Culture and Politics Reviewer PDF

Hegemony o refers to the dominance of one group over others, often maintained through cultural, political, and ideological means rather than by force alone Antonio Gramci o Italian Marxist philosopher who popularized the term, ex...

Hegemony o refers to the dominance of one group over others, often maintained through cultural, political, and ideological means rather than by force alone Antonio Gramci o Italian Marxist philosopher who popularized the term, explaining how the ruling class maintains power not just through control of resources or coercion but by influencing and shaping the beliefs and values of society, making their dominance seem natural or inevitable Example of Hegemony o can be observed in the influence of the political elite families (oligarchs) on both national and local politics. These families have maintained power across generations, not just through wealth or political positions but also by shaping cultural narratives and controlling media channels, education discourse to ensure that their rule is seen as normal and legitimate Political Hegemony o Political dynasties like the Marcoses or Aquinos use their control of local Example and national politics, influencing public perception by shaping the narrative about their legacy through media and alliances. Economic Hegemony o Business conglomerates owned by elite families (e.g., the Ayalas, Sys) Example dominate key sectors like telecommunications, banking, and real estate, making their control over the economy seem natural. Hegemons in o United States: Post-World War II, the U.S. emerged as the global International Affairs hegemon. Through economic strength, military power, and cultural influence (soft power), the U.S. has shaped global norms, institutions like the United Nations, and economic structures such as the World Trade Organization (WTO). U.S. ideals of democracy and capitalism are often promoted as global norms. o China: In recent years, China has risen as a contender for global hegemony, particularly through its economic initiatives like the Belt and Road Initiative, which strengthens its influence across Asia, Africa, and Europe. China's military expansion in the Asian region (West Phil. Sea!!!) and its technological advancements have also contributed to its growing international dominance. o European Union: While not a singular hegemon, the EU as a bloc exerts significant influence on global economic and political policies, especially in trade, environmental standards and human rights. Cultural Hegemony o refers to the dominance of one social class over others through cultural means, creating a common sense of values that align with the ruling Elements class's interests (1) Domination vs. o Power is maintained not just through coercion, but through the consent Consent of the governed. (2) Cultural o Schools, churches, and media propagate the dominant ideology. Institutions (3) Social o Cultural hegemony ensures the continuation of the status quo. Reproduction Media in Capitalist o often promotes consumerist values, encouraging individuals to buy Societies products to find happiness and success o This consumerist ideology aligns with capitalist interests, ensuring the economic system continues unchallenged.  o the influence of Westernized ideals, such as fair skin being prized in media, reflects colonial and Western cultural dominance, making these ideals seem superior to local traditions Symbolic Interactionism o Symbolic Power is the ability to impose meanings and legitimate Elements domination through cultural symbols and practices. (1) Legitimacy o Symbolic power is often accepted as legitimate because it aligns with societal norms. (2) Habitus o Bourdieu's concept of habitus refers to the ingrained habits, skills, and dispositions that individuals develop based on their social position. (3) Field o Social spaces like art, education, or politics where symbolic power operates. The Prestige of Higher o Elite universities such as Harvard or Oxford are symbols of success and Education intellectual superiority. o The cultural capital acquired at such institutions legitimizes the power of graduates, often leading to influential political and economic positions. Cultural Hegemony o Focuses on consent to domination through cultural institutions. Symbolic Power o Emphasizes the legitimization of domination through cultural symbols and practices. Difference o Hegemony operates on a societal level, while symbolic power often functions within specific fields (e.g., education, art). Example o The Catholic Church has historically been a powerful cultural and political institution in the Philippines, influencing both public policy and personal behavior. Hegemony o The Church's influence promotes values (e.g., family, anti-abortion) that align with state policies. Symbolic Power o The Church's influence promotes values (e.g., family, anti-abortion) that align with state policies. Ideology o A system of ideas and ideals, especially one that forms the basis of economic or political theory and policy. o shapes how individuals and groups perceive the world and their role in it Political Ideologies o are sets of beliefs and values that explain how societies should work, and they offer a blueprint for organizing political and social life o They provide a framework for understanding how power should be Types of Ideologies distributed and exercised. (1) Liberalism o Emphasizes individual freedoms, equality, and democracy. (2) Conservatism o Prioritizes tradition, authority, and social stability. (3) Socialism o Advocates for collective ownership of the means of production and wealth redistribution. (4) Fascism o A far-right authoritarian ideology focused on nationalism and dictatorial power. Liberalism o Emphasizes individual freedom, democracy, and free-market economy. Advocates for limited government intervention in personal lives and the economy. o Example: The United States' political system is heavily influenced by liberal democratic principles such as free elections and individual rights.  o Liberalism has been a dominant ideology in Western democracies, driving economic policies like deregulation and civil rights protections. Conservatism o Emphasizes tradition, authority, and stability. Supports gradual change rather than radical reforms. Believes in maintaining established institutions. o Example: The United Kingdom's political system, particularly under Margaret Thatcher's government, embraced conservative economic policies such as privatization and reducing welfare. o Analysis: Conservatism shapes policies that prioritize stability and tradition, often resisting progressive changes in favor of preserving the status quo. Socialism o Advocates for collective ownership of the means of production, economic equality, and a more active role for government in redistributing wealth. o Example: The political system in Scandinavian countries like Sweden is influenced by socialist principles, resulting in strong welfare systems, universal healthcare, and free education. o Socialist policies focus on reducing social inequalities and providing universal access to essential services, but may involve higher taxes and government intervention. Communism o Calls for a classless, stateless society where the means of production are collectively owned. Believes in the abolition of private property and aims for total economic equality. o Example: The political system in Cuba operates under a communist ideology, where the government controls all major industries and provides equal distribution of resources. o While communism promises total equality, it has often resulted in authoritarian regimes that limit personal freedoms and concentrate power within the state. Fascism o Characterized by authoritarian nationalism, a rejection of democracy, and the belief in a strong, centralized government led by a dictator. o Example: Nazi Germany under Adolf Hitler exemplified fascist ideology, promoting totalitarian rule, aggressive nationalism, and militarism. o Fascism leads to highly centralized governments that suppress dissent, prioritize the state above the individual, and often engage in aggressive expansionist policies. Environmentalism o Focuses on protecting the environment, promoting sustainability, and addressing the consequences of industrialization. Supports policies that reduce pollution, preserve natural resources, and mitigate climate change. o Green parties in Europe, like Germany's Green Party, influence policy by advocating for renewable energy, reducing carbon emissions, and promoting environmental justice. o Environmentalism is increasingly shaping political systems as climate change becomes a central issue, influencing everything from energy policies to trade agreements.  Feminism o Advocates for gender equality, women's rights, and the elimination of patriarchal systems. Seeks equal representation in political, social, and economic spheres. o Nordic countries like Iceland have embraced feminist ideologies, leading to gender-equal policies such as equal pay and parental leave. o Feminism influences policies that challenge traditional gender roles, promoting equal opportunities and rights for all genders. Neoliberalism o Emphasizes free markets, privatization, deregulation, and minimal government intervention in the economy. Believes in reducing public spending on welfare programs. o The economic policies of Ronald Reagan in the US and Margaret Thatcher in the UK focused on neoliberal principles, reducing the size of government and promoting market-driven growth. o While neoliberalism can lead to economic growth and increased efficiency, it often results in greater economic inequality and reduced social services. Ideological Conflicts o The ideological clash between capitalism and communism led to the Cold War, a period of geopolitical tension between the US and the Soviet Union. o Ideological conflicts often lead to political instability, wars, and the rise or fall of regimes. These conflicts shape the political landscape by defining alliances and enemies. o Ideological conflicts and alliances play significant roles in shaping global politics. Relationship between o Ideologies justify the use and exercise of power by elites or governments. Ideology and Power o Antonio Gramsci's Theory of Hegemony: Power is maintained not just through force but through cultural institutions that promote a dominant ideology, making it seem "natural." o Example: The Marcos Regime's use of media and education to promote a narrative of "Bagong Lipunan" (New Society) to legitimize martial law. How Culture Shapes o Culture helps disseminate and normalize ideologies by embedding them Ideology in everyday life. o Example: Catholicism in the Philippines as a cultural and ideological force that influences views on issues like divorce, reproductive health, and same-sex marriage. o The state uses ideology to justify its monopoly over legitimate violence (Weber). o Example: Philippine Government's War on Drugs under former President Rodrigo Duterte, framed as a fight for national security and public order, justified through the ideological lens of public safety and crime reduction. Ideologies can be used to legitimize controversial state actions. Political System o refers to the structure and processes through which decisions are made in a society, including how power is distributed and exercised o Examples of Political Systems: Democracy, Authoritarianism, Monarchy, Totalitarianism, Theocracy.  Democracy o A political system where power is vested in the people, either directly or through elected representatives. o Key Principles: Popular sovereignty, free and fair elections, majority rule, protection of rights and liberties. o Example: The political system in India, the largest democracy in the world, operates through free elections and a parliamentary system, promotes accountability, but challenges like populism and corruption can undermine its effectiveness. Authoritarianism o A political system where power is concentrated in the hands of a single leader or a small elite, with limited political pluralism and restricted political freedoms. o Features: Centralized decision making, limited civil liberation. o Example: China operates under an authoritarian system where the Communist Party maintains strict control over political and social life. Authoritarian systems can ensure political stability and swift decision- making but often suppress dissent and limit freedom. Monarchy o A political system where a single individual, usually a king or queen, holds supreme power, often inherited through a royal lineage. o Example: Saudi Arabia is an absolute monarchy where the king holds significant political and religious authority. o Monarchies provide continuity and tradition but may face challenges of modernization and political reform. Totalitarianism o A political system where the state seeks to control all aspects of public and private life, often through coercion and surveillance. o Key Features: One-party rule, extensive propaganda, suppression of opposition, use of terror. Example: o North Korea is a totalitarian state where the government exercises complete control over the media, economy, and citizens' lives. o Totalitarian regimes maintain power through fear and control, limiting individual freedoms and dissent. Theocracy o A political system where religious leaders or religious laws govern the state, with political authority rooted in religious doctrine. o Key Features: Government by divine guidance, religious laws as state laws, and clerical control of political decisions. o Iran operates as a theocratic state where the Supreme Leader, a religious figure, holds significant power. o Theocracies ensure religious conformity but may limit political freedom and secular rights. Governance Models (1) Presidential o The president is the head of state and government, with separate System executive and legislative branches (e.g., the United States). (2) Parliamentary o The head of government (Prime Minister) is typically part of the System legislature, and executive authority is derived from the legislative body (e.g., the United Kingdom).  o The presidential system provides clear separation of powers, while parliamentary systems promote greater unity between legislative and executive branches. Democracy vs. o Democracy promotes citizen participation and accountability, while Authoritarianism authoritarianism emphasizes centralized control and limited dissent. Monarchy vs. o Monarchies can provide stability through tradition, while totalitarian Totalitarianism regimes seek total control of society. Theocracy vs. Secular o Theocracies prioritize religious laws, while secular states separate States religion from governance. Political Culture o refers to the shared beliefs, values, norms, and practices that shape Components political behavior in a society (1) Cognitive o Knowledge and beliefs about politics. (2) Affective o Emotions and attitudes towards political entities. (3) Evaluative o Opinions about political processes and outcomes. Types of Political Culture (1) Parochial o Limited awareness of political activities (e.g., traditional societies). (2) Subject o Awareness of politics, but limited participation (e.g., subjects of a monarchy). (3) Participant o High levels of awareness and active participation (e.g., democratic societies). Political Socialization o The process through which individuals acquire their political beliefs and Agents of Socialization values. (1) Family o Primary source of political beliefs. (2) Education o Schools instill civic knowledge and values. (3) Media o Influences perceptions and knowledge of politics. (4) Peers o Friends and social networks affect political opinions. Role of Political Culture in Governance (1) Legitimacy o Political culture shapes citizens' perceptions of government legitimacy. (2) Stability vs. o Cultures emphasizing tradition may resist change; progressive cultures Change may embrace reform. (3) Civic o Cultures promoting civic duty encourage higher participation rates. Engagement Forms of Political Participation (1) Conventional o Engaging in activities accepted by the political system (e.g., voting, Participation campaigning). (2) Unconventional o Non-traditional methods (e.g., protests, activism). Participation Voting o is a fundamental aspect of democratic participation Factors Influencing Voter Turnout (1) Socioeconomic o Higher income and education levels correlate with higher turnout. Status (2) Age o Older individuals tend to vote more than younger ones.  (3) Political Efficacy o The belief that one's vote matters influences turnout. Digital Age and Political o Social media and the internet have transformed political participation. Participation o Examples: (1) Online campaigns (2) Digital activisms (3) Rise of hashtags in social movements (e.g., #BlackLivesMatter). o Concerns: Misinformation and echo chambers can distort political discourse. Barriers to Political Participation (1) Structural o Laws and regulations that restrict participation (e.g., voter ID laws). Barriers (2) Socioeconomic o Poverty and lack of education can hinder engagement. Barriers (3) Psychological o Feelings of apathy or disillusionment can reduce participation. Barriers Filipino Political and Cultural Traits 1. Tamad/ Manana o Tamad refers to laziness, while the manana habit describes the tendency Habit to procrastinate tasks, leading to inefficiency. o This trait can be attributed to cultural values that prioritize leisure and social interaction over leisure punctuality and productivity. o In Filipino culture, community and family relationships often take precedence over strict adherence to schedules. o "Mga Marites", Concept of "Filipino Time" o Post-Independence Economic Policies (1946-1970): The government's slow implementation of agrarian reforms and industrialization initiatives led to economic stagnation, with many blaming bureaucratic inefficiency. o Corruption during the Marcos Administration (1965-1986): Many government projects were delayed or poorly executed due to officials prioritizing personal gain over their responsibilities. o Slow Response to Natural Disasters: The delayed response to typhoons and floods, such as Typhoon Haiyan in 2013, reflects a broader issue of procrastination in disaster preparedness and response. o Contemporary Issues: Procrastination in fulfilling government services continues to be an issue, with citizens often complaining about delayed issuance of documents and permits due to bureaucratic inefficiency. 2. Manloloko o Manloloko refers to individuals who deceive or manipulate others for (Deception) personal gain. o This trait can indicate deeper societal issues surrounding trust and integrity, revealing how deceit can fracture community bonds. In a o Context: In a culture that values personal relationships, deception can be especially damaging, leading to skepticism and distrust. o Trust Issues, Jose Marco, Budol-Budol Gang  o Coconut Levy Fund Scandal (1970s-1980s): The misuse of funds intended for coconut farmers was a major deception by government officials under Marcos, benefiting a select few at the expense of many. o Pork Barrel Scam (2013): The revelation that several lawmakers colluded with businesswoman Janet Lim-Napoles to embezzle public funds illustrates systemic deception in the government. o VFA Controversies (2000s-present): Allegations of deception and manipulation regarding the Visiting Forces Agreement with the United States raised questions about national sovereignty and the honesty of political dealings. o Contemporary Issues: The rise of online scams in the Philippines, where many fall victim to fake job offers or fraudulent transactions, reflects ongoing challenges with trust and deception in society. 3. Uto-Uto o Uto-uto describes individuals who are easily deceived or manipulated (Gullibility) due to a lack of critical thinking or awareness. o This trait can be connected to educational gaps and socio-economic factors that affect people's ability to question and analyze information critically. o The deference to authority and communal consensus in Filipino culture can lead some individuals to accept information without scrutiny. o Change Scamming, Bagong Pilipinas, Bagong Mukha. o Support for Marcos Martial Law (1972): Many Filipinos were initially gullible, believing government propaganda that martial law was necessary for national security. o Aquino Administration (1986-1992): Supporters of President Corazon Aquino faced deception by various political factions that exploited their gullibility, leading to confusion and political strife. o False Promises by Local Politicians: Numerous local politicians have made promises during elections that voters gullibly accepted without questioning their feasibility." o Kamag-anak, Inc." during the Arroyo Administration (2001-2010): Many citizens were deceived by the government's claims of economic progress, failing to question the validity of reported gains due to blind faith in leadership. o Contemporary Issues: Today, misinformation spreads rapidly on social media, with gullible individuals falling for false news or misleading advertisements, highlighting the need for better media literacy. 4. Colonial o A lingering preference for foreign products, values, and culture over local Mentality Filipino culture due to historical colonial influences. o Colonial mentality can lead to the undervaluation of local talents and products, impacting national pride and identity. o Centuries of colonization have ingrained a sense of inferiority regarding indigenous culture, often favoring Western ideals. o Imported vs. local, skin whitening, iphone or myphone  o The Spanish Colonization (1565-1898): The church promoted a colonial mentality that favored European practices and education, leading to a loss of indigenous identity. o American Colonial Period (1898-1946): Many Filipinos adopted American customs, education, and products, leading to a preference for Western ideals over their cultural heritage. o Post-Independence Economic Policies: Many Filipinos continued to favor American brands and products, neglecting local industries, which contributed to the struggle of local businesses. o Beauty Standards: The emergence of the "mestiza" standard of beauty during the American period, still prevalent today, shows a preference for Western looks over Filipino features. o Contemporary Issues: Filipinos often prefer foreign brands over local products, and beauty standards influenced by foreign media continue to dominate, resulting in the popularity of skin-whitening products. 5. Crab Mentality o A socio-psychological phenomenon where individuals pull down others who are succeeding, stemming from jealousy or insecurity. o This trait reflects societal challenges that promote competition rather than cooperation, hindering collective progress. o Crab mentality is prevalent in communities with limited resources, where the success of one is often perceived as a threat to others. o Cumlaude kasi online class, Hitik sa bunga, kaya binabato, Hindi naman masarap yung cookies niya o People Power Revolution (1986): While many rallied against the Marcos regime, some groups sought to undermine the efforts of others in the opposition, fearing their success. o Filipino Celebrity Culture: Successful actors or singers often face backlash and criticism from peers, as seen in various public feuds among celebrities over perceived slights. o Political Rivalries: In the lead-up to elections, candidates often attempt to sabotage each other's campaigns, reflecting crab mentality in political competition. o Contemporary Issues: This mentality persists in the entertainment industry, where rising stars often face backlash or negative comments from their peers instead of support, highlighting a lack of solidarity in various sectors. 6. Balimbing o Refers to a politician who changes allegiance for personal or political (Turncoatism) gain, often compromising principles for power. o This behavior indicates a political culture heavily influenced by self- interest rather than ideological commitment or loyalty. o The fluidity of party affiliation in the Philippines often leads to politicians switching sides based on which faction is currently in power or popular. o Pedro Paterno: The "original" Balimbing in history o Liberal Party vs. Nacionalista Party  o EDSA Revolution (1986): Many politicians shifted their loyalty from Marcos to Aquino's administration, revealing their opportunistic nature in seeking power. o Recent Elections (2019, 2022): Various politicians switched parties to align with popular candidates, showcasing a lack of consistency in political platforms. o The 'Turncoat Senators' in the 14th Congress: Many senators switched their political alliances based on the majority party's influence and perceived chances of winning. o Juan Ponce Enrile: who shifted allegiance from Marcos to the opposition during the People Power Revolution; politicians who frequently change parties for electoral advantage. o Contemporary Issues: Today, many politicians frequently switch parties during election cycles to align with winning candidates, leading to a lack of consistent platforms and political ideologies. 7. Clientelism/ o A political system where elected officials provide material goods and Patronage services in exchange for political support, often leading to dependency. o Clientelism undermines democratic processes by prioritizing personal relationships over accountability, fostering a culture of corruption and inefficiency. o This system is prevalent in many Philippine communities, where local politicians leverage their resources to build loyal voter bases. o I'll scratch your back, you will scratch mine, Utang na loob, limang daang piso kapalit ng iyong boto, Leads to nepotism/favoritism o The Marcos Regime (1965-1986): Marcos used patronage to solidity power, providing favors and projects to loyal supporters, which resulted in widespread corruption. o Post-EDSA Political Landscape: Many politicians, such as local government officials, relied on patronage networks to maintain their positions after the Marcos regime, perpetuating corruption. o Davao City Politics: The Duterte family has maintained power through clientelism, providing various forms of assistance to constituents while expecting political loyalty in return. o Contemporary Issues: Many Filipinos feel pressured to vote for candidates who offer material benefits, undermining the democratic process and leading to poor governance. 8. Bahala Na o A cultural attitude characterized by a sense of resignation to fate, often (Fatalism) resulting in a lack of proactive behavior in the face of challenges. o While it can reflect a coping mechanism, "bahala na" can also inhibit initiative and problem-solving, leading to inefficiency in addressing societal issues. o This mentality can arise from historical adversity, leading individuals to accept their circumstances rather than strive for change. o Exams Ninyo, Kapag nag-scatter, Going into own battles o Spanish Colonization: Many Filipinos accepted their fate under colonial rule, reflecting a "bahala na" attitude that hindered collective resistance.  o Natural Disasters Response: The Philippines' high vulnerability to natural disasters has often seen a "bahala na" approach, with communities waiting for aid rather than preparing proactively. o During Martial Law (1972-1986): The fear of reprisal under Marcos led many Filipinos to adopt a fatalistic outlook, resulting in limited resistance to oppression. o Health Issues: The COVID-19 pandemic revealed fatalistic attitudes among some individuals who resisted adhering to health protocols, believing their fate was out of their hands. o Contemporary Issues: This attitude persists in various sectors, such as education and disaster preparedness, where individuals may hesitate to take initiative due to a belief that outcomes are predetermined. 9. Populism o A political approach that seeks to represent the interests of ordinary people, often contrasting with the elite, and can be characterized by charismatic leaders. o While populism can empower marginalized voices, it may also lead to authoritarianism when leaders bypass traditional political processes. o Populism in the Philippines often emerges during crises, when leaders promise change and rally against established elites. o Kandidatong Pang-mayaman VS Pang-mahirap, charismatic leadership, Rodrigo Duterte's galawang kanin na cake and simple birthday ang ipopost pero may lechon sa likod o President Rodrigo Duterte (2016-present): Duterte's rise was fueled by populist rhetoric, positioning himself as a champion of the common man against crime and drug lords. o Joseph Estrada (1998-2001): Estrada's presidency was marked by populist policies aimed at addressing poverty, although ultimately marred by corruption allegations. o Magsaysay's Presidency (1953-1957): Ramon Magsaysay's focus on the poor and rural development marked a classic example of populism in action, earning him significant grassroots support. o Leni Robredo's 2022 Campaign: Robredo's grassroots campaign, emphasizing the voices of ordinary citizens, displayed populist elements aimed at challenging elite politics. o Contemporary Issues: The rise of populist leaders continues to create polarization in Philippine politics, with increasing divisions between different socio-economic groups. 10. Traitor o A term used to describe individuals who betray their country or cause for personal gain, often perceived as disloyal. o The label of "traitor" is used politically to delegitimize opponents and foster mistrust, often leading to conflict within political factions. o Political instability in the Philippines has historically led to accusations of treachery, often used to silence dissent. o Politicians who did not fulfill their promises: Collaborators, Luna, Bonifacio  o Andres Bonifacio: Despite his leadership in the revolution against Spain, he was branded a traitor by rival factions within the Katipunan. o The Marcos Regime: Numerous politicians and activists were labeled traitors for opposing the dictatorship, leading to arrests and human rights abuses. o Contemporary Politics: Recent events have seen politicians accuse one another of treachery for switching allegiances or opposing the current administration. o Jose Rizal, Andres Bonifacio, critics of Ferdinand Marcos, and politicians today who are labeled traitors for opposing the government. o Contemporary Issues: Accusations of treason continue to be a tool for political maneuvering, as seen in the responses to dissenting voices against government policies. 11. Political o The tendency for individuals or groups to support popular or successful Bandwagon candidates or movements, often leading to a lack of critical assessment. o This trait highlights the influence of public opinion and social dynamics in shaping political allegiances, often resulting in shallow political engagement. o Bandwagoning is prevalent in the Philippines, especially during election seasons when candidates gain momentum and public support. o Election season, celebrity influecers, Noynoy o Aquino Administration (1986-1992): Following the People Power Revolution, many politicians jumped on the Aquino bandwagon, supporting her government despite previous allegiances to Marcos. o Duterte's 2016 Campaign: Duterte's rapid rise in popularity saw many previously opposing politicians switch sides to support his campaign. o Senatorial Elections (2019): Many candidates benefited from being associated with popular administration policies and figures, regardless of their political platforms. o Contemporary Issues: Political bandwagoning remains evident in current elections, where voters may support candidates based on popularity rather than policy, leading to fluctuating political alliances. 12. Political o Mudslinging/Black Propaganda Political mudslinging, or black Mudslinging/ propaganda, refers to the deliberate spreading of false information, Black personal attacks, or negative campaigning to discredit political Propaganda opponents, sway public opinion, and manipulate elections. The primary objective is to damage an individual or group's reputation to gain a political advantage. o It often involves personal character assassination rather than focusing on policy differences, thus diverting public discourse from critical issues. o This practice taps into Filipino political culture, where personalities often play a bigger role than ideologies, making it easier for candidates to sway the electorate through emotional and personal attacks rather than through policy-driven debates. o Villar, Gibo, Binay, Roxas, Robredo, Marcos o Example 1: Manuel Quezon vs. Sergio Osmeña (1935 Presidential Elections) In the lead-up to the 1935 elections, mudslinging was rampant between Quezon and Osmeña, both prominent figures in Philippine politics. Although both men had served as allies, their rivalry escalated as Quezon was portrayed as a dictator-in-the-making by Osmeña's supporters. Quezon, on the other hand, accused Osmeña of betraying the country by siding too much with Americans. o Example 2: Ferdinand Marcos vs. Benigno Aquino Jr. (1970s) During the height of Marcos' regime, black propaganda was commonly used to tarnish the reputation of his political opponents. One of the most notable targets was Benigno Aquino Jr., who was depicted as a communist sympathizer and a threat to national security. These accusations were designed to justify his imprisonment and later his assassination. o Example 3: 2016 Presidential Elections (Duterte vs. Roxas and Poe) The 2016 presidential campaign saw high levels of political mudslinging, particularly involving Rodrigo Duterte, Mar Roxas, and Grace Poe. Duterte's camp was accused of spreading false information about Roxas' role during Typhoon Yolanda and allegations about Poe's citizenship. Duterte himself was also the subject of black propaganda, including accusations about his involvement in extrajudicial killings. o Example 4: 2022 Presidential Elections (Marcos Jr. vs. Robredo) The 2022 elections saw a resurgence of black propaganda on social media, primarily targeting Vice President Leni Robredo and former senator Ferdinand "Bongbong" Marcos Jr. Robredo was falsely accused of being involved in corruption, incompetence, and communist ties, while Marcos was often portrayed as trying to rewrite history regarding his family's ill- gotten wealth. Troll farms and disinformation campaigns played a significant role in this modern-day mudslinging battle.