The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe PDF

Created by Turbolearn AI The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe The Congress of Vienna was a gathering of statesmen in 1814, led by Prince Klemens von Metternich, with the goal of arranging a final peace settlement after the defeat of Napoleon. The congress was attended by representatives...

Created by Turbolearn AI The Congress of Vienna and the Concert of Europe The Congress of Vienna was a gathering of statesmen in 1814, led by Prince Klemens von Metternich, with the goal of arranging a final peace settlement after the defeat of Napoleon. The congress was attended by representatives of all the states that had fought against Napoleon, and its main objective was to restore the old order and maintain stability in Europe. The Principle of Legitimacy The principle of legitimacy was a guiding concept at the Congress of Vienna, which aimed to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones. According to Metternich, this principle was necessary to preserve traditional institutions and maintain peace and stability in Europe. The principle of legitimacy is the idea that monarchs and governments derive their authority from a legitimate source, such as hereditary succession or divine right, rather than from the consent of the governed. The Balance of Power The Congress of Vienna also aimed to establish a new balance of power in Europe, to prevent any one country from dominating the continent. This was achieved through a series of territorial rearrangements, including the creation of a new Kingdom of the Netherlands and the strengthening of Prussia and Austria. Country Territorial Gain/Loss Prussia Gained two-fifths of Saxony and the east bank of the Rhine Austria Gained control of Lombardy and Venetia Russia Gained control of Poland France Lost significant territory, including the Austrian Netherlands The Concert of Europe Page 1  Created by Turbolearn AI The Concert of Europe was a system of diplomacy and collective security established by the Congress of Vienna, with the goal of maintaining peace and stability in Europe. The concert was based on the principles of cooperation and collective action, and it played a key role in preventing major conflicts in Europe for several decades. The Concert of Europe was characterized by regular meetings and negotiations between European powers It aimed to prevent the rise of any one power and maintain a balance of power in Europe It was successful in preventing major conflicts in Europe for several decades, but ultimately failed to prevent the rise of nationalism and imperialism in the late 19th century Key Concepts Nationalism: the idea that a nation should have its own independent government and be free from foreign control Liberalism: the idea that individuals should have certain rights and freedoms, such as freedom of speech and assembly Conservatism: the idea that traditional institutions and social hierarchies should be preserved and maintained Romanticism: an artistic and literary movement that emphasized emotion, imagination, and individualism The Revolutions of 1848 The revolutions of 1848 were a wave of uprisings and revolts that swept across Europe, driven by demands for democracy, nationalism, and social justice. The revolutions were ultimately unsuccessful in achieving their goals, but they marked an important turning point in European history and paved the way for the rise of modern nation-states. Page 2  Created by Turbolearn AI The revolutions of 1848 were characterized by widespread violence and unrest They were driven by a range of factors, including economic hardship, political oppression, and nationalist sentiment They ultimately failed to achieve their goals, but they had a lasting impact on European history and politics## The Conservative Order The Conservative Order was a period of time from 1815 to 1830, where the main goal was to maintain the stability of political institutions and prevent any further revolutions. This was achieved through the Concert of Europe, a system where European Powers would work together to maintain peace and stability on the continent. Key Figures Klemens von Metternich: An Austrian statesman who played a key role in shaping the Conservative Order. He believed in the importance of maintaining monarchies and preventing liberal and nationalist movements. Edmund Burke: An Irish philosopher who wrote about the importance of tradition and stability in society. His ideas influenced the development of conservatism. Definitions The Concert of Europe was a system where European powers would work together to maintain peace and stability on the continent. This was achieved through a series of congresses, where representatives from different countries would meet to discuss and resolve issues. The Quadruple Alliance The Quadruple Alliance was formed in 1815, with the goal of preventing France from becoming a dominant power in Europe again. The alliance consisted of Austria, Prussia, Russia, and Britain. However, Britain later refused to agree to the Principle of Intervention, which allowed the other powers to interfere in the internal affairs of other states. Congresses The following table summarizes the key congresses that took place during the Conservative Order: Page 3  Created by Turbolearn AI Congress Year Location Outcome Congress of Aix- Aix-la- 1818 Withdrawal of occupation forces from France la-Chapelle Chapelle Congress of Authorization of Austrian troops to suppress 1820 Troppau Troppau revolts in Italy Congress of Authorization of Austrian troops to suppress 1821 Laibach Laibach revolts in Naples and Piedmont Congress of Authorization of French troops to invade 1822 Verona Verona Spain and restore the Bourbon monarchy The Principle of Intervention The Principle of Intervention was a policy that allowed the Quadruple Alliance powers to interfere in the internal affairs of other states. This was used to suppress revolts and liberal movements in Italy and Spain. The principle was controversial, and Britain refused to agree to it. Outcomes The Conservative Order was successful in maintaining stability and preventing revolutions in Europe for a period of time. However, it also led to the suppression of liberal and nationalist movements, and the restoration of monarchies in Italy and Spain. The Principle of Intervention was also used to justify the use of force to maintain order and stability.## The Concert of Europe and the Principle of Intervention The Concert of Europe had broken down when the results of the revolution threatened other states. The principle of intervention meant that the great powers of Europe had the right to send armies into countries where there were revolutions to restore legitimate monarchs to their thrones. The principle of intervention was a doctrine that allowed European powers to intervene in the internal affairs of other countries to maintain stability and restore legitimate monarchs. The Revolt of Latin America Page 4  Created by Turbolearn AI Much of North America had been freed of European domination in the 18th century by the American Revolution. However, Latin America remained in the hands of the Spanish and Portuguese. The Liberators of South America, including Jose de San Martin and Simon Bolivar, led the fight for independence in Latin America. Key Figures in the Latin American Independence Movement Jose de San Martin: Led the fight for independence in Argentina, Chile, and Peru Simon Bolivar: Led the fight for independence in Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, and Peru The Monroe Doctrine In 1823, President James Monroe introduced the Monroe Doctrine, which guaranteed the independence of the new Latin American nations and warned against any further European intervention in the New World. The Monroe Doctrine was a policy introduced by President James Monroe that stated the United States would not tolerate further European colonization in the Americas. Economic Independence in Latin America Although Latin America gained political independence, it did not mean economic independence. Old patterns were quickly reestablished, with Great Britain dominating the Latin American economy instead of Spain and Portugal. Country Year of Independence Argentina 1816 Chile 1818 Colombia 1819 Ecuador 1822 Peru 1821 Venezuela 1821 British Influence in Latin America Page 5  Created by Turbolearn AI The British moved in to fill the economic vacuum left by the Spanish and Portuguese. British merchants and investors poured into Latin America, dominating the economy and trade. British influence in Latin America was significant, with British merchants and investors playing a major role in the economy and trade of the region.## The Conservative Order 1815 − 1830 The period between 1815 and 1830 was marked by a Conservative Order in Europe, characterized by a desire to maintain the existing social and political order. This was achieved through the Congress of Vienna, which established a system of balance of power to prevent any single country from dominating the others. Key Players The key players in this period included: Metternich: The Austrian statesman who played a crucial role in shaping the Conservative Order Prince Klemens Von Metternich: The chief agent of the Habsburg empire, who boasted of being the "chief Minister of Police in Europe" King Frederick William III: The King of Prussia, who instituted political and institutional reforms in response to Prussia's defeat at the hands of Napoleon Definitions The Congress of Vienna was a conference of European powers that took place in 1815, with the aim of reorganizing Europe after the Napoleonic Wars. Balance of power refers to a system in which multiple countries or powers are balanced against each other, to prevent any single country from dominating the others. Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual freedom, equality, and democracy. The Situation in France In France, the ultraroyalists gained power in 1824, with the death of Louis XVIII and the succession of Charles X. The ultraroyalists sought to restore the monarchical system and the Catholic Church to their former positions of influence. Page 6  Created by Turbolearn AI The Situation in Central Europe In central Europe, the Habsburg empire and Prussia were the dominant powers. The Germanic Confederation was established, but it had little power and was largely ineffective. Table: The Germanic Confederation State Description Austria Dominant power in the Germanic Confederation Prussia Second-largest power in the Germanic Confederation Other Varied in size and influence, but were generally smaller and less powerful states than Austria and Prussia Intervention in the Italian States and Spain The Congress of Vienna established nine states in Italy, including Piedmont, The Kingdom of the Two Sicilies, and the Papal States. The Austrian emperor had significant influence in these states, and the northern provinces of Lombardy and Venetia were under Austrian control. Bullet Points: Key Events The ultraroyalists gained power in France in 1824 The Congress of Vienna established the Germanic Confederation in 1815 The Habsburg empire and Prussia were the dominant powers in central Europe The Italian states were established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 The Spanish revolution was crushed by French troops in 1823## Introduction to 19th Century European Politics The Austrian Empire was a multinational state, a collection of peoples under the Habsburg rule, including Germans, Hungarians, Slovaks, Slovenes, Poles, Serbs, and Italians. The Germans, economically the most advanced, played a significant role in the empire. Nationalism and Liberalism Page 7  Created by Turbolearn AI Nationalism became important during this time period as people began to identify with their nation and demand self-governance. Liberalism, on the other hand, emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms. The Burschenschaften, a student movement, emerged in Germany, promoting national unity and liberalism. Nationalism is an ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and self-governance. Liberalism is a political ideology that emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, and advocates for limited government intervention. Key Figures and Events Metternich: The Austrian statesman who opposed nationalism and liberalism, and implemented the Karlsbad Decrees to suppress these movements. Heinrich von Gagern: A German liberal who explained the purpose of the Burschenschaften to his father, emphasizing the importance of national unity and liberalism. Ferdinand VII: The King of Spain who restored the Bourbon dynasty and initially agreed to observe the liberal constitution of 1812, but later reneged on his promises. Economic Liberalism Economic liberalism, also known as classical economics, had as its primary tenet the concept of laissez-faire, which holds that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces. The key principles of economic liberalism are: Principle Description The state should not interrupt the free play of natural Laissez-faire economic forces Individual economic The state should not restrain the economic liberty of liberty individuals Limited government The state should restrict itself to only three primary functions: intervention defense, police protection, and public works The Decembrist Revolt Page 8  Created by Turbolearn AI The Decembrist Revolt was a rebellion against the accession of Nicholas I to the throne of Russia. The revolt was led by military leaders who favored the establishment of a constitutional monarchy and the abolition of serfdom. The revolt was crushed, and its leaders were executed, leading to a period of reactionary rule under Nicholas I. Key Terms Nationalism: An ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and self-governance Liberalism: A political ideology that emphasizes individual rights and freedoms, and advocates for limited government intervention Economic liberalism: A economic ideology that emphasizes individual economic liberty and limited government intervention Laissez-faire: The concept that the state should not interrupt the free play of natural economic forces Serfdom: A system of feudalism in which peasants are bound to the land and are required to provide labor and services to the landowner## Introduction to 19th Century Ideologies The 19th century was marked by the rise of various ideologies that shaped the course of European history. Two prominent ideologies of this time were Conservatism and Liberalism. Conservatism Conservatism was characterized by a desire to maintain the existing social and political order. Tsar Nicholas of Russia was a key figure in the conservative movement, and his policies were aimed at preventing revolution and maintaining control over the population. The Malthusian theory, which stated that population growth would eventually outstrip food supply, leading to poverty and starvation, was used to justify conservative policies. Liberalism Liberalism, on the other hand, emphasized the importance of individual freedom and civil liberties. Liberals believed in the principles of equality before the law, freedom of assembly, freedom of speech, and freedom of the press. These principles were enshrined in documents such as the American Bill of Rights and the French Declaration of the Rights of Man and the Citizen. Page 9  Created by Turbolearn AI The core of liberal ideology is the belief that individuals should be free to pursue their own goals and interests as long as they do not harm others. This is often summarized as the principle of laissez-faire, or non- interference in the affairs of others. Key Liberal Demands Liberals made several key demands, including: Constitutional monarchy: a system of government in which the monarch's powers are limited by a constitution Ministerial responsibility: the idea that government ministers should be accountable to the legislative branch Representative assembly: a legislative body elected by qualified voters Limited suffrage: the right to vote should be limited to certain groups, such as property owners Theories of Population Growth Theories of population growth, such as those proposed by Malthus and Ricardo, played a significant role in shaping liberal and conservative ideologies. The iron law of wages, which states that an increase in population will lead to a decrease in wages, was used to argue that population growth must be controlled in order to prevent poverty and starvation. Theorist Theory Key Points Population growth will Poverty and starvation will result from Malthus outstrip food supply unchecked population growth An increase in population will lead to a decrease Ricardo Iron law of wages in wages, resulting in poverty and starvation John Stuart Mill and Liberalism John Stuart Mill was a key figure in the development of liberal ideology. His work, On Liberty, argued that individuals should be free to pursue their own goals and interests as long as they do not harm others. Mill believed that the tyranny of the majority was a significant threat to individual freedom, and that protection against the tyranny of prevailing opinion was necessary to ensure that individuals could express their own opinions and beliefs. Page 10  Created by Turbolearn AI The tyranny of the majority occurs when the majority uses its power to suppress the rights and freedoms of minority groups. This can be prevented by protecting individual rights and freedoms, and by ensuring that the power of the majority is limited by a system of checks and balances.## Early Socialism Early socialism was largely the product of political theorists or intellectuals. The term eventually became associated with a Marxist analysis of human society. Key Figures Some key figures in early socialism include: Charles Fourier: proposed the creation of small model communities called phalansteries, which were self-contained cooperatives Robert Owen: believed that humans would reveal their true natural goodness if they lived in a cooperative environment, and was successful in transforming a squalid factory town into a flourishing, healthy community at New Lanark in Scotland Louis Blanc: offered another early socialist approach to a better society, and argued that social problems could be solved by government assistance Utopian Socialism Utopian socialism was characterized by a belief in the possibility of creating a perfect society. Utopian socialists proposed a variety of ways to accomplish this task, including: Creating voluntary associations that would demonstrate the advantages of cooperative living Establishing self-contained cooperative communities Providing equal education and job opportunities for women Nationalism Nationalism was an even more powerful ideology for change in the nineteenth century. Nationalism arose out of an awareness of being part of a community that has common institutions, historical traditions, language, and customs. Page 11  Created by Turbolearn AI Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and the unity of a nation. Relationship Between Nationalism and Liberalism In the first half of the nineteenth century, nationalism and liberalism became strong allies. Most liberals believed that liberty could be realized only by peoples who ruled themselves. Women's Rights Many utopian socialists attracted female supporters who believed that only a reordering of society would help women. Some notable female utopian socialists include: Zoe Gatti de Gamond: a Belgian follower of Fourier who established her own phalanstery Flora Tristan: a French utopian socialist who advocated for the absolute equality of men and women Claire Demar: a French utopian socialist who published a newspaper that combined scientific thought, socialism, and feminism Map 21.3: The Distribution of Languages in Nineteenth- Century Europe The distribution of languages in nineteenth-century Europe is shown in Map 21.3. The map highlights the diversity of languages spoken in Europe, with many languages often corresponding to shared histories and cultures. Language Group Examples of Languages Germanic German, English, Dutch Latin French, Spanish, Italian Slavic Russian, Polish, Czech Key Events Page 12  Created by Turbolearn AI Some key events in the history of early socialism and nationalism include: The French Revolution: which gave rise to the idea of nationalism and the concept of a nation-state The July Revolution: which led to the establishment of a new monarchy in France under Louis-Philippe The Reform Bill of 1867: which attempted to include women in the voting reform bill, but ultimately failed## Introduction to the Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 The Revolutions of 1830 and 1848 were a series of uprisings that took place across Europe, driven by the desire for liberalism, nationalism, and democracy. These revolutions were sparked by the conservative domination of Europe, which had been established by the Congress of Vienna in 1815. Causes of the Revolutions The causes of the revolutions can be summarized as follows: The desire for liberalism and democracy, which emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms The rise of nationalism, which emphasized the importance of national identity and self-determination The economic and social changes brought about by the Industrial Revolution, which created new social classes and exacerbated existing social and economic inequalities The Revolution of 1830 in France The Revolution of 1830 in France was a significant event that led to the overthrow of the Bourbon monarchy and the establishment of the July Monarchy. The revolution was sparked by the conservative policies of Charles X, who was seen as out of touch with the needs and desires of the French people. The Role of the Bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie played a significant role in the revolutions of 1830 and 1848. They were a new social class that had emerged as a result of the Industrial Revolution, and they were driven by a desire for liberalism and democracy. Page 13  Created by Turbolearn AI The bourgeoisie is a social class that is characterized by their ownership of the means of production, such as factories and land. They are often seen as the driving force behind the development of capitalism and the emergence of modern industrial society. The Reform Act of 1832 in Great Britain The Reform Act of 1832 was a significant piece of legislation that was passed in Great Britain. It aimed to reform the electoral system and increase the number of people who were eligible to vote. The key features of the Reform Act of 1832 can be summarized in the following table: Feature Description Extension of the The act extended the right to vote to more people, including franchise members of the industrial middle class Redistribution of The act redistributed seats in the House of Commons to reflect seats changes in population and economic power The act eliminated rotten boroughs, which were constituencies Elimination of rotten that had very few voters but still returned members to boroughs Parliament The Impact of the Revolutions The revolutions of 1830 and 1848 had a significant impact on European society and politics. They led to the establishment of liberal and democratic governments, and they paved the way for the emergence of nationalism as a major force in European politics. Some of the key consequences of the revolutions can be summarized as follows: The establishment of constitutional monarchies in several European countries The emergence of nationalism as a major force in European politics The development of liberal and democratic ideologies, which emphasized the importance of individual rights and freedoms The creation of new social classes, including the industrial bourgeoisie and the working class## Introduction to the Revolutions of 1848 The year 1848 was marked by a series of revolutions that swept across Europe, driven by the ideals of liberalism and nationalism. These revolutions aimed to bring about significant changes in the political and social landscape of the continent. Page 14  Created by Turbolearn AI Key Factors Contributing to the Revolutions Several factors contributed to the outbreak of these revolutions, including: Economic hardship and unemployment, particularly among the working class Corruption and scandals within the government The refusal to extend suffrage to the disenfranchised members of the middle class The influence of radical republicans and socialists Definition of Key Terms Liberalism refers to a political ideology that emphasizes individual rights, freedoms, and the protection of private property. Nationalism is a political ideology that emphasizes the importance of national identity and the unity of a nation. Major Events of the Revolutions The revolutions of 1848 began in Paris, where a provisional government was established after the abdication of Louis Philippe. This government, led by moderate and radical republicans, aimed to introduce significant reforms, including: The establishment of national workshops under the influence of Louis Blanc The introduction of universal male suffrage The creation of a constituent assembly to draw up a new constitution Regional Impact of the Revolutions The revolutions of 1848 had a significant impact on various regions of Europe, as shown in the following table: Page 15  Created by Turbolearn AI Region Description of Revolutionary Activity The revolution began in Paris, with the establishment of a provisional France government and the introduction of significant reforms. The revolution led to the establishment of a national parliament and the Germany introduction of liberal reforms. The revolution led to the establishment of a republic in Rome and the Italy introduction of liberal reforms in other parts of the country. The revolution led to the introduction of liberal reforms and the Austria establishment of a constituent assembly. The revolution had a limited impact, with the Reform Act of 1832 already Britain having introduced significant reforms. Comparison of Macaulay's and Schurz's Ideas The ideas of Thomas Babington Macaulay and Carl Schurz differed significantly, with Macaulay emphasizing the importance of gradual reform and Schurz advocating for more radical change. The following table highlights the key differences between their ideas: Idea Macaulay Schurz Gradual and Radical and Reform incremental comprehensive Emphasized Emphasized social Liberalism individual rights and economic and freedoms equality Saw nationalism Saw nationalism as Nationalism as a unifying a potential source of force conflict The year 1848 was marked by a series of revolutions that swept across Europe, including France, Germany, and Italy. These revolutions were driven by a desire for liberal reforms, nationalism, and democracy. The French Revolution of 1848 Page 16  Created by Turbolearn AI In France, the revolution of 1848 was sparked by a combination of factors, including economic hardship, political repression, and the influence of socialist and republican ideologies. The revolution led to the overthrow of King Louis-Philippe and the establishment of the Second Republic. The Second Republic was a republican government that was established in France after the revolution of 1848. It was characterized by a presidential system, with a legislature elected by male suffrage. The new government faced significant challenges, including a growing split between moderate republicans and radical socialists. The radicals, who were influenced by the ideas of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels, advocated for more extreme measures to address the economic and social problems facing France. The German Revolutions of 1848 In Germany, the revolutions of 1848 were driven by a desire for national unity and liberal reforms. The Frankfurt Assembly, which was established in 1848, was a key institution in the German revolutions. It was composed of representatives from various German states and was tasked with drafting a constitution for a unified Germany. The following table summarizes the key events and figures of the German revolutions: Event Date Description Frankfurt Assembly 1848 Established to draft a constitution for a unified Germany Grossdeutsch 1848 Proposed the inclusion of Austria in a unified Germany solution Kleindeutsch 1848 Proposed the exclusion of Austria from a unified Germany solution Frederick William King of Prussia who refused to accept the title of Emperor 1848 IV of the Germans The Italian Revolutions of 1848 Page 17  Created by Turbolearn AI In Italy, the revolutions of 1848 were driven by a desire for national unity and independence from Austrian rule. The Risorgimento, which was a movement for Italian unification, was led by figures such as Giuseppe Mazzini and Cristina Belgioioso. The following bullet points summarize the key events and figures of the Italian revolutions: The Risorgimento was a movement for Italian unification that emerged in the early 19th century Giuseppe Mazzini was a key figure in the Risorgimento and advocated for a unified Italian republic Cristina Belgioioso was a wealthy aristocrat who worked to promote the Italian cause and founded a newspaper to espouse the Italian nationalist movement The Italian revolutions of 1848 were marked by a series of uprisings and rebellions against Austrian rule, including the establishment of the Venetian Republic and the Kingdom of Sardinia The Failure of the Revolutions Despite the initial successes of the revolutions, they ultimately failed to achieve their goals. The counterrevolutionary forces, which were supported by the Austrian and French governments, were able to crush the rebellions and restore order. The following table summarizes the key outcomes of the revolutions: Page 18  Created by Turbolearn AI Country Outcome Establishment of the Second France Republic, which was later overthrown by Louis Napoleon Failure to achieve national unity, with the Frankfurt Germany Assembly being disbanded and the Prussian monarchy being restored Failure to achieve national unity, with the Austrian Italy government reestablishing control over the Italian states The Young Italy movement was a brotherhood of Italians who believed in a law of Progress and Duty, and were convinced that Italy was destined to become one nation. This movement was led by Giuseppe Mazzini, who played a crucial role in the unification of Italy. The Young Italy Oath Each member of the Young Italy movement had to pronounce the following oath: In the name of God and of Italy; In the name of all the martyrs of the holy Italian cause who have fallen beneath foreign and domestic tyranny; By the duties which bind me to the land wherein God has placed me, and to the brothers whom God has given me; By the love innate in all men I bear to the country that gave my mother birth, and will be the home of my children. Key Principles of Young Italy The key principles of the Young Italy movement were: Page 19  Created by Turbolearn AI Unity: The movement believed that the secret of force lies in constancy and unity of effort. Action: The movement believed that virtue consists in action and sacrifice. Sacrifice: The movement believed that strength lies in union and constancy of purpose. Education: The movement believed in promoting the education of Italian brothers towards the aim of Young Italy. Historical Context The Young Italy movement was part of a larger wave of Nationalism and Liberalism that swept across Europe in the 19th century. The movement was influenced by the French Revolution and the Napoleonic Wars, which had created a sense of National Identity and Self-Determination among Italians. Comparison of European States The following table compares the responses of different European states to the increase in Crime and Social Disorder in the late 18th and early 19th centuries: State Response to Crime and Social Disorder Britain Established new police forces to protect the propertied classes France Implemented Liberal Reforms to address social and economic issues Developed Detention Schools for juvenile delinquents and new penal Germany institutions Austria Responded with Repression and Censorship to maintain control AP History Reasoning Skills To answer the focus question, students need to demonstrate the following AP History Reasoning Skills: Causation: Identify the causes of the increase in crime and social disorder in Europe Contextualization: Understand the historical context in which the Young Italy movement emerged Comparison: Compare the responses of different European states to the increase in crime and social disorder Key Figures Page 20  Created by Turbolearn AI The following table lists key figures mentioned in the text: Figure Role Leader of the Young Italy Giuseppe Mazzini movement Leader of the Federalist Alexander Hamilton party in the United States Leader of the Republican Thomas Jefferson party in the United States Chief Justice of the United States who established John Marshall the Supreme Court as a national institution King of France who was Louis-Philippe overthrown in the July Revolution of 1830 President of the United States who expanded Andrew Jackson democracy and promoted Nationalism The development of civilian police forces in Europe was a response to the need for a more disciplined and ordered society. This was particularly evident in the suppression of the Polish revolt in 1831, which led to the establishment of a system of police in various European states. Characteristics of Early Police Forces The early police forces were characterized by: Well-trained law enforcement officers Vigilance and activity in preserving property and lives Organization along military lines, with a focus on maintaining order and preventing crimes European Police Forces Some notable European police forces include: Page 21  Created by Turbolearn AI Country Police Force Year Established France Serjents 1829 Germany Schutzmannschaft 1848 Britain London Police 1829 The Schutzmannschaft The Schutzmannschaft was a state-financed police force established in Germany after the revolutions of 1848. It was initially a civilian body, but later became more militarized and was used for political purposes. British Police The British police, also known as bobbies, were established in 1829 and were characterized by: Uniformed police officers Unpaid constables recruited by local authorities A focus on preventing domestic disorder and maintaining order The primary goal of the British police was to prevent domestic disorder and maintain order, as evident from their first instruction book. Approaches to the Crime Problem Contemporary reformers approached the crime problem in various ways, including: Believing that the increase in crime was related to the dramatic increase in poverty Establishing civilian police forces to alleviate fears about the increase in crime Focusing on poverty and misery as the root causes of crime, as commented by an observer in 1816: Poverty and misery were the parents of crime. Key Figures Some key figures in the development of civilian police forces include: Page 22  Created by Turbolearn AI Louis-Maurice Debelleyme, the prefect of Paris who proclaimed the essential object of the municipal police to be the safety of the inhabitants of Paris Sir Robert Peel, who introduced the legislation that created the London Police force Page 23