Data Collection PDF

 COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA 1. Steps in the Process of Data Collection 2. Selecting Participants for a Study 3. Calculating the Sample Size 4. Selecting the Sampling Technique 5. Identifying the Permissions Needed for a Study 6. Listing Different Options for Collecting Information 7. Locating...

 COLLECTING QUANTITATIVE DATA 1. Steps in the Process of Data Collection 2. Selecting Participants for a Study 3. Calculating the Sample Size 4. Selecting the Sampling Technique 5. Identifying the Permissions Needed for a Study 6. Listing Different Options for Collecting Information 7. Locating or Developing an instrument 8. Searching for an Instrument 9. Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument 10. Describing the Procedures for Administering Data Collection 1. Steps in the Process of Data Collection 1. Determine the participants to study 2. Calculate the sample size and determine the sampling technique to be adopted 3. Obtain permissions needed and consider what types of information to collect 4. Locate and select instruments to be used 5. Administer/Float the questionnaire 2.2 Selecting the Participants This involves determining whether you will study individuals or entire organizations (e.g., schools) or some combination. If you select either individuals or organizations, you need to decide what type of people or organizations you will actually study and how many you will need [for your research]. Unit of Analysis These decisions require that you decide on a unit of analysis, the group and individuals you will study, the procedure for selecting these individuals, and assessing the numbers of people needed for your data analysis.  Some possibilities might be students, teachers, parents, adults, some combination of these individuals, or entire schools. At this early stage in data collection, you must decide at what level (e.g., individual, family, school, school district) the data needs to be gathered. This level is referred to as the unit of analysis. Specify the Population and Sample Representative refers to the selection of individuals from a sample of a population such that the individuals selected are typical of the population under study, enabling you to draw conclusions from the sample about the population as a whole. 2.3 Calculating the Sample Size Sampling is the process of selecting a few (a sample) from a bigger group (the population) to become the basis for estimating or predicting the prevalence of an unknown piece of information, situation, or outcome, regarding the bigger group. Rule of Thumb: Law of Large Number “The larger the size of the sample, the more certain we can be sure that the sample mean will be a good estimate of the population mean”. The larger the sample, the less the potential error is that the sample will be different from the population. Sampling Error Sampling error is the difference between the results obtained from a sample and the results obtained from the population from which the sample was selected. For example, suppose you select a sample of full-time students at your college and find 56% are female. Then you go to the admissions office and get the sexes of all full- time students that semester and find that 54% are female. The difference of 2% is said to be due to sampling error.  It is important to select as large a sample as possible from the population to minimize sampling error. One way to determine the sample size is to select a sufficient number of participants for the statistical procedures you plan to use. This presumes that you have identified the statistic to use in analysis. As a rough estimate, an educational researcher according to Creswell (2012) needs: Approximately 15 participants in each group in an experiment Approximately 350 individuals for a descriptive study, but this size will vary depending on several factors Calculating the sample size Calculating the sample size Cochran’s Formula  Suppose we are going to calculate the actual sample size from 300 teachers at 95% confidence level with unknown population proportion. Hence, we have: 2.4 Selecting Sampling Technique Probability Sampling: Samples are chosen in such a way that each member of the population has a known though not necessarily equal chance of being included in the sample. (UNBIASED) Non-probability Sampling: Each member of the population does not have a known chance of being included in the sample. Instead, personal judgment plays a very important role in the selection. (BIASED) Types of Probability Sampling Simple Random Sampling: All members of the population have a chance of being included in the sample. Systematic Sampling: It selects every nth element or member of the population with the starting point determined at random. Stratified Random Sampling: Used when the population can be subdivided into several smaller groups or strata. (Proportional or Equal Allocation) Simple Random Sampling:  Systematic Sampling: To illustrate systematic sampling, assume a school principal wants to study parent satisfaction with the school. Using systematic sampling, the Principal would first study a percentage of the parents (e.g., 20%). If there were 1,000 parents in the school, s/he would select 200 (or 20%) for the study. S/he uses an interval of five (200/1,000, or 1 out of 5) to select parents from the mailing list (or target population list). Therefore, this Principal sends every fifth parent on the list a survey. Stratified Proportional Random Sampling: Cluster Sampling: Used when the population is very large. Groups or clusters instead of individuals are randomly selected. Multi-stage Sampling: Sampling stages are done, which means the population elements are grouped into a hierarchy of individuals or units, and sampling is then done successively Types of Non-probability Sampling Convenience Sampling: A group of individuals who (conveniently) are available for the study are chosen. Purposive Sampling: Involves choosing the respondents of the study on the basis of pre-determined criteria set by the researcher. Snowball Sampling. Snowball sampling or chain-referral sampling is sampling technique in which the samples have traits that are rare to find. This is a sampling technique, in which existing subjects provide referrals to recruit samples required for a research study. 2.5 Obtaining Permission This permission will ensure that they cooperate in your study and provide data. Besides cooperation, their permission also acknowledges that they understand the purpose of your study and that you will treat them ethically. Ethics committee requires that you guarantee them certain rights and that you request their permission to be involved in your study. Informed Consent Informed Consent 2.6 Listing of Different Options for Collecting Information With the identification of participants and a procedure for gaining permission, you next turn to the specific forms of data that will help you answer your research questions or address your research hypotheses. This step involves identifying the variables in your questions and hypotheses, finding definitions for these variables, and considering types of information that will help you assess these variables, a process outlined in the Figure: Data Gathering Instruments Data Gathering Instruments A. Questionnaire Method B. Observation Method C. The Direct or Interview Method Data Gathering Instruments A. Questionnaire Method B. Observation Method C. The Direct or Interview Method  Questionnaire Method Preparation of a Questionnaire Questionnaire is the most suitable method for gathering the data. Questionnaire is a list of questions or statements to which particular groups of individuals are asked to respond in writing the responses ranging from mere check marks to extensive written statements. Questionnaire Method 1. Operationalization of the Concept or Construct Operationalization refers to the process of specifying empirical observations or measurements that may be taken as indicators of the attributes contained within a concept or construct(Sudman,1995). If the construct is, for instance environmental concern in operationalization, the researcher should consider the variables and their respective attributes that describe the dimensions of the construct. One variable that may be considered is gender consisting attributes male and female. “Who is more environmentally concerned – the male or the female?”. Questionnaire Method 2. Questionnaire Design Questionnaire Design is the process of translating the broad objectives of a study into questions that will obtain the necessary information. Two kinds of question or statement items may be constructed: 1. Open – ended 2. Closed - ended  2. Questionnaire Design Open – ended questions => those which require the respondent to write his own answer on the blank space provided for it. The extent, depth, and overall quality of the response from individual respondent vary a great deal. Close – ended questions => the respondents select from among the options provided by the researcher where the option provided are exhaustive, that is, all possible answers have been included from which the given directions or instruction were clearly understood by the respondents or subjects of the study in terms of the process of filling up the questionnaires. 2. Questionnaire Design Guidelines in Question Writing 1. Items should be clear and specific. “ What do you think of Balikatan – 02 in the Philippines? 2. Words used in the item should be familiar and relevant to the respondents. ◦ 2.1. Avoid combination of questions in a single item. ◦ 2.2Avoid leading questions. ◦ 2.3 Avoid loaded questions. ◦ 2.4 The questions must be applicable to all respondents. ◦ 2.5 The item must not pressure the respondent toward the socially or officially desirable option. Questionnaire Format The physical layout of the questionnaire should be attractive and convenient for the respondent to use and easy for the researcher to identify the code and in processing the data for analysis. Do not squeeze several questions into few lines to make the questionnaire appear short. The respondent is likely to miss some questions. For check-mark responses, provide boxes or open-close parenthesis. Avoid blank spaces or even the underscored blank spaces. Instructions on how to Respond to the Questionnaire Every questionnaires should contain clear introductory comments and instructions on its proper use. The introductory comments usually give the rationale and uses of the research, as well as some words of encouragement to help put the respondent in the right frame of mind for answering the questions. Data Collection Data collection is usually conducted in stages. The earliest stage is commonly known as pilot study or pilot work is to try out the questionnaire to identify the irrelevant, unnecessary, confusing items and words, the difficulties of the respondents with the instructions, sequence, and format, and to determine the average amount of time needed to finish it. The questionnaire is revised subsequently according to the findings in the pilot work. The revised questionnaire resulting from the pilot study is used in the actual data collection for the research. There are two ways of collecting data using the questionnaire: 1. Self-administered questionnaire where the individual respondent answers the questions without the assistance of a proctor. 2. Group-administered questionnaire where groups of individuals are given the questionnaire to fill in with the assistance of a proctor who stands by for any question that arises from the respondents. Data Gathering Instruments A. Questionnaire Method B. Observation Method C. The Direct or Interview Method B. Observation Method In an observation method of gathering data for research, the current status of phenomenon is determined not by asking but by observing. Types of Observation Method of Gathering Data 1. Nonparticipant Observation. The observer is not directly involved in the situation to be observed. In other words, the observer is on the outside looking in and not intentionally interact with, or affect, the object of the observation. Simulation Observation. The researcher creates the situation to be observed and tells subjects what activities they are to engage in. Types of Observation Method of Gathering Data 2. Participant Observation. The observer becomes a part of a participant in the situation to be observed. 3. Ethnography. It involves intensive data collection, that is collection of data on many variables over an extended period of time in a naturalistic setting. Data Gathering Instruments A. Questionnaire Method B. Observation Method C. The Direct or Interview Method C. The Direct or Interview Method This is a method of subject-to-subject exchange between the interviewer and the interviewee. The interview method provides consistent and more precise information since clarification may be given by the interviewee. C. The Direct or Interview Method 1. The Registration Method. In this method of gathering information is enforced by certain laws. Examples: ◦ Registration of births, ◦ deaths, ◦ motor vehicles, ◦ marriages, and ◦ licenses. C. The Direct or Interview Method 2. The Experimental Method. In this method is used when the objective is to determined the cause and effect relationship of certain phenomena under controlled. Scientific researchers usually use the experimental method. 2.7 Locating or Developing an Instrument Three options exist for obtaining an instrument to use: you can develop one yourself, locate one and modify it, or locate one and use it in its entirety. Of these choices, locating one to use (either modifying it or using it in its original form) represents the easiest approach. 2.8 Searching for an Instrument If you decide to use an existing instrument, the publisher or author will typically charge you a fee for use of the instrument. Finding a good instrument that measures your independent and dependent variables is not easy. In fact, you may need to assemble a new instrument that consists of parts of existing instruments. Whether you search for one instrument or several to use, one best strategy can aid in your search:  Look in published journal articles. Often authors of journal articles will report instruments and provide a few sample items so that you can see the basic content included in the instrument. Examine references in published journal articles that cite specific instruments and contact the authors for inspection copies. Before you use the instrument, seek permission from the author. With limited space in journals, authors are including fewer examples of their items or copies of their instruments. Search Engine Search Engine Search Engine 2.9 Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument 1. Have authors developed the instrument recently, and can you obtain the most recent version? 2. Is the instrument widely cited by other authors? 3. Are reviews available for the instrument? 4. Is there information about the reliability and validity of scores from past uses of the instrument? 5. Does the procedure for recording data fit the research questions/hypotheses in your study? 6. Does the instrument contain accepted scales of measurement? 2.10 Describing the Procedures for Administering Data Collection The final step involves actually collecting the data. Your procedures need to be standard so that there is a uniform procedure for data collection. Also, as with all phases in research, the data collection process needs to be conducted in a way that is ethical to individuals and to research sites. Standardization Performance measures, attitudinal measures, and observations rely on instruments. These instruments may consist of questionnaires that researchers mail to participants or hand out individually to people, surveys often administered in person or over the telephone, and observational checklists that researchers complete. Quantitative investigators also use instruments when they conduct face-to-face interviews with individuals or for a group of individuals. Ethical Issues Data collection should be ethical and it should respect individuals and sites. Obtaining permission before starting to collect data is not only a part of the informed consent process but is also an ethical practice. Protecting the anonymity of individuals by assigning numbers to returned instruments and keeping the identity of individuals confidential offers privacy to participants. During data collection, you must view the data as confidential and not share it with other participants or individuals outside of the project. You need to respect the wishes of individuals who choose not to participate in your study.