Document 10.pdf - Climate Change and Sustainable Development

make me a reviewer UN, through the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals, has set programs and activities that can help countries work for their sustainability until 2030, and beyond. Summits and conferences on sustainable development were initiated and conducted. Nonetheles...

make me a reviewer UN, through the Millennium Development Goals and Sustainable Development Goals, has set programs and activities that can help countries work for their sustainability until 2030, and beyond. Summits and conferences on sustainable development were initiated and conducted. Nonetheless, the real work for the realization of sustainable development is left to every country or society. It is notable that there are barriers to such development that are relative to climate change. These challenges could be political and bureaucratic, demographic, and technological in nature. Climate Change and Political and Bureaucratic Barrier Change can create opportunities for development or can threaten the existing status of any country or society. It pushes leaders and citizens to plan and design programs and activities that are adaptive, responsive, and resilient to such change. However, leaders and institutions oftentimes work and defend the status quo, and are against change. Richard and Hammill (2009) claimed that “Change always has the potential to put existing skills, careers, profit, and budgets at risk.” And they observed that “institutions are one source of resistance to change. Leadership is another obstacle. For example, while the world has become more interconnected, it is not clear that global governance has kept pace and is able to manage and direct global affairs” (Richard and Hammill 2009). Change is inevitable and certain. But, oftentimes, even with the use of modern technology, the time of its occurrence is unpredictable. For leaders and citizens of a country, including its institutions, “are not sure how a proposed change will play out and affect them, they may therefore prefer the imperfect world they know to the uncertain world being proposed” (Richard and Hammill 2009). The United Nations even claimed that there is difficulty in “finding effective ways to manage and protect the world's natural resources and ecosystems, and to promote sustainable development. On these issues, no trusted leadership has yet emerged; and part of the explanation for this may be that there are too many actors with sophisticated skills and hence too many opportunities to challenge and disrupt global governance” (Richard and Hammill 2009). One reality that is ever changing is climate. The unpredictability can cause uncertainty to leadership and the life of people. It means that climate change “could amplify political constraints by introducing higher levels of instability into many regions of the world and pushing fragile states towards failure” (Richard and Hammill 2009). The IPCC (2007) affirmed that climate change could adversely affect international security. Even the statement of the Military Advisory Board, on National Security recognized the risks of climate change. The Board claimed that manifestations of climate change threaten instability in some volatile countries or societies. Such instability causes tensions in these places among the political leaders, and their constituents. Thus, climate change may cause weak countries and societies to collapse, and it may escalate more disasters, conflict, and other security concerns. In such situation, there is difficulty to work for the realization and attainment of sustainable development, particularly in more challenged and developing countries and societies. From a political perspective it is difficult to design and implement sustainable development programs and policies. Richard and Hammill manifested what German Advisory Council on Global Change's report that climate change is seen as a security risk. The Council asserted that Climate change will overstretch many societies' adaptive capacities within the coming decades. [There are] conflict of ‘conflict constellations’ related to climate change centered on the degradation of fresh water, decline in food production, increase in storm and flood disasters, and environmentally induced migration - all in climate- sensitive areas that lack the capacity to manage these challenges (Richard and Hammill 2009). International governing institutions and domestic leadership should fuse in crafting and implementing vital programs and activities as a response to climate change. Let the people participate in the implementation of the programs. Collective consciousness and shared responsibility must be made among all stakeholders, the government leaders, citizens, all sectors of the society including non-governmental institutions and organizations. But, government leaders should manifest their will to work for sustainable development in spite of the challenges and threats brought about by the climate change. Climate change must not become an opportunity for self-serving act, but for sustainability. Climate Change and Demographic Challenges to Sustainable Development Sustainable development is always connected with people in their concrete experiences including their existential concerns, mindset on climate change, traditions, and beliefs on natural phenomena. But it is also very important to note that human ecology becomes a source of challenges for the attainment of sustainable development particularly for people who live in poverty. Based on the data from Worldometer, there are already 7.9 billion people in the world as of January 2022. 4.3 billion people live in urban areas and about 3.6 billion live in rural regions. (https://www.worldometers.info/world-population/), and most of them have entered the lower socio-economic levels. The fast growth of population would mean more and more children are born into poverty in challenged countries or societies. The continuous flow of population will certainly affect and offset the gains in poverty reduction. If the fast growth of population continues, there will be a tremendous increase in number of people who will live poor. And other problems such as flooding, poor sanitation, and pollution will have negative effects on people living in poverty. Such situation affects the viability of long-term programs and activities for sustainable development in that country or society. Moreover, these programs and activities are not only limited in rural areas, but also in urban territories where there is over population. Richard and Hammill (2009) pointed out that: As the raw number of desperately poor has proved difficult to contain, their conditions are changing as urbanization is taking place at a rate of 2.2 per cent globally. Consequently, poverty alleviation today needs to be as focused on urban challenges as on rural ones, as vast megacities take shape in the developing world. The growth of population may not hinder sustainable development; but it may slow down the development. It makes the programs and activities difficulty to implement. Urbanization rises even before the master plan has been crafted. The immediate demand for more new services specially health care and social security systems affects the attainment of the sustainable development goals. On the one hand, climate change has negative impact on on agricultural livelihoods through drought or flooding or rising of sea levels. It may cause possible displacement of people whether temporarily or permanently. It may fasten the rate of urbanization. It may also act to increase the vulnerability of the poor to climate risk - especially if they respond to climate stress by moving into prone areas or regions (Richard and Hammill 2009). Climate change with its concrete manifestation such as drought, flooding, heat waves and severe weather events, disruption of regular seasons and microbial invaders, may possibly threaten countries or societies, and bring people into a cycle of disaster. This environment condition brought about by climate change make sustainable development difficult to achieve. Climate Change and Technological Obstacles to Sustainable Development Technology and new technological advancements have fostered easier communication between and among people. Easier and faster access to information have been possible. Technology pushes people to engage more on research and innovation. Technology prevents deterioration, contamination, and other negative environmental impacts through its use or production. Technology will help us use and reuse our resources in efficient manner. And the tools of sustainable development such as “economic instruments, legislative measures and consumer pressures, are aimed at achieving technological changes such as recycling, waste minimization, substitution of materials, changed production processes, pollution control and more efficient usage of resources” (Beder 2000). The importance of technology to sustainable development cannot conceal the other side of it. It is notable that the technological changes of recent years especially the micro- electronic revolution constitute a form of global change with double-edged results. On the one hand, cheap, high-speed technologies have increased connectedness, allowed ideas and information to be shared, empowered millions of people, and fostered easier, faster and more efficient transportation of goods and services around the globe. Nonetheless, such technological atmosphere also deepens the sense of grievance and injustice in some parts of the world. It accommodates and facilitates the exploitation of the poor, the displacement of pollution into the environments of the poor, the migration of the poor, and the mobilization of the poor into violence and criminal activity (Richard and Hammill 2009). Technology breathes forth innovation that can help leaders craft and implement their developmental plans and activities. Innovative technologies also help people particularly the leaders to be responsive to climate change. However, there is still very slow paced of poverty reduction, fast decreasing of resources particularly natural resources, and environmental degradation. Sustainable development needs to become climate sensitive. It must be noted that the two goals of reducing poverty and avoiding global environment catastrophe are vital concerns today in the global climate change. We might observe that climate change creates opportunities for technological and institutional innovations that will foster sustainable development, but we have to recognize also that some challenges become barriers and slow down the pace of sustainable development. Leadership of international and national government should craft development activities to be implemented for the reduction of risks and threats in the communities. They should also improve the capacity and capabilities of their people so that they can help respond climate change. This work is not only given to the leaders, but also to the people. As they partake from the decision- making in crafting plans, programs and activities of sustainable development, they should also be part of the implementation. Thus, leaders should coordinate all efforts of all sectors of the people and integrate them into sustainable development. COVID-19 Pandemic: A Barrier towards Sustainable Development The pandemic caused by COVID-19 has affected our planet. The pandemic has become a powerful source of fear and uncertainty among people, and leaders around the globe. Its negative effects are devastating and have caused the world economy to pause or even stop. Businesses were closed, and unemployment has increased. Death is everywhere. Nonetheless, such health condition has become an opportunity for others to thrive and gain more profit that ever. Let us now look into the UN’s Sustainable Development Goals Report (2021) relative to the effects of the pandemic to the sustainable development, and the measures that were made responsive to the health condition during this pandemic. See the full report here:https://unstats.un.org/sdgs/report/2021/The-Sustainable- Development-Goals-Report-2021.pdf One of the issues and concerns that UN includes in the Sustainable Development Goals is climate change. Leaders of countries and international institutions and organizations are looking into this issue and its related concerns. Richard and Hammill (2009) asserted that the “threats and other challenges associated with climate change bolster the case for sustainable development, climate change impacts will tend to intensify the forces that, for decades, have constrained or obstructed progress towards sustainable development in many parts of the world.” The goals set by the United Nations were not exempted from criticisms. The MDGs were instrumental to the advancements and enhancements of poverty level, increased aid from developed, rich and industrial countries, and the promotion of participation of people (UNGA2011A; UNDP 2011) (Miyazawa 2012). Nonetheless, issues and concerns in the developed and rich countries were not given much attention. It was also noted that the real needs in recipient countries, especially the marginalized populations were not in the list of priorities. Even the utilization of a donor-driven design was also neglected. It must be noted that the present Millennium Development Goals seem not to directly and explicitly address and responsive to the perennial issues and problems of climate change, energy security, loss of biodiversity, disaster risk reduction, and preparedness and resilience, specific forest issues like deforestation and flooding. The Sustainable Development Goals are focused on addressing the shortcomings and challenges in the Millennium Development Goals, and broaden their goals to reflect other SD objectives, as already agreed to by governments. For example, poverty eradication—which is a key objective of MDGs—is also one of the overarching objectives of SD and thus should be fully articulated in SDGs, alongside the other objectives of environmental protection and sustainable consumption and production (UNGA 2011a). Based upon the experiences of MDGs, ensuring multi-layer, multi- stakeholder participation throughout the development process of SDGs is the key for successful implementation (UNGA 2011a; UNDP 2011) (Miyazawa 2012). The realization of Sustainable Development goals is not only the responsibility of leaders. This is a joint and collective responsibility of all stakeholders. However, leaders, whether international and domestic, should participate in the formation of global consciousness that leads to collective human activity that deals with global concerns. It has to be pointed out that this collective or global consciousness on participation can bring unified framework and process that lead to the “Sustainable Energy of All by 2030.” Integrating the SDG processes and other initiatives into a single unified process would be highly advantageous as this would set out a clear post-2015 framework. Factors that could be integrated include MDG implementation and review, post-MDG preparation, and the Secretary General’s “Sustainable Energy for All by 2030” initiative. In this regard, it is crucial to define near-term benchmarks while envisioning long-term goals (tentatively set for 2030) (GSP 2012). At the same time, consistency between national and global policies should be ensured while setting appropriate minimums for common/ global goals, as well as allowing countries to dictate their own national targets according to domestic priorities and capacities (UNGA 1982; UN 2002) (Miyazawa 2012) The UN should monitor the setting of the appropriate goals of countries that are based on the SDGs. Each country should also establish and monitor its target in the implementation of programs and activities relative to the national goals, without undermining the need to build resiliency against natural and human-made risks and threats. It is very important each country should participate in the processes of sustainable development. However, the UN should ensure the commitment of leaders and shared responsibilities among stakeholders for the realization of these Sustainable Development Goals in the context and concrete situations of countries or societies. It means that the success of the SGDs needs an institutional framework that should be utilized and patterned by countries and societies. The JPoI claimed that: (A)n effective institutional framework at all levels is the key to fully implementing the world’s commitments to achieve sustainable development and meeting emerging sustainable development challenges (UN, 2002). A global mechanism for periodic follow- ups—including reporting and monitoring progress at the operational level—could help coordinate efforts towards achieving the SDGs (for example, via creation of a Sustainable Development Council) as well as improve coherence and mainstream sustainable development at the sub-national, national, and international levels (GSP 2012) (Miyazawa 2012) Let us now look closer at the different aspects of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). First is the objectives of SDGs. The SDGs address broader challenges that threaten sustainable development. They also reaffirm the past political commitments of all stakeholders, and they ensure concrete and quantifiable programs and activities towards sustainable development. Second is the characteristics of the SDGs. They are action oriented, and they complement with the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). They are strongly linked to Agenda 21 and JPoI. It is all notable their comprehensive or global application, which is voluntary. Nonetheless, they allow the national and regional circumstances, and perspective capabilities to be part in the sustainable development process. Third aspect is the scope of SDGs. The main goal to be addressed is poverty eradication. They also deal with social, economic, and environmental scopes of sustainable development. The scope is noted to be time bound and measurable. Targets and indicators are also determined and articulated. And since the goals are clearly identified, they can be easily understood and communicated to the stakeholders (Miyazawa 2012). The next theme that needs to be included in our discussion on Sustainable Development is climate change. It is one of the broader challenges identified by UN articulated in the SDGs. This theme is explicitly existential in nature. Climate change is now affecting the planet earth. It is not only the concern of the developing and poor countries or societies, but also the concern of the developed, industrial, and rich countries. Climate change is also relative to human activities that affect our global and international relations.Below is the landscape of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable Development Goals(SDGs)formulated and set by the United Nations (UN). The goals relate to the situations of people, not only in rich, industrial, and developed countries or societies, but also in developing and poor countries or societies. Broader challenges and emerging possibilities are also recognized and should be dealt with by all countries. Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) Goal 1: Eradicate Extreme Hunger and Poverty Goal 2: Achieve Universal Primary Education Goal 3: Promote Gender Equality and Empower Women Goal 4: Reduce Child Mortality Goal 5: Improve Maternal Health Goal 6: Combat HIV/AIDS, Malaria and other diseases Goal 7: Ensure Environmental Sustainability Goal 8: Develop a Global Partnership for Development Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) Agenda 21 Johannesburg Plan of Implementation (JPoI) Overarching goal Poverty eradication, environmental sustainability, sustainable consumption, and production Dimensions Low-carbon economy, social foundation, Environment sustainability Cross-cutting themes and approaches Protecting and managing the natural resource base on economic and social development Sustainable development in a globalizing world health and sustainable development Means of implementation, Institutional framework for sustainable development, Gender and equality Priority areas Food, water, sanitation, access to energy, oceans and seas, forests, desertification, health, education, shelter, etc. Broader challenges Climate change Energy security Rise in unemployment and food price Inequality between the rich and the poor both at global and national levels An increasing number of natural and man-made disasters, etc Emerging possibilities Green jobs and social inclusion Resilience and disaster preparedness Science and Technology South-South and triangular cooperation, public-private partnerships Innovative financial mechanisms Strengthened institutional framework for sustainable development, etc (Source: Agenda 21 and Johannesburg Plan of Implementation, Miyazawa 2012) The 17 Sustainable Development Goals (Global Goals) End poverty in all its forms everywhere. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. Ensure healthy lives and promote well-being for all ages. Ensure inclusive and equitable quality education and promote lifelong learning opportunities for all. Achieve gender equality and empower all women and girls. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. Build resilient infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. Reduce inequality within and among countries. Make cities and human settlements inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial ecosystems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, and halt and reverse land degradation and halt biodiversity loss. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, provide access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development. Human being is endowed with great responsibility to take care of the environment. His action affects the life in this environment. And his “activity has reached levels at which it could alter the planet’s climate and its biological mix. Economics is the driving force. Energy used for production is obtained by burning fossil fuels and leads to carbon emissions” (Chichilnisky 1997). And based on the observation of the scientists there is a great loss of biodiversity and many of species have disappeared. Today, in many industrialized societies particularly the highly developed ones, there is an uncontrolled utilization of resources, especially natural resources. More so, this human activity has been “accompanied by increasing discrepancies in resource consumption and welfare” (Chichilnisky 1997) between developed and developing countries, or between the rich and the poor societies. In this context, there is a need to look into the utilization of resources, particularly natural resources, on the planet for the development not only in our present time for present generation, but also in the future for future generations. Such development should be sustainable, which includes the satisfaction of the needs of the present and the future generations. Equal treatment to both must be given. During the United Nations Earth Summit in 1992 at Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, sustainable development was one of perennial concerns for the formulation of international policy, which was based on the satisfaction of the basic needs in developing countries or societies (Chichilnisky). Richard and Hammill (2009) affirmed that one of the main concerns of the Sustainable Development programs and activities of United Nations (UN) is focused on poverty experienced in developing countries and societies. They pointed out that: The first challenge, and for many the paramount issue sustainable development must seek to resolve, is how to reduce poverty and improve the welfare and security of the world's poor while protecting the natural resources and ecosystems that development practices often overexploit and damage. Progress towards meeting this challenge has been unacceptably slow. A 2008 ECOSOC report, for example, notes that while there are a number of positive trends in Africa (the focus of many poverty reduction efforts), 'the continent's average annual growth rate of approximately 5.8 per cent still remains significantly lower than the 7 per cent annual growth rate required to reduce poverty by half by 2015 (Richard and Hammill 2009). The utilization of resources should not be in the context of greed; selfishness must be eradicated as the standard in human being’s dealing with the environment. Stewardship is not about subduing the planet earth and use all its resources for human beings alone, and for this generation only. The citizens of the world, especially the leaders should make decisions that sustain resources for the years to come. Sustainable preferences should be altruistic and sensitive for the good of the present and the coming generations. Part of these sustainable preferences is the “dynamical system that represents the growth of a renewal resource” (Chilchilnisky 1997) for all generations of all countries, developed and developing, rich and poor alike. Chilhilnisky points out Solow’s (1992) claim that the character of sustainable preferences “should allow intergenerational trade-offs, but no generation should be favored over any other. This standard is met by sustainable preferences when applied to the "present" and to "future" generations. The long run does matter and so does the short run.” This needs collective consciousness of all global citizens, especially those who hold authority or power by which decisions are made for sustainable development to materialize for all generations. Richard and Hammil pointed out that the goal of sustainability, be it in economics, environment, and equity, is “to balance the requirements of each in a way that satisfies the needs of the present generation without compromising the prospects of future generations” (Richard and Hammill 2009; bold text supplied). Sustainable development is neither focused on the present time nor in the future only. Neither is it concerned with the present generation nor with the future generation only. Sometimes, human beings discount the future and focus their activity on the present. They must be sensitive to the effects of their activity today to the future generation. “Tomorrow acquires increasing relative importance as time progresses” (UNCSD). The world needs a comprehensive sustainable development framework (Miyazawa 2012) The United Nations asserted that sustainable development goals and their concomitant activities do not focus solely on the rich countries and on the present generation. In 1992 Rio Summit, governments from different countries including business and civil organizations made their commitment to achieve sustainable development. They formulated a declaration (Rio Declaration) which, as Miyazawa stated, “heralded a whole new paradigm that embraced integrating economic growth, social equality and environmental sustainability” (UNG 1992). The reaffirmation of such declaration was made in 2002 in Johannesburg with various and vital concerns such as “poverty eradication, sustainable consumption and production, and environmental protection” (UN 2002). Based on this, the UN was convinced to deal with such global concerns and issues relative sustainable development with new approaches. The UN asserted that: New approaches continue to offer a better understanding of sustainable development— such as the growing role of scientific knowledge and technologies which have articulated indicators such as planetary boundaries, the ecological footprint, and other measures of human impact on the planet. Despite the progress, however, a chasm still exists between past words and actual deeds. Why is this so? The chief reasons are a lack, at all levels, of prioritizing sustainable development, limited access to financial resources, weak commercial viability of the required investments, inadequate and inappropriate human, financial, technical and institutional capacity dedicated to implementation and evaluation, limited public awareness and a lack of change in lifestyles (cited in Miyazawa 2012). The UN also recognized that our planet is dealing with various issues and problems which are not only existentially experienced and encountered in developing and poor societies or countries, but also in developed, industrial and rich countries or societies. They consist of the following: "climate change, energy security, increasing unemployment and food prices, a growing rich-poor gap at both international and national levels, and an increasing number of natural and man-made disasters”(cited Miyazawa 2012). They become barriers in achieving sustainable development, for the satisfaction of basic human needs, and eradicating poverty overarching goal of SDGs. The UN recognized and affirmed that the perennial concerns of the present could affect the future generation. Themes of summit (s) such as climate change, unemployment, energy security, and natural or human-made calamities are not only the concerns of the present leaders and citizens. These shall also be the concerns of the future leaders and citizens, both domestic and international. Thus, everyone should be part of the global consciousness that deals with and seeks solutions to these concerns. The widely- accepted description of sustainable development is provided in the Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development: Our Common Future, popularly known as the Bruntland Commission Report (1987), named after Gro Harlem Bruntland, the chair of the independent commission organized by the United Nations to formulate "a global agenda for change." The report states: Humanity has the ability to make development sustainable to ensure that it meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs. The concept of sustainable development does imply limits - not absolute limits but limitations imposed by the present state of technology and social organization on environmental resources and by the ability of the biosphere to absorb the effects of human activities. But technology and social organization can be both managed and improved to make way for a new era of economic growth. The Commission believes that widespread poverty is no longer inevitable. Poverty is not only an evil in itself, but sustainable development requires meeting the basic needs of all and extending to all the opportunity to fulfil their aspirations for a better life. A world in which poverty is endemic will always be prone to ecological and other catastrophes. Accordingly, sustainable development may be defined as humanity's ability "to meet the needs of the present generation without compromising the ability of the future generations to meet their own needs." Scientific communities or institutions are also engaged in research that focuses on climate change. Moreover, the media (both social and mass media) also affirmed that this global concern needs more scientific analysis. And according to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs Division of Sustainable Development, “Climate change is an inevitable and urgent global challenge with long-term implications for the sustainable development of all countries” (Richard, and Hammill 2009). There are challenges to the global rates of resource consumption and ecosystem transformation. Sometimes, human activities linked to them may appear manifestations of development. For instance, agricultural lands and forests converted into subdivisions, industrial and business areas. Nonetheless, such activities are doing enormous damage to the natural environment. “Fish stocks are being depleted, biodiversity is being reduced, forest cover is being removed, water is being polluted, the climate is being altered and so on - at rates beyond the cleansing and regenerating capacity of the earth, or in ways that simply are irreversible and irreparable” (Richard and Hammil, 2009). Another challenge to sustainable development is how counties and societies, developed and developing counties alike, avoid global environmental catastrophe. There are floods everywhere, typhoons are getting violent, destructive, and fatal, earthquakes are experienced everywhere, famine and the like. Richard and Hammil (2009) pointed out that the authors of “Out Common Future” saw in the “concept of sustainable development the ideational tools for managing environ- mental degradation within the context of other 'interlocking crises' such as poverty, population growth, urbanization, disease and war. The discourse on climate change is always connected with the discussion about environmental problems. Even with so much scientific analyses being done, there seems to have a level uncertainty about real phenomenon and risks of climate change. This affects the collective consciousness of countries about sustainable development. Such context also affects how countries look at the future impacts or consequences of environmental problems. This, in turn, affects the formulation of the international climate change policy that should be applied globally. And, it must be noted that “part of the difficulty in developing climate change policy lies in the way it has been framed as a scientific problem” and not a social, political, and environmental problem. If it is only seen as a scientific problem, its solution may be seen as the responsibility of the scientific community. Since, climate change affects the sustainable development of countries, all stakeholders, leaders, and citizens alike, participate in dealing with climate change. Sustainable development and climate change should be integrated in the formulation of national and global policy. Thus, the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) determined the vitality of the integration of the two. The Panel pointed out that development paths underly analyses on climate change emissions, impacts and adaptation. The Panel asserted the relationship between climate change and sustainable development as a cross- cutting theme that will be integrated into and across working examining climate change through a sustainable development lens leading to a focus on how to achieve climate change goals by following paths to sustainability. (Miyazawa 2012)