensory and motor) - Function: Facial expression, taste, and hearing - Source: Pons 8. Auditory/Vestibular Nerve (VIII) - Type: Sensory - Function: Hearing and balance - Source: Inner ear 9. Glossopharyngeal Nerve (IX) - Type: Mixed (sensory and motor) - Function: Swallowing, taste, and salivation - Source: Medulla oblongata 10. Vagus Nerve (X) - Type: Mixed (sensory and motor) - Function: Various functions, including swallowing, speech, and visceral innervation - Source: Medulla oblongata 11. Spinal Accessory Nerve (XI) - Type: Motor - Function: Neck and shoulder movement - Source: Spinal cord (C1-C5) and medulla oblongata 12. Hypoglossal Nerve (XII) - Type: Motor - Function: Tongue movement - Source: Medulla oblongata These cranial nerves emerge directly from the brain and play crucial roles in controlling various functions, including sensation, movement, and visceral activities. Heart Structure of the Heart 1. Pericardium: A double-layered membrane that surrounds and protects the heart. 2. Myocardium: The muscular layer of the heart, responsible for contraction and pumping blood. 3. Endocardium: The innermost layer of the heart, lining the chambers and valves. 4. Septum: A wall of tissue that separates the left and right sides of the heart. 5. Atria: The upper chambers of the heart that receive blood from the veins. 6. Ventricles: The lower chambers of the heart that pump blood out of the heart and into the arteries. 7. Valves: Structures that control the flow of blood between the chambers and out of the heart. Function of the Heart 1. Pumping Blood: The heart pumps blood throughout the body, supplying oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs. 2. Regulating Blood Pressure: The heart helps regulate blood pressure by adjusting the amount of blood pumped and the resistance in the blood vessels. 3. Maintaining Circulation: The heart ensures that blood circulates properly throughout the body, delivering oxygen and nutrients to tissues and organs. Systemic and Pulmonary circulation: Systemic Circulation Systemic circulation refers to the part of the circulatory system where oxygenated blood from the lungs is pumped throughout the body by the left ventricle of the heart. Pathway 1. Oxygenated blood from the lungs returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. 2. The blood then flows into the left ventricle. 3. The left ventricle pumps the blood into the aorta, the largest artery in the body. 4. The aorta branches into smaller arteries, which distribute the oxygenated blood to the rest of the body. 5. The oxygenated blood is delivered to the body's tissues and organs through capillaries. 6. Deoxygenated blood returns to the heart through the venous system. Pulmonary Circulation Pulmonary circulation refers to the part of the circulatory system where deoxygenated blood from the body is pumped to the lungs to pick up oxygen and release carbon dioxide. Pathway 1. Deoxygenated blood from the body returns to the right atrium through the venous system. 2. The blood then flows into the right ventricle. 3. The right ventricle pumps the blood into the pulmonary artery, which carries the blood to the lungs. 4. In the lungs, the blood picks up oxygen and releases carbon dioxide through the process of gas exchange. 5. Oxygenated blood returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary veins. Valves of the heart and their functions: Heart Valves The heart has four valves that ensure blood flows in one direction and prevent backflow. Each valve has a specific function: 1. Tricuspid Valve - Location: Between the right atrium and right ventricle - Function: Allows blood to flow from the right atrium into the right ventricle while preventing backflow 2. Pulmonary Valve - Location: Between the right ventricle and pulmonary artery - Function: Allows blood to flow from the right ventricle into the pulmonary artery while preventing backflow 3. Mitral Valve - Location: Between the left atrium and left ventricle - Function: Allows blood to flow from the left atrium into the left ventricle while preventing backflow 4. Aortic Valve - Location: Between the left ventricle and aorta - Function: Allows blood to flow from the left ventricle into the aorta while preventing backflow Valve Function The heart valves work together to ensure efficient blood flow: 1. Blood flows into the atria: Blood enters the heart through the superior and inferior vena cava into the right atrium and through the pulmonary veins into the left atrium. 2. Atrioventricular valves open: The tricuspid and mitral valves open, allowing blood to flow from the atria into the ventricles. 3. Ventricles contract: The ventricles contract, pumping blood through the semilunar valves (pulmonary and aortic) into the pulmonary artery and aorta. 4. Semilunar valves open: The pulmonary and aortic valves open, allowing blood to flow out of the heart. 5. Valves close: The atrioventricular and semilunar valves close, preventing backflow and ensuring blood flows in one direction. Blood pressure and its normal values: Definition of Blood Pressure Blood pressure is the force exerted by blood against the walls of blood vessels, particularly arteries. It is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is expressed as two numbers: 1. Systolic Blood Pressure (SBP): The pressure in the arteries when the heart beats. 2. Diastolic Blood Pressure (DBP): The pressure in the arteries between beats. Normal Values of Blood Pressure The American Heart Association (AHA) defines the following blood pressure categories: 1. Normal Blood Pressure: Less than 120/80 mmHg 2. Elevated Blood Pressure: 120-129/80 mmHg 3. Stage 1 Hypertension: 130-139/80-89 mmHg 4. Stage 2 Hypertension: 140 or higher/90 or higher mmHg Factors Affecting Blood Pressure 1. Age: Blood pressure tends to increase with age. 2. Physical activity: Regular exercise can help lower blood pressure. 3. Diet: Consuming a healthy diet low in sodium and rich in fruits, vegetables, and whole grains can help lower blood pressure. 4. Stress: Chronic stress can contribute to high blood pressure. 5. Sleep: Poor sleep quality and duration can affect blood pressure. 6. Family history: A family history of hypertension can increase an individual's risk. Measuring Blood Pressure Blood pressure can be measured using: 1. Sphygmomanometer: A manual or digital device that uses a cuff to measure blood pressure. 2. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring: A portable device that measures blood pressure at regular intervals over a 24-hour period. 3. Home blood pressure monitoring: Self-measurement of blood pressure using a personal device. Hypertension Definition of Hypertension Hypertension, also known as high blood pressure, is a medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is persistently elevated. Blood pressure is measured in millimeters of mercury (mmHg) and is expressed as two numbers: Classification of Hypertension The American Heart Association (AHA) classifies hypertension into the following categories: 1. Normal Blood Pressure: Less than 120/80 mmHg 2. Elevated Blood Pressure: 120-129/80 mmHg 3. Stage 1 Hypertension: 130-139/80-89 mmHg 4. Stage 2 Hypertension: 140 or higher/90 or higher mmHg Types of Hypertension 1. Primary (Essential) Hypertension: High blood pressure with no identifiable cause, accounting for 90-95% of cases. 2. Secondary Hypertension: High blood pressure caused by an underlying medical condition, such as kidney disease, sleep apnea, or adrenal gland tumors. 3. Malignant Hypertension: A rare and severe form of hypertension that can cause damage to organs such as the kidneys, heart, and eyes. 4. Resistant Hypertension: High blood pressure that does not respond to treatment with standard medications and lifestyle changes. 5. White Coat Hypertension: High blood pressure that occurs only in a clinical setting, such as a doctor's office. 6. Masked Hypertension: High blood pressure that is not detected in a clinical setting, but is present in other settings, such as at home. Hyperthyroidism and Hypothyroidism: Hyperthyroidism 1. Definition: A condition where the thyroid gland produces excessive amounts of thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). 2. Causes: 1. Graves' disease (autoimmune disorder) 2. Thyroid nodules or tumors 3. Thyroiditis (inflammation of the thyroid gland) 4. Excessive iodine intake 3. Symptoms: 1. Weight loss 2. Rapid heartbeat 3. Nervousness or irritability 4. Fatigue 5. Heat intolerance 6. Changes in menstrual cycle 7. Enlargement of the thyroid gland (goiter) 4. Treatment: 1. Medications to reduce thyroid hormone production 2. Radioactive iodine to destroy part of the thyroid gland 3. Surgery to remove part or all of the thyroid gland Hypothyroidism 1. Definition: A condition where the thyroid gland does not produce enough thyroid hormones (T3 and T4). 2. Causes: 1. Hashimoto's thyroiditis (autoimmune disorder) 2. Thyroid surgery or radiation therapy 3. Iodine deficiency 4. Pituitary gland disorders 3. Symptoms: 1. Fatigue or lethargy 2. Weight gain 3. Cold intolerance 4. Dry skin 5. Hair loss 6. Constipation 7. Depression or memory problems 4. Treatment: 1. Thyroid hormone replacement medications (T4 and T3) 2. Regular monitoring of thyroid hormone levels Thyroid Gland 1. Location: Anterior (front) part of the neck. 2. Position: Below the larynx (voice box) and above the trachea (windpipe). 3. Shape: Butterfly-shaped, with two lobes (right and left) connected by an isthmus. Thyroid Gland Hormones 1. Triiodothyronine (T3): Regulates metabolism, growth, and development. 2. Thyroxine (T4): Converted to T3 in the body, regulates metabolism, growth, and development. 3. Calcitonin: Regulates calcium levels in the blood, helps maintain bone density.  Parathyroid Glands 1. Location: Posterior (back) part of the neck. 2. Position: Embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. 3. Number: Typically four glands, two on each side of the thyroid gland. 4. Shape: Small, oval-shaped glands. Parathyroid Gland Hormones 1. Parathyroid Hormone (PTH): Regulates calcium levels in the blood, helps maintain bone density. - Increases calcium levels by stimulating calcium release from bones. - Increases calcium absorption from the gut. - Decreases calcium excretion in the urine. Diabetes Insipidus Definition Diabetes insipidus (DI) is a rare disorder characterized by excessive thirst and urination due to insufficient antidiuretic hormone (ADH) production or impaired kidney response to ADH. Signs and Symptoms 1. Polyuria: Excessive urination (more than 3 liters per day) 2. Polydipsia: Excessive thirst 3. Nocturia: Frequent urination at night 4. Dehydration: Dry mouth, dark urine, and decreased urine output 5. Headaches 6. Fatigue Treatment 1. Desmopressin: A synthetic ADH replacement hormone, administered orally, intranasally, or via injection. 2. Fluid replacement: Drinking plenty of water to prevent dehydration. 3. Low-sodium diet: Reducing sodium intake to minimize urine production. 4. Monitoring: Regular check-ups to adjust treatment and monitor kidney function. Normal Heart Sounds 1. S1 (First Heart Sound): A low-pitched "lub" sound, heard at the beginning of systole (contraction), caused by the closure of the mitral and tricuspid valves. 2. S2 (Second Heart Sound): A high-pitched "dub" sound, heard at the end of systole, caused by the closure of the aortic and pulmonary valves. Abnormal Heart Sounds 1. S3 (Third Heart Sound): A low-pitched sound, heard after S2, indicating ventricular volume overload or heart failure. 2. S4 (Fourth Heart Sound): A low-pitched sound, heard before S1, indicating atrial contraction into a stiff ventricle. 3. Murmurs: Abnormal sounds heard between S1 and S2 or between S2 and S1, indicating turbulent blood flow or valve problems. 4. Clicks: High-pitched sounds heard during systole, indicating valve problems or other cardiac abnormalities. 5. Gallop Rhythm: A rhythm with three distinct sounds (S1, S2, and S3), indicating heart failure or ventricular volume overload. Created By Asad Khokher