FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER PDF

HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Note: The reviewers created by the HAU Psychology Society ensure consistency and quality during your review process. Be reminded that the content of the...

HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Note: The reviewers created by the HAU Psychology Society ensure consistency and quality during your review process. Be reminded that the content of the reviewers is based ONLY ON THE GIVEN MODULES by the subject’s instructor. Thank you and Goodluck on your Exam! Laus Deo Semper! Lesson 1: Quantitative Data Collection Five Steps in the Process of Data Collection Probability Sampling 1. Determine the participants to study 2. Obtain permissions needed from several - involves the use of a random selection individuals and organizations process to select a sample from members or 3. Consider the types of information to collect elements of a population. from several sources available to the - The goal of probability sampling is to quantitative research examine representative elements of 4. Locate and select instruments to use that will populations. net useful data for the study 5. Administer the data collection process to 1. Simple Random Sampling collect data. - is a type of probability sampling that ensures Identifying Participants that each element of the population has an - Identify your unit of analysis equal and independent chance of being o You must decide at what level (e.g., chosen. individual, family, school, school 3 ways of selecting a simple random sample: district) the data needs to be gathered - Specify the Population and Sample Fishbowl Method Table of Random Numbers Method Calculator Fishbowl Technique or Lottery Method Steps: 1. Write the numbers of all the participants in small pieces of papers, papers of the same, form and color. 2. Roll these papers and put them in container, where they can move freely in all directions. 3. The container is shaken very thoroughly and a number is drawn. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER 4. Stop when the desired the number of samples is picked from the container. Procedures in Fishbowl Technique Random sample with replacement - the drawn paper containing the number is returned to the container. Random sample without replacement - the paper with the number is not returned to the container after it has been drawn. Using a calculator to generate random numbers Table of random numbers method - Use: NRan# (ex. 1000Ran#) o Where: - includes a list of numbers that have been ▪ The first N stands for the generated in such a manner that there is no population size order or sequencing of the numbers. ▪ Ran# - is the key used to Probabilistic Sampling generate random numbers Steps in the table of random numbers method 2. Systematic Random Sampling 1. Assign a number to each element of the - involves selecting every kth element of the accessible population, such as every fifth, eighth, or 2. Enter the table of random numbers at an twenty first element. arbitrary or random starting point. This can be done through closing your eyes and - blindly pointing to a number in the table. That - Where: number becomes your first selection. o K = interval 3. Continue in a systematic way either up, o N = Population size down, to the left, right, or diagonally. The o n = Sample size direction is not important, but the decision should be made before the process is started, Steps in Systematic Random Sampling: and this direction should continue until the 1. Construct the population frame and assign a total sample is selected. number to each participant randomly. 4. Continue to select numbers until the desired 2. Compute the interval K: number of samples. The numbers are circled. 5. If a number is encountered more than once, 3. Enumerate the elements contained in the set the number is skipped. of N. This set shall contain the number for the random start. 4. From this set of elements in N select a number using the Table of Random. Numbers for a random start. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER 5. Using the number as a “system” select every 4. Multistage Cluster Sampling nth member of the population (Determine the - Also known as Cluster Random Sampling sampling interval or the standard distance where large groups or “clusters” become the between the selected elements) sampling 6. Stop when the required number of participants has been obtained. 3. Stratified Random Sampling - the population is divided into subgroups, or Using Power Analysis to Determine Sample size strata, according to some variable or variables of importance to the research study. Power Analysis Steps: - The power of a statistical test is the probability that the test will correctly reject a 1. Construct the population of the participants false null hypothesis. and determine the relevant strata. - That is, power is the probability that the test 2. Select the number using proportional or will identify a treatment effect if one really disproportional stratified sampling. exists 3. Choose the participants of the research within each of the categories according to simple random sampling methods. 2 approaches in getting the samples from strata: a. Proportional Stratified Sampling - involves obtaining a sample from each stratum that is in proportion to the size of that stratum in the total population. b. Disproportional Stratified Sampling - involves the selection of members from strata where the number of members chosen from each stratum is not in proportion to the size of the stratum in the total population. Factors that Influence Power Effect Size - as the effect size increases, the probability of rejecting Ho also increases, which means that the power of the test increases. - Measures of effect size such as Cohen’s d and measures of power both provide an indication This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER of the strength or magnitude of a treatment gpower/ effect. - G*Power User Manual Sample Size https://www.psychologie.hhu.de/fileadmin/r edaktion/Fakultaeten/Mathematisch - A larger sample produces greater power for a - Naturwissenschaftliche_Fakultaet/Psycholog hypothesis test. ie/AAP/gpower/GPowerManual.pdf - Because power is directly related to sample size, one of the primary reasons for computing power is to determine what sample size is necessary to achieve a reasonable probability for a successful research study. Alpha Level - Reducing the alpha level for a hypothesis test also reduces the power of the test. - For example, lowering α from.05 to.01 lowers the power of the hypothesis test. One Tailed vs. Two Tailed Tests - As an example, if you aim to conduct a cross- sectional study measuring the correlation - If the treatment effect is in the predicted between the number of overtime hours direction, then changing from a regular two worked and burnout symptoms in a sample of tailed test to a one tailed test increases the emergency room nurses, you can estimate the power of the hypothesis test. sample size required to determine whether Power Analysis using G*Power your correlation significantly differs from zero (e.g., one possible hypothesis is that - G*Power is a tool to compute statistical there will be a significant positive association power analyses for many different t tests, F between number of hours worked and tests, χ2 tests, z tests and some exact tests. emotional exhaustion burnout symptoms). G*Power can also be used to compute effect - This power analysis requires just three pieces sizes and to display graphically the results of of information: power analyses. - The main purpose underlying statistical 1. An estimate of the size of correlation (r). power analysis is to help the researchers to - A common approach for generating this determine the smallest sample size that is estimate is to find similar studies that have suitable to detect the effect of a given test at reported the size of the correlation between the desired level of significance. hours worked and burnout symptoms. - How to Determine Sample size using G*Power 2. A two tailed alpha value (α). This value is called https://www.statisticssolutions.com/how to the Type I error rate and refers to determine sample size from This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - the risk we want to take in saying we have a Test family: Exact real non zero correlation when in fact this Statistical test: Correlation: Bivariate normal effect is not real (and determined by chance), model that is, a false positive effect. Type of power analysis: A priori: Compute - A commonly accepted alpha value is.05, required sample size which refers to a 5% probability (5/100) that Tails: Two we are comfortable making a Type I error, Correlation ρ H1:.25 such that 5% of the time we will say that α err prob:.05 there’s a significant (non-zero) relationship Power (1 - β err prob):.8 between number of hours worked and Correlation ρ H0: 0 burnout symptoms when in fact this effect occurred by chance and is not real. Nonprobability Sampling 3. A beta value (β). - the sample elements are chosen from the population by nonrandom methods. - This value is called the Type II error rate and individuals are representative of the refers to the risk we want to take in saying population we do not have a significant effect when in fact there is a significant association, that is, 1. Convenience Sampling a false negative effect. - involves choosing readily available people or - Researchers commonly try to balance the objects for a study. risks of making Type I versus Type II errors, - also known as accidental or incidental with a commonly accepted beta value being sampling..20 - Power analysis calculators will commonly 2. Snowball sampling (network or chain ask for estimated power, which refers to 1 − sampling) beta (1 −.20 =.80). - the researcher asks participants to identify others to become members of the sample - You can then plug these numbers into a power analysis calculator to determine the 3. Quota Sampling sample size needed. - is similar to stratified random sampling - If you assume that the estimated association except for obtaining sample members. is r =.25, with a two tailed alpha value of.05 and a beta value of.20, the power analysis 4. Purposive Sampling calculation indicates that you need at least - involves “handpicking” of subjects. 123 participants in the study you aim to - also known as judgmental sampling. conduct. Considerations in Sample Size in Quantitative - To get some practice, try conducting this Studies sample size determination power analysis 1. The larger the sample, the more using the G*Power software program with representative it is likely to be. the following input parameters: This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER 2. The larger the sample, the smaller the 2. Purposive Sampling sampling error. - The qualitative researchers strive to select 3. As the sample size increases, the probability sample members purposefully based on the of getting a deviant sample diminishes information needs emerging from the early because large samples provide opportunity to findings. counterbalance atypical values (sampling bias). Strategies for Purposive Sampling (Patton, 2015) 4. Power analysis determines how large the a) Maximum variation sampling involves sample size is through statistics. purposefully selecting cases with a range of Sampling Error variation on dimensions of interest. b) Homogenous sampling involves a deliberate - is the difference between data obtained from reduction of variation to permit a more a random sample and the data that would be focused inquiry. obtained if an entire population were c) Typical case sampling involves selecting measured. participants who will illustrate or highlight Sampling Bias what is typical or average. d) Extreme/deviant case sampling provides - is the bias that occurs when samples are not opportunities for learning from the most carefully selected. unusual and extreme informants (e.g., Sample size estimates (Creswell, 2019) outstanding successes and notable features). e) Criterion sampling involves studying cases - Approximately 15 participants in each group that meet a predetermined criterion of in an experiment importance. - Approximately 30 participants for a f) Sampling of confirming and disconfirming correlational study that relates variables cases - Approximately 350 individuals for a survey o Confirming cases are additional study, but this size will vary depending on cases that fit researchers’ several factors conceptualizations and offer Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies enhanced credibility. o Disconfirming cases are new cases 1. Convenience and Snowball Sampling that do not fit and serve to challenge Volunteer Sampling researchers’ interpretations - when researchers need participants to come 3. Theoretical Sampling forward to identify themselves. - is a method of sampling that is most often Nominated Sampling used in grounded theory studies. - is a process of data collection for generating - relies on the nominations or referrals of theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, others already in the sample. codes, and analyzes his data and decides what data to collect next and where to find them, This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER in order to develop his theory as it emerges Example for Qualitative Research (Glaser, 1978). - The purpose is to discover categories and their properties and to offer interrelationships that occur in the substantive theory. Considerations in Sample Size in Qualitative Studies - Data saturation is the guiding principle in qualitative sampling. - A small number of informants can generate a Obtain Different Types of Permissions large sample for analysis (i.e. the “incidents” - Institutions or organizations (e.g., school or experiences are the basis for analysis) district) - Final sampling decisions generally take place - Specific sites (e.g., the secondary school) during data collection. - A participant or group of participants - For ethnographic studies, 25-50 informants; - Parents of participants (e.g., 10th graders’ phenomenology, 10 or lower; grounded parents) theory studies, 20 30 people. - The campus on which you conduct the Sample Description in Qualitative Studies research (i.e., permission from - your university or college institutional review The research report should include a description of board) the following aspects of the sample: Review Board Approval 1. The type of sampling procedure 2. The population under study and the eligibility - An institutional review board is a committee (inclusion) criteria for sample selection made up of faculty members 3. The number of participants in the study and a rationale for the sample size This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Process of Obtaining Approval from Review Boards 1. Start by finding out about the review process used by the institutional review board on your campus. 2. Determine what information the review board needs about your project. 3. Develop an informed consent form for participants to sign before they participate in IV. Selecting an Instrument the study. II. Determine type of information to Collect Criteria for Choosing a Good Instrument - Have authors developed the instrument recently, and can you obtain the most recent version? Instruments over 5 years old might be outdated. - Is the instrument widely cited by other authors? Frequent use by other researchers will provide some indication of its endorsement by others. - Are reviews available for the instrument? Look for published reviews about the instrument in the MMY or in journals such as Measurement and Evaluation in Counseling and Development. - If reviews exist, it means that other researchers have taken the instrument seriously and seek to document its worth. - Is there information about the reliability and validity of scores from past uses of the instrument? This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - Does the procedure for recording data fit the Validity research questions/hypotheses in your study? - is the development of sound evidence to - Does the instrument contain accepted scales demonstrate that the test interpretation (of of measurement? scores about the concept or construct that the Modifying an instrument test is assumed to measure) matches its proposed use. - means locating an existing instrument, - This definition, in place since 1985, changes obtaining permission to change it, and the traditional focus on the three-fold types of making changes in it to fit your requirements. validity—construct, criterion-referenced, and - Typically, authors of the original instrument content—and shifts the emphasis from will ask for a copy of your modified version “types” of validity to the “evidence” and and the results from your study in exchange “use” of the test or instrument (Thorndike, for your use of their instrument. 1997b). - Some only require that you cite them. Steps to employ in determining validity: Reliability and Validity of an Instrument 1. Identify an instrument (or test) that you Reliability would like to use - means that scores from an instrument are 2. Look for evidence of validity by examining stable and consistent. prior studies that have reported scores and - Scores should be nearly the same when use of the instrument researchers administer the instrument 3. Look closely at the purpose for which the multiple times at different times. instrument was used in these studies - Factors that result in unreliable data: 4. Look as well at how the researchers have o Questions on instruments are interpreted (discussed if the instrument ambiguous and unclear measured what it is intended to measure) the o Procedures of test administration vary scores in light of their intended use and are not standardized 5. Evaluate whether the authors provide good o Participants are fatigued, are nervous, evidence that links their interpretation to their misinterpret questions, or guess on use. tests (Rudner, 1993) Types of Reliability This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER from best or most important to worst or least important some trait, attribute, or characteristic. - These scales have an implied intrinsic order. For example, first to last place; “highly important” to “of no importance”; “to a great extent” to “a little Interval/Rating Scales - Interval scales (or rating scales or continuous scales) provide “continuous” response V. The Collection Process options to questions with assumed equal distances between options. Scales of measurement - These scales may have three, four, or more - are response options to questions that response options. measure (or observe) variables in categorical - Likert scale (strongly agree to strongly or continuous units. disagree) illustrates a scale with theoretically - It is important to understand scales of equal intervals among responses. measurement to assess the quality of an - It has become common practice to treat this instrument and to determine the appropriate scale as a rating scale and assume that the statistics to use in data analysis. equal intervals hold between the response categories (Blaikie, 2003). Two Basic Types: - However, we have no guarantee that we have 1. Categorical scales have two types: nominal equal intervals. Hence, often the Likert scale and ordinal scales. (strongly agree to strongly disagree) is 2. Continuous scales (often called scale scores) treated as both ordinal and interval data in a. two types: interval/quasi-interval educational research. Hence the term quasi- and ratio scales interval. Nominal Scales Ratio Scale (or true zero scale) - Researchers use nominal scales (or - A response scale in which participants check categorical scales) to provide response a response option with a true zero and equal options where participants check one or more distances between units. categories that describe their traits, attributes, - Examples: height of individuals (e.g., 50 or characteristics. inches, 60 inches) and income levels (from - They do not have any order. zero dollars to $50,000 in increments of $10,000). Ordinal Scales Combined Scales - Researchers use ordinal scales (or ranking scales or categorical scales) to provide - In educational research, quantitative response options where participants rank investigators often use a combination of This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER categorical and continuous scales. Of these, 3. Closed-ended questions addressing practices interval scales provide the most variation of or behaviors (e.g., “I claim responsibility responses and lend themselves to stronger when I’ve made a ‘bad call’ professionally”) statistical analysis. and attitudes (e.g., “I benefit from - The best rule of thumb is that if you do not collaborative reflection with colleagues”) know in advance what statistical analysis you 4. Open-ended questions permitting will use, create an interval or continuous respondents to add their perceptions (e.g., “In scale. your opinion, what defines a competent - Continuous scales can always be converted student affairs professional?”) into ordinal or nominal scales (Tuckman, 5. Closing instructions thanking the participant 1999), but not vice for taking part in the study 1. Mail out the original questionnaire. 2. Follow it 2 weeks later with a second questionnaire to the individuals who have not responded (called nonrespondents). 3. After another 2 weeks, send a postcard to the nonrespondents, reminding them to complete the questionnaire. Survey Research Common Problems in Item Construction in Surveys Three aspects of using mailed questionnaires: - A cover letter to invite participants to complete the questionnaire - The form and construction of the questionnaire - Statistical procedures typically used to analyze data from a mailed questionnaire Parts of a mailed questionnaire 1. A cover letter 2. Closed ended questions asking participants about their background (i.e., demographic questions) This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - Obtain permissions and clearly communicate the purpose of the study before you collect data. Lesson 2: Qualitative Data Collection Sampling Designs in Qualitative Studies 1. Convenience and Snowball Sampling - Volunteer Sampling - when researchers need participants to come forward to identify themselves. - Nominated Sampling - relies on the nominations or referrals of others already in the sample. 2. Purposive Sampling V. The Collection Process - The qualitative researchers strive to select sample members purposefully based on the Standardization information needs emerging from the early - involves instruments and procedures findings. - When procedures vary, you introduce bias Strategies for Purposive Sampling (Patton, 2015) into the study and the data for individuals may not be comparable for analysis. a) Maximum variation sampling involves purposefully selecting cases with a range of Ethical Issues variation on dimensions of interest. - Data collection should be ethical, and it b) Homogenous sampling involves a deliberate should respect individuals and sites. reduction of variation to permit a more - Obtaining permission before starting to focused inquiry. collect data. c) Typical case sampling involves selecting - Protecting the anonymity of individuals by participants who will illustrate or highlight assigning numbers to returned instruments. what is typical or average. - Keeping the identity of individuals d) Extreme/deviant case sampling provides confidential offers privacy to participants. opportunities for learning from the most - Respect the wishes of individuals who unusual and extreme informants (e.g., choose not to participate in your study. Even outstanding successes and notable features). when they consent to participate, people may e) Criterion sampling involves studying cases back out or not show up for an observation or that meet a predetermined criterion of interview. importance. - Reduce disruption of the research site f) Sampling of confirming and disconfirming cases This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER o Confirming cases are additional - Final sampling decisions generally take place cases that fit researchers’ during data collection. conceptualizations and offer - For ethnographic studies, 25-50 informants; enhanced credibility. phenomenology, 10 or lower; grounded o Disconfirming cases are new cases theory studies, 20-30 people. that do not fit and serve to challenge The research report should include a description of researchers’ interpretations the following aspects of the sample: 3. Theoretical Sampling 1. The type of sampling procedure - is a method of sampling that is most often 2. The population under study and the eligibility used in grounded theory studies. (inclusion) criteria for sample selection - is a process of data collection for generating 3. The number of participants in the study and a theory whereby the analyst jointly collects, rationale for the sample size codes, and analyzes his data and decides what Example for Qualitative Research data to collect next and where to find them, in order to develop his theory as it emerges (Glaser, 1978). - The purpose is to discover categories and their properties and to offer interrelationships that occur in the substantive theory. Strategies for Selection Samples and Cases Considerations in Sample Size in Qualitative Studies Forms of Qualitative Data Collection - Data saturation is the guiding principle in - Observations qualitative sampling. - Interviews and questionnaires - A small number of informants can generate a - Documents large sample for analysis (i.e.the “incidents” - Audiovisual materials or experiences are the basis for analysis) This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - Assume the role of an “inside” observer who actually engages in activities at the study site. - While participating in activities, you record information. - This role requires seeking permission to participate in activities and assuming a comfortable role as observer in the setting. Observation Nonparticipant Observer - Observation is the process of gathering open- - Observer visits a site and records notes ended, firsthand information by observing without becoming involved in the activities people and places at a research site. of the participants. - An “outsider” who sits on the periphery or Advantages some advantageous place (e.g., the back of - To record information as it occurs in a setting, the classroom) to watch and record the to study actual behavior, and to study phenomenon under study. individuals who have difficulty verbalizing - However, by not actively participating, you their ideas (e.g., preschool children). will remove yourself from actual experiences, and the observations you make Disadvantages may not be as concrete as if you had - limited to sites and situations where you can participated in the activities. gain access, and in those sites, you may have 3. Changing Observational Roles difficulty developing rapport with individuals. - Researchers adapt their role to the situation. - First observe as a nonparticipant, then slowly Requires: becoming involved as a participant, or vice - Good listening skills and careful attention to versa. visual detail - Engaging in both roles permits you to be - Management of issues subjectively involved in the setting as well as o potential deception by people being to see the setting more objectively. observed The Process of Observing o initial awkwardness of being an “outsider” without initial personal 1. Select a site. Obtain the required permissions support in a setting needed 2. Ease into the site slowly; getting a general Observation Roles sense of the site; taking limited notes. 1. Participant Observer 3. Identify who or what to observe, when to observe, and how long to observe. Ask - Researchers take part in activities in the gatekeepers. setting they observe. 4. Determine, initially, your role as an observer. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER 5. Conduct multiple observations over time for Types of Interviews and Open-Ended Questions better understanding. One-on One Interviews 6. Design some means for recording field notes Focus Group Interviews during an observation. 7. Consider what information you will record Telephone Interviews during an observation. E-Mail Interviews 8. Record descriptive and reflective fieldnotes. Open 9. Make yourself known but remain Ended Questions on Questionnaires unobtrusive. Be introduced by someone if 1. One-on-One Interviews you are an “outsider”. Be passive, be friendly, and be respectful. - Most time-consuming and costly approach 10. After observing, slowly withdraw from the - One-on-one interviews are ideal for site. Thank the participants and inform them interviewing participants who are not hesitant of the use of the data and the availability of to speak, who are articulate, and who can results. share ideas comfortably. Fieldnotes 2. Focus Group Interview - are text (words) recorded by the researcher - is the process of collecting data through during an observation in a qualitative study. interviews with a group of people, typically four to six. Descriptive fieldnotes - The researcher asks a small number of - record a description of the events, activities, general questions and elicits responses from and people (what happened). all individuals in the group. - When conducting a focus group interview, Reflective fieldnotes encourage all participants to talk and to take - record personal thoughts that researchers their turns talking. have that relate to their insights, hunches, or Advantage: broad ideas or themes that emerge during the observation - The interaction among interviewees will likely yield the best information and when Interviews interviewees are similar and cooperative with - A qualitative interview occurs when each other. researchers ask one or more participants - Useful when the time to collect information general, open-ended questions and record is limited and individuals are hesitant to their answers. provide information. - An open-ended response to a question allows Disadvantage: the participant to create the options for responding. - Can be challenging for the interviewer who - participants can best voice their experiences lacks control over the interview discussion. unconstrained by any perspectives of the - When focus groups are audiotaped, the researcher or past research findings. transcriptionist may have difficulty This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER discriminating among the voices of Conducting Interviews individuals in the group. 1. Identify the interviewees and determine the - The researcher often has difficulty taking type of interview to use. notes because so much is occurring. 2. During the interview, audiotape the 3. E-Mail Interviews questions and responses. Take brief notes during the interview. - useful in collecting qualitative data quickly 3. Locate a quiet, suitable place for conducting from a geographically dispersed group of the interview. people. 4. Obtain consent from the interviewee to - E-mail interviews consist of collecting open- participate in the study. Convey the purpose ended data through interviews with of the study, length of the interview, the plans individuals using computers and the Internet. for using the results, and the availability of a Ethical issues: summary of the study. 5. Have a plan but be flexible. Follow the - permission for individuals to participate in conversation of the interviewee. the interview 6. Use probes–subquestions used to elicit more - protecting the privacy of responses. information, to clarify points or expand on Open-Ended Questions on Questionnaires ideas. 7. Be courteous and professional when the Advantage: interview is over. Thanking the participant, - your predetermined closed-ended responses ensure confidentiality of the responses, and can net useful information to support theories ask if they would like a summary of the and concepts in the literature. results of the study. - The open-ended responses permit you to Documents explore reasons for the closed-ended responses and identify any comments people - Documents consist of public and private might have that are beyond the responses to records obtained from a site or participants in the closed-ended questions. a study - can include newspapers, minutes of Disadvantage: meetings, personal journals, and letters. - Too have many responses to analyze. Guidelines for Collecting Documents - Responses are detached from the context and responses may not represent a fully 1. Identify the types of documents that can developed database with rich detail as is often provide useful information gathered in qualitative research. 2. Consider both public (e.g., school board - To analyze open-ended responses, look for minutes) and private documents (e.g., overlapping themes in the open-ended data personal diaries) and some researchers count the number of 3. Once the documents are located, seek themes or the number of times that the permission to use them. participants mention the themes. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER 4. If you ask participants to keep a journal, Photo elicitation provide specific instructions about the - participants are shown pictures (their own or procedure including topic, format to use, the those taken by the researcher) and asked to length entries, and the importance of writing discuss the contents. their thoughts legibly. 5. Once you have permission to use documents, Photovoice examine them for accuracy, completeness, - a participatory research technique whereby and usefulness. people are entrusted with a camera and 6. Record information from the documents. supplement visual images with their voices This can include taking notes or, if possible, and insights about their lived experience optically scanning them to create a file for (Wang & Burris, 1997). each document. Procedures for Recording Data Audiovisual Materials Using Protocols - Audiovisual materials consist of images or sounds that researchers collect to help them - For observations and interviews, qualitative understand the central phenomenon under inquirers use specially designed protocols. study. - Data recording protocols are forms designed - Include photographs, videotapes, digital and used by qualitative researchers to record images, paintings and pictures, and information during observations and unobtrusive measures (e.g., evidence interviews. deduced from a setting, such as footsteps in Interview Protocol the snow) - a form designed by the researcher that Advantage: contains instructions for the process of the - People easily relate to images because they interview, the questions to be asked, and are so pervasive in our society. space to take notes of responses from the - Images provide an opportunity for the interviewee. participants to share directly their perceptions Observational Protocol of reality. - Images such as videotapes and films provide - a form designed by the researcher before data extensive data about real life as people collection that is used for taking fieldnotes visualize it. during an observation. - On this form, researchers record a Disadvantage: chronology of events, a detailed portrait of an - Images can be difficult to analyze because of individual or individuals, a picture or map of the rich information. the setting, or verbatim quotes of individuals. - Researcher may influence the data collected. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER o using ethical interview practices o maintaining confidentiality o collaborating with participants Confidentiality and Anonymity - assigning numbers or aliases in the process of analyzing and reporting data. - develop a composite picture of the group than focus on individuals Deception - Permitted only if the results would be confounded if participant had much information before taking part in the study - Researcher must ensure participants do not unexpectedly suffer distress; otherwise, study is immediately stopped. Vulnerable Populations - Represent high-risk populations and are carefully reviewed as participants by institutional review boards. - quest for information should be tempered by proper ethical constraints aimed at protecting the participants. Sensitive Information - When the participant shares information “off the record.” - The issue may become a problem if not Ethical Issues disclosing this information would harm individuals. - Identifying guidelines for ethical practices - Reviewing key issues likely to arise Issues arising from Participant o informing participants of the purpose Observation/Group Participation of the study - When researchers adopt practices of the o refraining from deceptive practices individuals they are studying, there can be o sharing information with participants problems if the participants are engaging in (including your role as a researcher) risky or inappropriate behavior. o being respectful of the research site o Reciprocity This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Disruption of the Research Site collects, analyzes, and mixes (integrates or connects) both quantitative and qualitative - Presence of the researcher may disrupt the data in a single study or a multiphase program individuals or groups at the site of inquiry. Respect for Participants Steve Currall: - The need to collect data in a way that respects - Mixed methods research involves the the indigenous culture of groups means sequential or simultaneous use of both respecting during data collection the qualitative and quantitative data collection indigenous character of people that might call and/or data analysis techniques. for rights to traditional lands, including fishing rights, harvesting rights, or hunting Mixed Methods Research rights. - as a method, it focuses on collecting, Handling Distressing Information analyzing, and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of - Participants may disclose sensitive and studies. potentially distressing information during the - Its central premise is that the use of interview. quantitative and qualitative approaches, in - Potential for emotional turmoil (researcher) combination, provides a better understanding in processing this information. of research problems than either approach - Measures: debriefing sessions, support alone. groups, distress protocols - Not just a method, but has its own Participants as Coresearchers and Researchers as philosophical framework Participants Ten Characteristics of Mixed Methods Designs - participants may act as coresearchers who - The title of the research includes terms that help create and approve of the accuracy of the suggest more than one method is being used research. In cases such as these, participants o Mixed methods may also wish to use their own name instead o Integrated of a pseudonym. o Triangular o If the participants choose to use o Quantitative –qualitative their names and have carefully weighed the consequences, can the - Both quantitative and qualitative methods are researcher (or institutional review used in the study board) require the coresearchers to - The researcher describes the kinds of mixed conceal their identity? methods being used Lesson 3: Mixed Method Designs - The data collection section indicates narrative, numerical, or both types of data are John Creswell: being collected - Mixed methods research is a research design (or methodology) in which the researcher This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - The purpose statement or the research questions indicate the types of methods being - Variation in particular philosophical used. commitments should be welcome in mixed - Questions are stated and described for both methods research, and we should embrace quantitative and qualitative approaches. these differences as an important part of the - The researcher indicates the sequencing of mixed methods research paradigm. collecting qualitative and/or quantitative data (i.e., QUAN-Qual, QUAL-Quan, or QUAN- - It is important that arguments and discussion QUAL) about "appropriate" philosophical - The researcher describes both quantitative commitments continue, so that the field is and qualitative data analysis strategies self- reflexive and continues to grow - The writing is balanced in terms of (philosophically). quantitative and qualitative approaches Evaluating a Mixed Method Design - Does the study use at least one quantitative and one qualitative research strategy? - What were the research questions addressed? - Who are the sponsors of the study and what are their expectations? - Does the study include a rationale for using a mixed methods design? - Does the study include a classification of the type of mixed methods design? - Does the study describe the priority given to quantitative and qualitative data collection Why use mixed methods? and the sequence of their use? - Was the study feasible given the amount of - One data resource may not be enough; data to be collected and concomitant issues of - Initial results need to be further explained; resources, time, and expertise? - A second method is needed to enhance a - Who were the participants in the study? What primary method; did the samples consist of? - The project has multi-phases. - Does the study clearly identify qualitative and quantitative data collection techniques? - What is the aim and the significance of this study? Current Issues for Mixed Methods Research - Does mixed methods need a particular, detailed set of philosophical and methodological positions? This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Prototoypes of Mixed Method Designs Convergent Parallel Design - The Qualitative and Quantitative Data Collection is conducted in parallel (at the same time). - Purpose: o To solving the same research problem and lead to similar conclusion. o To best understand or develop more Convergent Parallel Design complete understanding of the research problem by obtaining different but complementary data. o Validation purpose - The researcher gives equal weight to the Qualitative and Quantitative Data. Flowchart of the Basic Procedures in - Collect and analyze two independent strands implementing an Exploratory Design of quantitative and qualitative data at the same time/ in a single phase. - Prioritize the methods equally. - Keep the data analysis independent. - Mix the results during the overall interpretation. - Try to look for convergence, divergence, contradictions, or relationships of two sources of data. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - Design o Followed by comments describe how - Research questions: create parallel questions qual/quan confirm or disconfirm for the qual and quan studies. quan/qual results. - Samples: different or same group of people in quantitative and qualitative studies? - Merged data analysis strategies - Sample sizes: equal or unequal o Joint display: using table or figure to - Data will be collected from one source or show both quan and qual results different sources: survey/interview or only o Data transformation merged analysis: use survey. transform one type of data (qual) into - Order of two types of data collections: survey the other type of data (quan). first then focus group or one-on-one ▪ Create a new variable based interview. on presence of a theme ▪ Create a new variable based Flowchart of the Basic Procedures in on number of times a theme implementing a Convergent Design appears. - Look for similarity and convergence - How to handle discrepancy? o State the limitations of the study o Revisit two types of data o Could collect additional data Interpreting merged results - Look for similarity and convergence - How to handle discrepancy? o State the limitations of the study o Revisit two types of data o Could collect additional data Challenges - Needs both quantitative and qualitative expertise - Consequences of having different samples and different sample size when merging two data sets. - Merged data analysis strategies - How to merge two types of data. - Side-by-side comparison (in a results or - How to deal with the situation in which discussion section or a summary table). quantitative and qualitative results contradict - Present quantitative or qualitative results each other. o Followed by qualitative or quantitative results This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER The Explanatory Sequential Design - Purpose: to use qualitative approach to explain quantitative results (significant, non- significant, outliers or surprising results) or to guide to form groups based on quantitative results - Question: - “In what ways do the qualitative data help explain the quantitative results?” Key points - Typically it is a two-phase design. - Collect quantitative and qualitative data at different time. - Qualitative study depends on quantitative results. - Usually quantitative data collection is the The Explanatory Sequential Design priority. Procedure - First, collect and analyze quantitative data. - Identify specific quantitative results that need additional explanation. - Design qualitative study based on what learn from quantitative results. - Collect and analyze qualitative data. - Interpret combined results Flowchart of the Basic Procedures in implementing an Explanatory Design Design - Samples: different or same group of people in both studies? - The participants in the qualitative study should be those who participated in the quantitative study. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Sample sizes: equal or unequal - Decisions about which quantitative results need further explanation. - Qualitative study uses smaller sample. - Decisions about who to sample and what Decide what quantitative results to follow up. criteria used for sample selection for qualitative study. - Unclear - Unexpected - Significant/non-significant results - Outliers or extreme cases How to select participants for qualitative study - Individuals who volunteer to participate in interviews (weaker connection between two phases) - Systematic approach: based on quantitative results and select participants best able to fit in qualitative study (IRB issue). IRB issues: suggestions - Often used to explore a phenomenon, identify - Separate IRB for each phase. themes, and/or design an instrument and test - One IRB, state the follow up phase as it. tentative. - Purpose: - From the start, inform participants the o To use qualitative data to determine possibility of second data collection variables and questions that inform Select qualitative sample quantitative data collection o to generalize qualitative findings to a - Participants who are representative of larger sample. different groups. - Participants with extreme scores. - Priority: qualitative data emphasized over - Participants differed in their scores on quantitative significant predictors. - Two phases: first gather qualitative data from Interpreting connected results a small group, then follow up with quantitative data collection from a large - Conclusion is about whether the follow up group qualitative data provide a better - Allows researcher to explore a problem understanding of the research problem than before identifying variables, but is very time simply the quantitative results. -consuming Challenges - Time consuming - IRB issue This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Purpose of this design: - The qualitative phase is used to help develop or inform the quantitative study. o Instrument design (explore) o Grounded theory (generalize qualitative results) - Reasons for using this design o Instruments are not available o The variables are not known o There is no theory or model as a guide Key points - Typically it is a two-phase design. o Three phases for instrument development (instrument development phase, a phase testing, and apply the instrument). - Collect quantitative and qualitative data at different time. Design - Qualitative results can help and inform the - Samples: different or same group of people in second quantitative method. both studies? - Question: o The participants in the quantitative o In what ways do the quantitative study are NOT same individuals who results generalize the qualitative provided qualitative data. findings? - Sample sizes: equal or unequal o Quantitative study uses larger sample. Procedure - IRB issues for emerging follow-up phase: - First, collect and analyze qualitative data. o Separate IRB for each phase. - Develop quantitative study based on what o One IRB, state the follow up phase as you learn from qualitative results. tentative. - Collect and analyze quantitative data. - Decide what qualitative results to use. Flowchart of the Basic Procedures in o Useful quotes implementing an Exploratory Design o Codes > variables o Themes > constructs This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER - How to develop a good instrument: scale o Test long term effects of an development. intervention after a trial. o Steps for instrument development Flowchart of the Basic Procedures in Steps for instrument development implementing an Design 1. Determine what you want to measure 2. Generating an item pool 3. Determine the format for items 4. Expert review of initial item pool 5. Add social desirability items 6. Pilot testing and item analysis 7. Administer instrument to a larger sample 8. Evaluate the items 9. Revise instrument Embedded Designs - Purpose: to answer different questions that requires different types of data. - A quantitative or qualitative data collection is within a quantitative or qualitative procedure. - A single data set is not enough. - Two types of data answer different research Embedded Design Variants questions. - The collection and analysis of the second data - Embedded-experiment variant: qualitative set may occur before, during, and/or after the data within an experiment trial. first data collection. - Embedded instrument development and validation variant - Mixed methods case studies - Mixed methods narrative research - Mixed methods ethnography o Case studies, narrative research and methods ethnography: Embed both quantitative and qualitative data within traditional qualitative designs. - Examples of embedded design: Qualitative data in quantitative study: o Develop an instrument in an intervention trial. o Try to understand the impact of the intervention on participants. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Correlational Model: Embedded Instrument - Such as: Feminist theory, racial or ethnic Development and validation theory, sexual orientation theory, and disability theory. - All decisions about interaction, priority, timing, and mixing are made within the context of the transformative framework. - Researchers can implement any of four basic Transformative Design mixed methods designs within the transformative framework. - Purpose: to address issues of social justice and call for change for underrepresented or marginalized populations. - This design more relates to the content than to the methodology. - Is beyond first four basic mixed methods designs mentioned before - Transformative design variants - Feminist lens transformative variant - Disability lens transformative variant Socioeconomic class lens A strong key to a good transformative mixed methods study is whether the researcher calls for reform or changes at the end of the study. This call may be an explicit request or steps that will be required to bring about change. Challenges - Little guidance in the literature to assist Transformative Framework researchers with implementing mixed methods in a transformative way. - Is a framework for advancing the needs of - Researchers need to have expertise in underrepresented or marginalized theoretical foundations of the study. populations. This reviewer is not for sale.  HAU PSYCHOLOGY SOCIETY FIELD METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY MIDTERMS REVIEWER | SECOND SEMESTER Multiphase Design - Needs sufficient resources, time, and effort. - May need a research team to implement - Multiphase: is an another example of a mixed research. methods design that goes beyond four basic designs. - It is a combination of sequential and concurrent aspects. - Most common in large funded or multiyear projects. - Used when researchers examine a problem or topic through a series of phases or separate studies. Multiphase design variants - Large scale program development and evaluation - Multilevel statewide/regionwide study - Single mixed methods studies that combine both concurrent and sequential phases Flowchart of the Basic Procedures in a Multiphase Design Challenges - Challenges associated with individual concurrent and sequential designs. This reviewer is not for sale.