IO PSYC H Reviewer (Aamodt) PDF

IO PSYC H Reviewer (Aamodt) BS Psychology (PSYC) 3 0 CHAPTER 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology for potential pilots. Industrial/organizational psychology is a Henry Gantt, were responsible for increasing the branch of psychology that applies t...

IO PSYC H Reviewer (Aamodt) BS Psychology (PSYC) 3 0 CHAPTER 1: Introduction to I/O Psychology for potential pilots. Industrial/organizational psychology is a Henry Gantt, were responsible for increasing the branch of psychology that applies the principles of efficiency with which cargo ships were built, repaired, and loaded psychology to the workplace. “To enhance the dignity and performance of human Thomas A. Edison created a 150-item knowledge test beings, and the organizations they work in, by that he administered to over 900 applicants. advancing the science and knowledge of human behavior” (Rucci, 2008). Frank Gilbreth and Lillian Moller Gilbreth, one of the pioneer scientists to improve productivity and Principles of learning are used to develop training reduce fatigue by studying the motions used by programs and incentive plans, principles of social workers. psychology are used to form work groups and understand employee conflict, and principles of 1921, First Ph.D. in I/O psychology awarded to Bruce motivation and emotion are used to motivate and satisfy Moore and Merrill Ream at Carnegie Tech employees. 1932, First I/O text written by Morris Viteles Major Fields of I/O Psychology 1933, Hawthorne studies were published, conducted The industrial approach focuses on at the Hawthorne plant of the Western Electric determining the competencies needed to perform a job, Company in the Chicago area, demonstrated that the staffing the organization with employees who have interpersonal interactions between managers and those competencies, and increasing those competencies employees played a tremendous role in employee through training. behaviour. It was initially designed to investigate such issues as the effects of lighting levels, work schedules, The organizational approach creates an wages, temperature, and rest breaks on employee organizational structure and culture that will motivate performance. Employees changed their behaviour employees to perform well, give them with the and became more productive because they were necessary information to do their jobs, and provide being studied and received attention from their working conditions that are safe and result in an managers (Hawthorne effect.) enjoyable and satisfying work environment. 1937, American Association for Applied Psychology Personnel psychology, deals with analyzing established jobs, recruiting applicants, selecting employees, determining salary levels, training employees, and 1945, Society for Industrial and Business Psychology evaluating employee performance. established as Division 14 of APA with 130 members Organizational psychology are concerned 1951, Marion Bills elected as first woman president of with the issues of leadership, job satisfaction, employee Division 14 motivation, organizational communication, conflict management, organizational change, and group 1960, Division 14 renamed as Society for Industrial processes within an organization. Psychology, membership exceeds 700 Human Factors/Ergonomics concentrate on 1963, Equal Pay Act passed workplace design, human-machine interaction, ergonomics, and physical fatigue and stress. 1964, Civil Rights Act passed. First issue of The Industrial- Organizational Psychologist (TIP) published Brief History of I/O Psychology 1970, Division 14 membership exceeds 1,100 In 1903, Walter Dill Scott wrote The Theory of Advertising, in which psychology was first applied to 1971, B.F. Skinner publishes Beyond Freedom and business. In 1911, he published Increasing Human Dignity Efficiency in Business. 1913, Hugo Munsterberg publishes Psychology and 1980, Division 14 membership exceeds 1,800 Industrial Efficiency (German version published in 1910). 1982, Division 14 renamed Society for Industrial and Organizational Psychology (SIOP) The term “industrial psychology” was seldom used prior to World War I. Instead, the common terms for 1986, Society for Industrial and Organizational the field were “economic psychology,” “business Psychology (SIOP) holds first annual national psychology,” and “employment psychology” (Koppes conference separate from APA meeting & Pickren, 2007). 1989, Supreme Court sets conservative trend and 1917, Journal of Applied Psychology first published becomes more “employer friendly” 1918, World War I provides I/O psychologists with the 1990, Americans with Disabilities Act passed. SIOP first opportunity for large-scale employee testing and membership exceeds 2,500 selection. (Army Alpha, for literate & Army Beta, for those who can’t read) 1991, Civil Rights Act of 1991 passed to overcome 1989 conservative Supreme Court decisions John Watson, who is better known as a pioneer in behaviorism, served as a major in the U.S. Army in 1997, SIOP celebrates golden anniversary at its annual World War I and developed perceptual and motor tests conference in St. Louis 3 0  A meta- analysis results in one number, called the 2000, SIOP membership exceeds 3,600 mean effect size, which indicates the effectiveness of some variable. Correlation coefficients (r) are 2005, OFCCP and EEOC become more aggressive in used for relationship between two variables. A fighting systemic discrimination difference score (d) is used for difference between two groups. Research in I/O Psychology 5. Subject Samples Why Conduct Research? a) random sample b) convenience 1. Answering Questions and Making Decisions sample 2. Research and Everyday Life. Understanding research helps you to critically listen and Random assignment is important when using analyze results of these studies to make more convenience samples, as research indicates that intelligent decisions. random and nonrandom assignment result in 3. Common Sense Is Often Wrong different outcomes (Shadish & Ragsdale, 1996). Considerations in Conducting Research 6. Running the Study. To ensure that data are collected in an unbiased fashion, it is important 1. Ideas, Hypothesis, Theories that all instructions to the subjects be stated in a a) Idea (What to research) standardized fashion and at a level that is b) Hypothesis (Prediction) understandable. c) Theory (Previous research/logic) a) Debrief. Be told the purpose of the 2. Literature Reviews experiment and be given a chance to ask a) Journals consist of articles written by questions about her participation. researchers directly reporting the results of a study. 7. Statistical Analysis. After all data have been b) Bridge publications are usually written by collected, the results are statistically analyzed. professors about a topic of interest to a) Intervening variable. A hypothetical practitioners, but they are not as formal or variable used to explain causal links between statistically complex as articles in journals. other variables. c) Trade magazines contain articles usually written by professional writers who have Ethics in Industrial/Organizational Psychology developed expertise in a given field. Ethical dilemmas are ambiguous situations 3. The Location of the Study that require a personal judgment of what is right or a) Laboratory Research. low external validity, or wrong because there are no rules, policies, or laws generalizability guiding such decisions. Individuals often rely on their b) Field Research. Low on internal validity. morals and personal values, which often leads to Psychologists require that subjects participate in different decisions by different people in similar studies of their own free will—a concept called situations. informed consent. In life, we often encounter two types of ethical 4. The Research Method to Be Used dilemmas: Type A and Type B. a) Experiments. cause-and-effect relationships. In a Type A dilemma, there is a high level of Two characteristics define an experiment: uncertainty as to what is right or wrong, there appears to be no best solution, and there are both positive and (1) Manipulation of one or more negative consequences to a decision. independent variables and In a Type B dilemma, also called rationalizing (2) Random Assignment of subjects to dilemmas. Usually, individuals know what is right but experimental and control conditions. choose the solution that is most advantageous to them. In an experiment, the researcher intentionally CHAPTER 2: Job Analysis and Evaluation Job manipulates one or more aspects of the question of Analysis interest, called the independent variable, and measures the changes that occur as a result of that Job Analysis—gathering, analyzing, and manipulation, called the dependent variable. structuring information about a job’s components, characteristics, and requirements (Sanchez & Levine, Those who received training are called 2000). experimental group, and those who did not collectively called the control group. Importance of Job Analysis 1. Writing Job Descriptions. A brief, two- to b) Quasi-experiments. Often used to evaluate the five- page summary of the tasks and job results of a new program implemented by an requirements found in the job analysis. organization. No random assignment. c) Archival Research. Involves using previously In other words, the job analysis is the process of collected data or records to answer a research determining the work activities and requirements, question. and the job description is the written result of the d) Surveys. Ask people their opinion on some topic. job analysis. e) Meta-analysis is a statistical method of reaching conclusions based on previous research. 2. Employee Selection. By identifying requirements, it is possible to select tests or develop interview questions that will 3 0  determine whether a particular applicant co-workers, degree of danger, and any other possesses the requirements of the job. relevant information. 3. Training. Job analyses yield lists of job 6. Work Performance. Contains a relatively activities that can be systematically used to brief description of how an employee’s create training programs. performance is evaluated and what work standards are expected of the employee. 4. Personpower Planning. One important but seldom employed use of job analysis is to 7. Compensation Information. This section of determine worker mobility within an the job description should contain information organization. on the salary grade, whether the position is exempt, and the compensable factors used to Peter Principle: promoting employees until determine salary. they eventually reach their highest level of incompetence 8. Job Competencies. This section contains what are commonly called job specifications or 5. Performance Appraisal competencies. These are the knowledge, skills, abilities, and other characteristics (KSAOs) that 6. Job Classification. Job analysis enables a are necessary to be successful on the job. human resources professional to classify jobs into groups based on similarities in Preparing for a Job Analysis requirements and duties. Who Will Conduct the Analysis? Job classification is useful for determining pay Typically, a job analysis is conducted by a levels, transfers, and promotions. trained individual in the human resources department, but it can also be conducted by job incumbents, 7. Job Evaluation Job analysis information can supervisors, or outside consultants. also be used to determine the worth of a job. How Often Should a Job Description Be Updated? 8. Job Design. Can be used to determine the The typical answer is that a job description optimal way in which a job should be should be updated if a job changes significantly. performed. An interesting reason that job descriptions change 9. Compliance with Legal Guidelines. Any across time is job crafting –the informal changes that employment decision must be based on job employees make in their jobs (Wrzesniewski & related information. Dutton, 2001). Which Employees Should Participate? 10. Organizational Analysis. During the course In a committee-based job analysis, a group of their work, job analysts often become aware of subject matter experts (e.g., employees, supervisors) of certain problems within an organization. meet to generate the tasks performed, the conditions under which they are performed, and the KSAOs For example, during a job analysis interview, an needed to perform them. employee may indicate that she does not know In a field-based job analysis, the job analyst how she is evaluated or to whom she is supposed individually interviews/observes a number of to report. The discovery of such lapses in incumbents out in the field. organizational communication can then be used to correct problems and help an organization Which particular employees will participate? It function better. may be determined through: Job Competence. Writing a Good Job Description Race. Gender. 1. Job Title. If the job title indicates the true Education Level. nature of the job, potential applicants for a Personality. position will be better able to determine Viewpoint. whether their skills and experience match those required for the job. What Types of Information Should Be Obtained? Concerns the level of specificity, should the job 2. Brief Summary. The summary need be only a analysis break a job down into very minute, specific paragraph in length but should briefly describe behaviors, or should the job be analyzed at a more the nature and purpose of the job. generallevel? Is it a formal or an informal requirement? 3. Work Activities. Lists the tasks and activities Formal requirements for a secretary might include in which the worker is involved. typing letters or filing memos. Informal requirements might involve making coffee or picking 4. Tools and Equipment Used. Lists all the tools up the boss’s children from school. and equipment used to perform the work activities in theprevious section. Conducting a Job Analysis 5. Job Context. Describes the environment in Step 1: Identify Tasks Performed which the employee works and should mention To identify the major job dimensions and the stress level, work schedule, physical demands, tasks performed for each dimension, the tools and level of responsibility, temperature, number of equipment used to perform the tasks, and the conditions 3 0 under which the tasks are performed. developed by Cornelius and Hakel (1978). The JEI Gathering Existing Information. contains 153 items and has a readability level Interviewing Subject Matter appropriate for an employee with only a tenth-grade Experts. (People who are education knowledgeable about the job and include job incumbents, supervisors, Functional Job Analysis (FJA) was designed customers, and upper-level by Fine (1955) as a quick method that could be used management.) by the federal government to analyze and compare Observing Incumbents. (The job thousands of jobs. analyst observes incumbents performing their jobs in the work Information about Tools and Equipment setting.) Job Participation. Job Components Inventory. Developed by Banks, Jackson, Stafford, and Warr (1983) used in Step 2: Write Task Statements England. It consists of more than 400 questions Will be used in the task inventory and included covering five major categories: tools and equipment, in the job description. perceptual and physical requirements, mathematical requirements, communication requirements, and A properly written task statement must contain an decision making and responsibility. It is the only job action (what is done) and an object (to which the action analysis method containing a detailed section on tools is done). Often, task statements will also include such and equipment. components as where the task is done, how it is done, why it is done, and when it is done. Information about Competencies Step 3: Rate Task Statements Occupational Information Network Conduct a task analysis—using a group of (O*NET). Is a national job analysis system created by SMEs to rate each task statement on the frequency and the federal government to replace the Dictionary of the importance or criticality of the task being Occupational Titles (DOT) which had been in use performed. since the 1930s. O*NET is a major advancement in understanding the nature of work, in large part because Step 4: Determine Essential KSAOs. its developers understood that jobs can be viewed at Identify the KSAOs needed to perform the tasks. four levels: economic, organizational, occupational, Knowledge is a body of information needed to and individual. perform a task. Critical Incident Technique (CIT). Was A Skill is the proficiency to perform a learned developed and first used by John Flanagan and his task. students at the University of Pittsburgh, it wass used to Ability is a basic capacity for performing a discover actual incidents of job behavior that make the wide range of different tasks, acquiring difference between a job’s successful or unsuccessful knowledge, or developing a skill. performance. Other characteristics include such personal factors as personality, willingness, interest, and Job Evaluation motivation and such tangible factors as licenses, degrees, and years of experience. Job Evaluation —process of determining a job’s worth. It is typically done in two stages: Step 5: Selecting Tests to Tap KSAOs determining internal pay equity and determining Will be used to select new employees and external pay equity. include such methods as interviews, work samples, ability tests, personality tests, reference checks, Determining Internal Pay Equity integrity tests, biodata, and assessment centers. Internal pay equity, involves comparing jobs Using Other Job Analysis Methods within an organization to ensure that the people in jobs worth the most money are paid accordingly. General Information about Worker Activities Step 1: Determining Compensable Job Factors Position Analysis Questionnaire (PAQ) is a The first step in evaluating a job is to decide structured instrument developed at Purdue University what factors differentiate the relative worth of jobs. by McCormick, Jeanneret, and Mecham (1972). The Possible compensable job factors include: PAQ contains 194 items organized into six main Level of responsibility dimensions: information input, mental processes, work Physical demands output, relationships with other persons, job context, Mental demands and other job- related variables such as work schedule, Education requirements pay, and responsibility. Training and experience requirements Working conditions Job Structure Profile (JSP). A revised Step 2: Determining the Levels for Each version of the PAQ was developed by Patrick and Compensable Factor Moore (1985). The major changes in the revision For a factor such as education, the levels are include item content and style, new items to increase easy to determine (e.g., high school diploma, associate’s the discriminatory power of the intellectual and degree, bachelor’s degree). For factors such as decision-making dimensions, and an emphasis on responsibility, a considerable amount of time and having a job analyst, rather than the incumbent. discussion may be required to determine the levels. Job Elements Inventory (JEI). Another Step 3: Determining the Factor Weights instrument designed as an alternative to the PAQ, 3 0  Because some factors are more important than With quid pro quo, the granting of sexual others, weights must be assigned to each factor and to favors is tied to such employment decisions as each level within a factor. Here is the process for doing promotions and salary increases. An example of a quid this: pro quo case of harassment is a supervisor who tells his 1. A job evaluation committee determines the secretary that she must sleep with him to keep her job. total number of points that will be distributed among the factors. In a hostile environment case, sexual 2. Each factor is weighted by assigning a number harassment occurs when an unwanted pattern of conduct of points. The more important the factor, the related to gender unreasonably interferes with an greater the number of points that will be individual’s work performance. Though men and assigned. women differ in their perceptions of what constitutes 3. The number of points assigned to a factor is harassment, the courtshave ruled that such conduct can then divided into each of the levels. If 100 include comments, unwanted sexual or romantic points had been assigned to the factor of advances, or the display of demeaning posters, signs, or education, then 20 points (100 points/5 cartoons. degrees) would be assigned to each level. 4. The total number of points for a job is a) Pattern of Behavior. For conduct to be compared with the salary currently being paid considered sexual harassment based on a for the job. hostile environment, it must be a pattern of Determining External Pay Equity behavior rather than an isolated incident. It becomes harassment if the co- worker With external pay equity, the worth of a job continually makes unwanted romantic or sexual is determined by comparing the job to the external overtures or repeatedly makes inappropriate remarks. market (other organizations). External equity is b) Based on Gender. To be considered sexual important if an organization is to attract and retain harassment, conduct must be due to the sex of employees. the employee. c) Negative to the Reasonable Person. Any pattern of behavior based on gender that causes To determine external equity, organizations use salary an employee discomfort might constitute sexual surveys. Sent to other organizations, these surveys ask harassment. how much an organization pays its employees in various positions. CHAPTER 4: Employee Selection: Recruiting and Interviewing The amount of money a job is worth is called direct compensation. Job Analysis. The methods used to select employees should tie in directly with the results of the job analysis. An important step in selecting employees is CHAPTER 3: Legal Issues in Employee Selection recruitment: attracting people with the right The Legal Process qualificationsto apply for the job. The first decision is Resolving the Complaint Internally whether to promote someone from within the organization (internal recruitment) or to hire someone Policies involve such forms of Alternative from outside the organization (external recruitment). Dispute Resolution (ADR) as a grievance process, Media Advertisements mediation, and arbitration.  Newspaper Ads (respond by calling, apply- in -person ads, send-résumé ads, or blind box) With a grievance system, employees take their  Electronic Media (television and radio complaints to an internal committee that makes a to advertise job openings) decision regarding the complaints. Situation-Wanted Ads (placed by the applicant With mediation, employees and the rather than by organizations.) organization meet with a neutral third party who tries to help the two sides reach a mutually agreed upon Recruiters solution. Campus Recruiters. Outside Recruiters. More than 75% of organizations use such outside recruiting With arbitration, the two sides present their sources as private employment agencies, case to a neutral third party who then makes a decision public employment agencies, and executive as to which side is right. search firms a) Employment agencies operate in one of If binding arbitration is used, neither side can two ways. They charge either the company appeal the decision. If nonbinding arbitration is or the applicant when the applicant takes used, the parties can either accept the decision or the job. take the case to court. b) Executive search firms, better known as “head hunters”, the jobs they represent Harassment tend to be higher-paying, non–entry-level positions. Always charge their fees to Types of Harassment organizations rather than to applicants. Legally, sexual harassment can take one of two c) Public employment agencies are forms: quid pro quo or hostile environment. designed primarily to help the 3 0  unemployed find work, but they often offer services such as career advisement and résumé preparation. Incentives. When unemployment rates are low, organizations have to take extra measures to recruit employees. One of these measures is to offer incentives for employees to accept jobs with an organization. Realistic Job Previews involve giving an applicantan honest assessment of a job. A variation of the RJP is a technique called an expectation-lowering procedure (ELP). Unlike an RJP, which focuses on a particular job, an ELP lowers an applicant’s expectations about work and expectations in general questions, especially skill-level determiners, can be scored simply on the basis of whether Employment Interviews the answer given was correct or incorrect. Typical-Answer Approach. The idea Types of Interviews behind this is to create a list of all possible answers to each question, have subject- 1. Structure matter experts (SMEs) rate the a) Structured interview is job-related, asked to all applicants, and standardized scoring. favorableness of each answer, and then use b) Unstructured interview interviewers ask theseratings to serve as benchmarks for each point on a five-point scale. anything they want, no consistency required in questions asked to each applicant, and Key-Issues Approach. A problem with the typical- answer approach is that there are may assign numbers of points at their own discretion. many possible answers to a question, and applicants often provide answers that could  Poor Intuitive Ability  Lack of Job Relatedness fit parts of several different benchmarks.  Primacy Effects or “first impressions”  Contrast Effects performance of one Job Search Skills applicant may affect the interview score given to the next applicant Successfully Surviving the Interview Process  Negative-Information Bias negative Scheduling the Interview. What will information apparently weighs more affect the score, however, is when applicants heavily than positive information arrive for the interview.  Interviewer-Interviewee Similarity  Interviewee Appearance Before the Interview. Learn about the  Nonverbal Cues company, one of the most commonly asked 2. Style unstructured interview questions (“What do a) One-on-one interviews involve one you know about our company?”) is used to interviewer interviewing one applicant. determine the applicant’s knowledge of the b) Serial interviews involve a series of single organization. interviews. During the Interview. Nonverbal c) Return interviews are similar to serial behaviors should include a firm handshake, eye interviews with the difference being a contact, smiling, and head- nodding. Desired passing of time between the first and verbal behaviors include asking questions, subsequent interview. subtly pointing out how you are similar to the d) Panel interviews have multiple interviewer, not asking about the salary, not interviewers asking questions and speaking slowly, and not hesitating before evaluating answers of the same applicant at answering questions. the same time. e) Group interviews have multiple After the Interview. Immediately applicants answering questions during the following the interview, write a brief letter same interview. thanking the interviewerfor her time. 3. Medium a) Face-to-face interviews, both the CHAPTER 5: Employee Selection: References and interviewer and the applicant are in the Testing same room. b) Telephone interviews are often used to A reference check is the process of confirming screen applicants but do not allow the use theaccuracy of information provided by an applicant. of visualcues (not always a bad thing). A relatively recent trend in reference checking is for c) Videoconference interviews are employers to “Google” an applicant’s name to find more conducted atremote sites. information about the applicant d) Written interviews involve the applicant answering a series of written questions and then sending the answers back through A reference is the expression of an opinion, either orally or through a written checklist, regarding an regular mail or through email. applicant’s ability, previous performance, work habits, character, or potential for future success. 3 0  A letter of recommendation is a letter memorization, reasoning (mathematical, expressing an opinion regarding an applicant’s ability, deductive, inductive), and general previous performance, work habits, character, or learning. potential for future success. b) Perceptual ability consists of vision (near, far, night, peripheral), color Résumé fraud lying on their résumés about what discrimination, depth perception, glare experience or education they actually have. sensitivity, speech (clarity, recognition), and hearing (sensitivity, auditory Checking for Discipline Problems attention, sound localization). c) Psychomotor ability includes finger Negligent hiring, If an organization hires an dexterity, manual dexterity, control applicant without checking his references and precision, multi-limb coordination, background and he later commits a crime while in the response control, reaction time, arm-hand employ of the organization, the organization may be steadiness, wrist-finger speed, and speed- found liable for negligent hiring if the employee has a of-limb movement criminal background that would have been detected had d) Physical ability tests are often used for a background check been conducted. jobs that require physical strength and Negligent reference if former employer does stamina, such as police officer, fire- not provide relevant information to an organization that fighter, and lifeguard. Physical ability is requests it. measured in one of two ways: job simulations and physical agility tests. Predicting Future Performance 3. Applicant Skill - measure the extent to which Low validity is largely due to four main an applicant already has a job-related skill. problems with references and letters of a) Work sample, the applicant performs recommendation: actual job-related tasks a) Assessment center is a selection technique Leniency. Research is clear that most letters of characterized by the use of multiple recommendation are positive: less than 1% of references assessment methods that allow multiple rateapplicants as below average or poor assessors to actually observe applicants Keep in mind that applicants choose their own perform simulated job tasks (Joiner, 2002). references! Development and Component Knowledge of the Applicant. A second  The in-basket technique is problem with letters of recommendation is that the designed to simulate the types of person writing the letter often does not know the daily information that appear on a applicant well, has not observed all aspects of an manager’s or employee’s desk. applicant’s behavior, or both.  Simulation exercises are the real backbone of the assessment center because they enable assessors to Reliability. The third problem with references see an applicant “in action.” and letters of recommendation involves the lack of  Work Samples. Usually, when a agreement between two people who provide references simulation does not involve a for the same person. situational exercise, it is called a Extraneous Factors. Mehrabian (1965) and work sample. Weins, Jackson, Manaugh, and Matarazzo (1969)  Leaderless Group Discussions. In found that even though most letters of recommendation this exercise, applicants meet in are positive, letters written by references who like small groups and are given a job- applicants are longer than those written by references related problem to solve or a job- who do not. related issue to discuss.  Business games are exercises that Three ethical guidelines that reference providers allow the applicant to demonstrate should follow: such attributes as creativity, First, explicitly state your relationship decision making, and ability to with the person you are recommending. work with others. Second, be honest in providing details. 4. Prior Experience - Applicant experience is Finally, let the applicant see your typically measured in one of four ways: reference before sending it, and give him experience ratings of application/résumé the chance to decline to use it. information, biodata, reference checks, and interviews. a) Experience Ratings the idea that past Predicting Performance Using: 1. Applicant Knowledge - Used primarily in the experience will predict future experience. b) Biodata is a selection method that public sector, especially for promotions. Job knowledge tests are designed to measure how considers an applicant’s life, school, much a person knows about a job. military, community, and work experience. 2. Applicant Ability - Used primarily for c) Reference check occupations in which applicants are not d) Interview 5. Personality, Interest, and Character expected to know how to perform the job at the a) Personality Inventories are becoming time of hire. Instead, new employees will be taught the necessary job skills and knowledge. increasingly popular as an employee selection method, in part because they a) Cognitive ability includes such dimensions as oral and written predict performance better than was once comprehension, oral and written thought, and in part because they result in expression, numerical facility, originality, less adverse impact than do ability tests. 3 0  b) Interest Inventories are designed to tap vocational interests. The most commonly used interest inventory is the Strong Interest Inventory (SII), which asks individuals to indicate whether they like or dislike 325 items such as bargaining, repairing electrical wiring, and taking responsibility. c) Integrity tests (also called honesty tests) tell an employer the probability that an applicant would steal money or merchandise. d) Conditional reasoning tests were initially developed by James (1998) to reduce these inaccurate responses and get a more accurate picture of a person’s tendency to engage in aggressive or counterproductive behavior. e) Graphology, the idea behind handwriting analysis is that the way people write reveals their personality, which in turn should indicate work performance. Predicting Performance Limitations Due to Medical and Psychological Problems: 1. Drug testing certainly is one of the most controversial testing methods used by HR professionals. HR professionals believe not only that illegal drug use is dangerous but also that many employees are under the influence of drugs at work. 2. Psychological exams usually consist of an interview by a clinical psychologist, an examination of the applicant’s life history, and the administration of one or more of the psychological tests 3. Medical Exams In these exams, the physician is given a copy of the job description and asked to determine if there are any medical conditions that will keep the employee from safely performing the job. Once a decision has been made regarding which applicants will be hired, those who will not be hired must be notified. Rejected applicants should be treated well because they are potential customers and potential applicants for other positions that might become available in the organization. 3 0  CHAPTER 6: EVALUATION SELECTION asked to the test-taker’s success in answering TECHNIQUES & DECISIONS previous questions. CHARACTERISTICS OF EFFECTIVE ESTABLISHING THE USEFULNESS OF A SELECTION TECHNIQUES SELECTION DEVICE 1) RELIABILITY - stable & free from error  TAYLOR-RUSSELL TABLES – provide an a) TEST RETEST RELIABILITY – take the estimate of the percentage of total new hires who same test twice will be successful employees if test is adopted i) TEMPORAL STABILITY – test scores  CRITERION VALIDITY COEFFICIENT – are stable across time thru criterion validity study b) PARALLEL FORM RELIABILITY – 2  SELECTION RATIO – percentage of people forms of same test are constructed an organization must hire i) COUNTERBALANCING – designed to  BASE RATE – percentage of employees eliminate any effects currently on the job who are considered ii) FORM STABILITY – if 2 forms are successful similar after being correlated  PROPORTION OF CORRENT DECISION – c) INTERNAL CONSISTENCY – measuring the less accurate than taylor-russell tables. Compares the same construct percentage of times a selection decision was i) ITEM STABILITY – if similar items are accurate with the percentage of successful answered in similar ways employees. ii) ITEM HOMOGENEITY – if it measure  LAWSHE TABLE - to know the probability that a same or different constructs. The more particular applicant will be successful homogeneous items, the higher the  BROGDEN-CRONBACK-GLESER UTILITY consistency FORMULA - computing the amount of money an iii) Cronbach alpha – interval/ratio scales organization would save if it used the test to select iv) KR20 – dichotomous items employees. v) SPLIT-HALF METHOD – items are split  UTILITY FORMULA - estimate the monetary into two and then correlated each test scores savings to an organization. vi) SPEARMAN-BROWN PROPHECY – formula used to adjust correlation DETERMINING THE FAIRNESS OF A TEST d) INTERRATER RELIABILITY – two Bias → technical aspects of a test interviewers give applicant similar ratings i) SCORER RELIABILITY – issue on Fairness → includes political & social issues subjective/objective tests in w/c there are no correct answers  ADVERSE IMPACT - adverse impact occurs if the selection rate for any group is less than 2) VALIDITY - measuring what it purports to measure a) CONTENT VALIDITY – measure the content 80% of the highest scoring group (practical significance) and the difference is statistically supposed to measure b) CRITERION-RELATED VALIDITY – test significant (statistical significance). Comparing score is related to some job performance called the hiring rates of two groups, criterion  SINGLE-GORUP VALIDITY – the test will i) CONCURRENT – given to a group of significantly predict performance for one group employees who are already on the job & & not others. scores are correlated to the employee’s  DIFFERENTIAL VALIDITY - valid for two performance groups but more valid for one than for the other. ii) PREDICTIVE – administered to a group MAKING THE HIRING DECISION who are going to be hired. (1) RESTRICTED RANGE - A narrow  MULTIPLE REGRESSION - statistical procedure range of performance scores that makes in which the scores from more than one criterion- it difficult to obtain a significant validity valid test are weighted according to how well each coefficient. test score predicts the criterion. (2) VALIDITY GENERALIZATION OR  UNADJUSTED TOP-DOWN SELECTION - VG - The extent to which inferences applicants are rank-ordered on the basis of their test from test scores from one organization scores. can be applied to another organization.  COMPENSATORY APPROACH - A method c) CONSTRUCT – measure the construct is of making selection decisions in which a high purports to measure score on one test can compensate for a low score i) CONVERGENT on another test. For example, a high GPA might ii) DIVERGENT compensate for a low GRE score. iii) KNOWN GROUP VALIDITY – a test is  RULE OF THREE - names of the top three given to 2 groups who are known to have applicants are given to a hiring authority who can different traits in question; must be used then select any of the three. when other methods are not practical  PASSING SCORE - minimum test score that an d) FACE VALIDITY – a test appears to be job applicant must achieve to be considered for hire. related  MULTIPLE-HURDLE APPROACH - i) BARNUM STATEMENTS – general Selection practice of administering one test at a statements that can almost be true to time so that applicants must pass that test before everyone being allowed to take the next test. 3) COST-EFFICIENCY – if two or more tests have  BANDING - hire the top test scorers while still similar validities then its costs must be considered allowing some flexibility for affirmative action a) COMPUTER-ADAPTIVE TESTING (CAT)  STANDARD ERROR (SE) - number of points - type of test taken on a computer in which the that a test score could be off due to test computer adapts the difficulty level of questions unreliability. 3 0  CHAPTER 7: EVALUATING EMPOYEE Paired comparisons - comparing each PERFORMANCE possible pair of employees and choosing which one of each pair is the better EVALUATING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE employee STEP 1: DETERMINE THE REASON FOR  Forced distribution - which a EVALUATING EMPLOYEE PERFORMANCE predetermined percentage of employees are placed into a number of performance  Forced-choice rating scale – excellent in categories. determining compensation  Objective Measures  Providing employee training & feedback –  Quantity of work → simply counting the providing feedback about what employees do right number of relevant job behaviors that take & wrong place.  Performance appraisal review – discuss  Quality of work → errors → deviation strength & weakness of employees from a standard  Determining salary increases – difference of tenure  Attendance and job performance  Safety  Making promotion decisions – the best employee  Ratings of Performance in one level is not always the best at the next level  Graphic Rating Scale – most common  Peter principle – promotion of employees until rating scale. Rating employee performance they reach highest level of performance on an interval or ratio scale.  Making termination Decisions  Behavioral checklists - a list of behaviors,  Conducting personnel research expectations, or results for each dimension. CONTAMINATION → The condition in STEP 2: IDENTIFY ENVIRONMENT & CULTURAL which a criterion score is affected by things LIMITATIONS other than those under the control of the STEP 3: DETERMINE WHO WILL EVALUATE employee. PERFORMANCE  Comparison with other employees → Supervisors can rate performance on a  360-degree feedback – excellent source for dimension by comparing the employee’s improving employee performance. Feedback is level of performance with that of other obtained from multiple sources such as supervisors, employees. subordinates, and peers.  Frequency of desired behaviors -  Multiple-source feedback - employee receives Behaviors can be rated based on the feedback from sources (e.g., clients, subordinates, frequency with which they occur. peers) other than just his/her supervisor.  Extent to which organizational expectations  Supervisors – most common type of performance are met – best approach appraisal. See the results of the employees  Peers – often see the actual behavior of the STEP 5: TRAIN RATERS employees  Frame of reference training - the rater is provided  Subordinate feedback or upward feedback - with job-related information, a chance to practice appraisal of managerial effectiveness should include ratings, examples of ratings made by experts, and the input from direct reports. rationale behind the expert ratings.  Customers → through “secret shoppers”  Self-appraisal → employee evaluate her own STEP 6: OBSERVE & DOCUMENT behavior PERFORMANCE STEP 4: SELECT THE BEST APPRAISAL  Critical Incidents - supervisor records employee METHODS TO ACCOMPLISH YOUR GOALS behaviors that were observed on the job and rates the employee on the basis of that record.  Focus of the Appraisal dimensions  Employee performance record - A standardized  Trait-focused performance dimensions – use of the critical-incident technique developed at attributions as dependability, honesty & General Motors. courtesy. → provide poor feedback  Competency-focused – employee’s knowledge STEP 7: EVALUATE PERFORMANCE and skills; easy to provide feedback  Task-focused – organized by similarity of tasks  Obtaining & reviewing objective data  Goal-focused – organized the appraisal as the  Reading critical-incident logs basis of goals to be accomplished by the  Completing the rating form employee  Distribution errors - a rater will use only a  Contextual performance – efforts of the certain part of a rating scale when evaluating employee makes to get along with peers employee performance.  Should dimensions be weighted? → weighting  Leniency error - a rater consistently gives dimensions makes good philosophical sense, as all employees high ratings, regardless of some dimensions might be more important to an their actual levels of performance. organization than others.  Central tendency error - a rater  Use of employee comparisons, objective measure consistently rates all employees in the or ratings middle of the scale, regardless of their actual  Employee comparison - employees can be levels of performance. compared with one another instead of being  Strictness error - a rater consistently gives rated individually on a scale all employees low ratings, regardless of their  Rank order - employees are ranked in order actual levels of performance. by their judged performance for each  Halo Errors – overall impression relevant dimension  Proximity errors - a rating made on one dimension affects the rating made on the 3 0  dimension that immediately follows it on the CHAPTER 8: DESIGNING & EVALUATING rating scale. TRAINING SYSTEMS  Contrast errors - performance rating one person receives can be influenced by the TRAINING – systematic acquisition of skills, rules, performance of a previously evaluated person concepts, or attitudes that result in improved  Assimilation - raters base their rating of an performance. Training compensates for the inability to employee during one rating period on the select desired applicants. Employees might have the ratings the rater gave during a previous necessary knowledge & skills one year, but have period. deficiencies by the next. Ultimate purpose is to increase  Low reliability across raters an organization’s profits.  Sampling problems DETERMINING TRAINING NEEDS  Recency effect  Infrequent observation - The idea that NEEDS ANALYSIS – first step is to determine the supervisors do not see most of an types of training that are needed in an organization employee’s behavior. 1) ORGANIZATIONAL ANALYSIS – determine  Cognitive processing of observed behavior those organizational factors that either facilitate or  Observation of behavior inhibit training effectiveness. Should focus on the  Emotional state goals of the organization wants to achieve, the extent  Bias to which training will help achieve those goals, the STEP 8: COMMUNICATE APPRAISAL RESULTS organization’s ability to conduct training & extent to TO EMPLOYEES which employees are willing to be trained. 2) TASK ANALYSIS – to use the job analysis  PRIOR TO THE INTERVIEW methods. To identify the tasks performed by each  Allocating time employee, the conditions under which tasks are  Scheduling the interview performed & the competencies needed to perform  Preparing for the interview the tasks under the identified conditions. Must  DURING THE INTERVIEW include “interviews, observations & task STEP 9: TERMINATE EMPLOYEES inventories”. It is usually conducted by listing tasks in one column & how the tasks are learned in a  Employment-at-Will Doctrine - The opinion of second column courts in most states that employers have the right to 3) PERSON ANALYSIS – determining which hire and fire an employee at will and without any employees need training & in which areas. Not specific cause. every employee needs further training for every task  Employent at will statements - Statements in performed. Uses the following: employment applications and company manuals a) Performance appraisal scores – low ratings reaffirming an organization’s right to hire and fire at may indicate additional training needed while will. high ratings indicates little training time needed.  LEGAL REASONS FOR TERMINATING 3 PROBLEMS: EMPLOYEES i) LENIENCY & STRICTNESS ERRORS  PROBATIONARY PERIOD – if the scores are consistently high because  VIOLATION OF COMPANY RULES of leniency error, HR might conclude that  PROGRESSIVE DISCIPLINE employees are proficient and thus need no  INABILITY TO PERFORM training  REDUCTION IN FORCE (LAYOFF) ii) HR might conclude that training in a  THE TERMINATION MEETING particular dimension is unnecessary due to  PRIOR TO THE MEETING only few employees score poorly  DURING THE MEETING iii) Current performance appraisal system may  AFTER THE MEETING not provide the type of information needed to conduct a training needs analysis b) Surveys – asks employees what knowledge and skills they believe should be included in future training. ADVANTAGES: i) eliminate the problems of performance rating errors ii) employees know their own strengths & weaknesses best. DISADVANTAGE: employees may not be honest c) Interviews – can yield even more in-depth answers to questions about training needs. ADVANTAGE: employee feelings & attitudes are revealed more clearly. DISADVANTAGE: data are often difficult to quantify & analyze d) Skills & Knowledge Tests – if only few employees score poorly, they are singled out for individual training. Problem is that relatively few tests are available for this purpose e) Critical Incidents – sorted into dimensions & separated into examples of good & poor performance 3 0 DEVELOPING A TRAINING PROGRAM 3) DELIVERING THE TRAINING PROGRAM a) INTRODUCTING THE TRAINER & 1) ESTABLISHING GOALS & OBJECTIVES – TRAINING SESSION – introduction should be goals & objectives must be obtainable given the time short & establish credentials of the trainer but & resources allocated to the training. Should state the length shall depends on the time allocated the following: b) USING ICE BREAKERS & ENERGIZERS – a) What learners are expected to do i) GOAL – b) The conditions under which they are expected to ii) LENGTH OF THE TRIANING SESSION – do it iii) NATURE OF THE AUDIENCE – c) The level at which they are expected to do it c) MAKING THE PRESENTATION 2) MOTIVATING EMPLOYEE i) Make eye contact a) MOTIVATING TO ATTEND TRAINING ii) Use gestures effectively i) Require them to attend training “on the iii) Don’t read your presentation clock” iv) Don’t hide behind the podium ii) Relate the training to an employee’s v) Be confident immediate job vi) Speak at a moderate pace iii) Make the training interesting vii) Avoid swearing iv) Increase employee buy-in viii) Try to make the presentation interesting v) Provide incentives ix) Don’t force humor vi) Provide food 4) USING CASE STUDIES TO APPLY vii) Reduce stress associated with attending KNOWLEDGE b) MOTIVATING TO PERFORM WELL IN a) Case studies - usually in a group, are presented TRAINING with a real or hypothetical workplace problem i) Provide incentives for learning and are asked to propose the best solution. (1) Skill-based pay – an employee b) Living case - case study based on a real participates in a training program that is situation rather than a hypothetical one. designed to increase a particular skill an 5) USING SIMULATION EXERCISES - designed employee needs either to be promoted or to place an applicant in a situation that is similar to to receive a pay raise. the one that will be encountered on the job. VERTICAL SKILL PLANS → pay 6) PRACTICING INTERPERSONAL SKILLS for skill in a single job. HORIZONTAL THROUGH ROLE PLAY – allows the trainee to SKILL PLANS → focus on skills used perform necessary interpersonal skills by acting out across multiple jobs. simulated roles DEPTH SKILL PLANS → reward 7) THROUGH BEHAVIOR MODELING – similar employees for learning specialized to role play except that trainees role-play ideal skills. behavior rather than the behavior they might BASIC SKILLS PLANS → focus on normally perform basic skills as math & English (2) Interest – interesting topic PROVIDING INDIVIDUAL TRAINING (3) Feedback – Positive feedback should be THROUGH DISTANCE LEARNING given when an employee correctly performs a task during training. 1) PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION - A training Negative feedback should also be method in which employees learn information at accompanied by specific suggestions for their own pace. how the employee can improve 2) USING BOOKS, VIDEOS, OF INTERACTIVE performance VIDEO ii) MOTIVATING TO USE THEIR 3) COMPUTER-BASED OR WEB-BASED TRAINING ON THE JOB – apply their PROGRAMMED INSTRUCTION – e-learning is knew knowledge & skills on the job itself. web-based while CBT is not. Employees can choose Better to train employees together at the from a variety of training programs offered onsite & same time which in turn result helping & complete the training at their own pace. Interactive encouraging each other. video → employees see a videotaped situation. 3) CHOOSING THE BEST TRAINING METHOD Webinars → web-based seminar. Webcasts → training programs transmitted over the web. CONDUCTING CLASSROOM TRAINING CONDUCTING ON-THE-JOB TRAINING Classroom instruction – seminar, lecture or workshop. 1) LEARNING BY MODELING OTHERS – Most common training method employees learn by watching how other employees perform or model a behavior 1) INITIAL DECISIONS a) WHO WILL CONDUCT THE TRAINING? a) We tend to model behavior of people who are similar to us who are successful & who have External trainers status. b) WHERE WILL THE TRIANING BE b) Employee must pay attention to the behavior of HELD? Onsite or offsite other employees. Must be able to retain c) HOW LONG SHOULD THE TRAINING information that is being modeled. And must BE? Distributed learning or Massed Learning have the ability to reproduce the behavior that is 2) PREPARING FOR CLASSROOM TRAINING seen a) ADJUSTING FOR THE AUDIENCE – 2) LEARNING THROUGH JOB ROTATION – trainer must consider the size, demographics, & ability of the audience. Present training in employee performs several different jobs within an organization. For managerial. moderate pace. b) DEVELOPING TRAINING CURRICULUM Cross training →Teaching employees how to – 30 or 50 hours of preparation before training perform tasks traditionally performed by other c) CREATING HANDOUTS – provide material employees. that trainees can take back to their jobs 3 0 3) LEARNING THROUGH APPRENTICE  Golem effect – when negative expectations TRAINING - A training program, usually found in of an individual cause a decrease in their the craft and building trades, in which employees performance combine formal coursework with formal on-the-job  INTRINSIC MOTIVATION – they will seek to training. perform well because they either enjoy performing 4) LEARNING THROUGH COACHING & the actual tasks or enjoy the challenge of MENTORING successfully completing the task. Extrinsically a) Coaching motivated → they don’t enjoy the tasks but are i) Experienced employees as coaches motivated to perform well to receive some type of (1) Pass-through programs – formal rewards or to avoid negative consequences method of coaching in which excellent  Work Preference Inventory (WPI) – yield employees spend a period of time in the scores on intrinsic motivation (enjoyment, training department learning training challenge) & two extrinsic (compensation, techniques and training employees. outward orientation) ii) Professional coaches – similar to  NEEDS FOR ACHIEVEMENT & POWER – consultants “McClelland” suggests that employees differ in the b) Mentoring – extent to which they are motivated by the need for achievement, affiliation & power. ENSURING TRANSFER OF TRAINING  Need for achievement – motivated by jobs that  Transfer of training - The extent to which behavior are challenging learned in training will be performed on the job.  Need for affiliation – motivated by jobs in  Overlearning - Practicing a task even after it has which they can work with & help other people been mastered in order to retain learning.  Need for power – motivated by a desire to influence others rather than simply be EVALUATION OF TRAINING RESULTS successful. 1) Pretest – taken before the implementation of HAVE THE EMPLOYEE’S VALUES & training EXPECTATIONS BEEN MET? 2) Posttest – taken after the training program is complete Potential discrepancies between what employees want & what the job gives them affect how motivated & CHAPTER 9: EMPLOYEE MOTIVATION satisfied employees will be with their jobs. MOTIVATION – the internal force that drives a worker  JOB EXPECTATIONS – an employee expected a to action as well as the external factors that encourage job to be like & the reality of the job can affect that action. It determines whether the worker will do motivation & satisfaction. work properly. Increased worker motivation results in  Realistic job preview – method of recruitment increased job performance in which job applicants are told both the positive and the negative aspects of a job. IS AN EMPLOYEE PREDISPOSED TO BEING  JOB CHARACTERISTICS – theory which MOTIVATED? employees desire jobs that are meaningful, provide  SELF-ESTEEM – the extent to which a person them with the opportunity to be personally views himself as valuable and why. High self-esteem responsible for the outcome of their work workers are more motivated than with lower self- (autonomy) & provide them with feedback of the esteem. results. Job will have:  CONSITENCY THEORY (Korman’s) – there  Motivation potential – if they allow employees is a positive correlation between self-esteem & to use a variety of skills & to connect their performance. High self-esteem actually desire to efforts to an outcome (task identification) which perform high levels & employees with low self- has meaning, and useful & appreciated by esteem desire to perform at low levels. coworkers as well as by others in society (task  Chronic self-esteem – person’s overall significance). feeling about himself  NEEDS, VALUES AND WANTS –  Situational self-esteem – “self-efficacy”. A  Maslow’s Hierarchy – employees would be person’s feeling about himself in a particular motivated by & satisfied with their jobs at any situation. given point in time if certain needs were met.  Socially influences self-esteem – how a  ERG Theory – “Aldefer” suggested that a person feels about himself on the basis of person can skip levels the expectations of others.  Existence  Self-esteem workshops – attend workshops.  Relatedness Outdoor experiential training  Growth  Experience with success – an employee is  Two-factor Theory – “Herzberg” believed that given a task so easy that he will almost certainly job-related factors could be dived into 2 succeed. categories:  Self-fulfilling prophecy – individual will  Hygiene factors – those job-related perform as well or as poorly as he expects to elements that result from but do not involve perform. the job itself. Pay, security, coworkers,  Galatea effect – relationship between self- working conditions, company policy, work expectation and performance. “positive” schedule, supervisors  Supervisor Behavior – if an employee feels that  Motivators – job elements that do concern a manager has confidence in him, his self- actual tasks & duties. Responsibility, esteem will increase, as well his performance. growth, challenge, stimulation,  Pygmalion effect – higher expectation lead independence, variety, achievement, control, to higher performance interesting work DO EMPLOYEES HAVE ACHIEVABLE GOALS? 3 0 Goal setting – each employee is given a goal such as objective performance measures as sales & increasing attendance, etc. S M A R T productivity.  Group incentives plans – to get employees  SPECIFIC – properly set goals are concrete & participate in the success or failure of the specific. The more specific the goal, the greater the organization productivity  Profit sharing – provide employees with a  MEASURABLE – if one’s goal is to improve percentage of profits above a certain amount performance or increase customer service,  Gain sharing – ties groupwide financial  DIFFICULT BUT ATTAINABLE – high but incentives to improvements in organizational attainable. Setting higher goals leads to better performance. performance but the level of goal difficulty will most Baseline → The level of productivity before the affect performance when employees are committed implementation of a gain-sharing plan. to reaching the goal  Stock Options – employees are given  RELEVANT – the opportunity to purchase stock in the  TIME-BOUND – there is time frame for future, typically at the market price on completion the day the options were granted  EMPLOYEE PARTICIPATION – performance  EXPECTANCY THEORY - Vroom’s theory that would increase even more if the employee motivation is a function of expectancy, participated instrumentality, and valence. The higher the score on ARE EMPLOYEES RECEIVING FEEDBACK ON each component, the greater the employee’s THEIR GOAL PROGRESS? motivation.  Expectancy – if an employee believes that no Feedback –verbally telling employees how they are matter how hard he works he will never reach doing, placing a chart on a wall, or using nonverbal the necessary level of performance, then his communication. Best increases performance when it is motivation will probably be low positive & informational rather than negative &  Instrumentality – employee will be motivated controlling only of his behavior results in some specific consequence SELF-REGULATION THEORY – employees  Valence – if an employee is rewarded, the monitor their own progress toward attaining goals & reward must be something he values. then make the necessary adjustments; that is; they self-  Internal Locus of control - The extent to which regulate. people believe that they are responsible for and ARE EMPLOYEES REWARDED FOR in control of their success or failure in life. ACHIEVING GOALS?  REWARDS VS. PUNISHMENT – punishment changes behavior only in the short run, does not OPERANT CONDITIONING – basis of incentive teach an employee proper behaviors, & causes systems which state that employees will engage in resentment. To be effective, employee must behaviors for which they are rewarded understand why he is being punished.  TIMING OF THE INCENTIVE – most effective ARE REWARDS AND RESOURCES GIVEN if it occurs soon after the performance of the EQUITABLY? behavior  CONTINGENCY OF CONSEQUENCES – at  EQUITY THEORY - A theory of job satisfaction least be clear that the employee understands the stating that employees will be satisfied if their ratio behaviors that brought reward or punishment. of effort to reward is similar to that of other Reward & punishment must be made contingent employees. upon performance & must be clear to employees  INPUTS – personal elements we put into our  TYPE OF INCENTIVE USED jobs. Time, effort, education, experience  Premack Principle – reinforcement is relative  OUTPUTS – elements we receive from our & that a supervisor can reinforce an employee jobs. Pay, benefits, challenge, responsibility with something that on the surface does not  INPUTS/OUTPUTS RATIO – the ratio of how appear to be a reinforcer. Construct a much employees believe they put into their jobs reinforcement hierarchy on which an employee to how much they believe they get from their lists his preferences for a variety of reinforcers. jobs.  Financial Rewards – used to motivate better  Organizational justice - A theory that postulates worker performance by making variable pay an that if employees perceive they are being treated integral part of an employee’s compensation fairly, they will be more likely to be satisfied with package or by using financial rewards as a their jobs and motivated to do well. “bonus” for accomplishing certain goals. ARE OTHER EMPLOYEES MOTIVATED?  Recognition – “social recognition” → informal recognition programs consists of personal If an organization’s older employees work hard attention, signs of approval & expressions of & talk positively about their jobs & their employer, new appreciation employees will model this behavior & be both  Travel productive & satisfied.  INDIVIDUAL VS. GROUP INCENTIVES – designed to make high levels of individual INTEGRATION OF MOTIVATION THEORIES: performance financially worthwhile & the research  We will be motivated in our jobs if the job itself & is clear monetary incentives increase performance the organization meet our expectations & values & over the use of a guaranteed hourly salary satisfy our needs.  Pay for performance – “earnings-at-risk plans”  Goal-setting theory – we find that employees who → pay employees according to how much they have understand, and agree to goals will be more individually produce. Include commission motivated than those without goals or unclear goals.  Merit pay – base their incentives on  Expectancy theory & goal-setting theory – we performance appraisal scores rather than on know that goals must be challenging but reasonable 3 0  Operant learning & expectation theories –  SELF-ESTEEM – extrinsically motivated people will be more  SELF-EFFICACY – motivated if behavior results in a reward  EXTERNAL LOCUS