CTE Citizenship and Transformative Education (University of Rwanda) 2020-2021 PDF

CITIZENSHIP AND TRANSFORMATIVE EDUCATION University of Rwanda/College of Education Year 1 /2020-2021 Module learning outcomes  By the end of this module, you should be able to:  Explain basic notions and issues of citizenship, state b...

CITIZENSHIP AND TRANSFORMATIVE EDUCATION University of Rwanda/College of Education Year 1 /2020-2021 Module learning outcomes  By the end of this module, you should be able to:  Explain basic notions and issues of citizenship, state building and national identity in connection with the History of Rwanda;  Relate integrity system and its mechanism into the Rwandan context;  Discuss human rights, child rights, and child online protection;  Describe the role of Education in peaceful transformation of conflicts. Unit 1: Civic Education  The word “civic” originates from the Latin word “civis”, meaning “citizen”.  Civic Education is defined as a continual process of educating citizens to participate in the public life of a democracy (a system of government in which the citizens exercise power directly or indirectly through elected representatives), to use their rights and to fulfill their responsibilities with the necessary knowledge and skills.  It is a continual process of educating individuals, of all ages, in political, economic, social and cultural domains, to become responsible citizens and active members who participate in decisions concerning society.  It is the preparation of individuals to participate as active and responsible citizens in a democracy. Civic Education  It emphasizes not only citizen awareness but citizen participation in all aspects of democratic society.  Civic education targets children or adults, in developing or developed countries, and at local, national and international level.  Civic education is transmitted formally (schools and other educational institutions), non-formally (Ingando, training, urugerero, workshops, etc) and informally (family, church, media, etc),  Civic education comprises 3 main elements : Civic knowledge, civic dispositions (values) and civic skills. Civic knowledge  It refers to citizens:  understanding the workings of the political system i.e. a fundamental understanding of the structure of government and the processes by which government passes laws and makes policy.  Understanding of basic concepts such as separation of powers, individual rights, and the role of government.  But even understanding of the history that continues to shape the present, aspects of geography that are vital to understanding the country and the world, and the economics that is necessary to assess public policy options. Civic knowledge In short, civic knowledge means citizens:  Understand their political and civic context ;  Know their social, economic, political and civil rights;  Understand the roles, rights and responsibilities of citizens. Civic skills  Abilities necessary to participate as active and responsible citizens in democracy.  They include speaking, listening, collaboration, community organizing, public advocacy, and the ability to gather and process information. Civic skills involve:  Acquiring the ability to explain, analyze, interact, evaluate, defend a position on public issues, and monitor processes and outcomes (e.g. to monitor government performance, or mobilize other citizens around particular issues);  Using knowledge to participate in civic and political processes. Civic skills are necessary for critical thinking and collective action. Civic dispositions  Encompass interpersonal and intrapersonal values, virtues and behaviors (character traits).  These character traits include among others:  Civility - treating other people respectfully, regardless of whether or not one agrees with their viewpoints.  Being willing to listen to other points of view and avoiding hostile, abusive and emotional arguments;  Respect for the rights of other individuals - having respect for others' rights to: an equal voice in government; be equal in the eyes of the law; have different ideas; and join organizations to advance their views. Civic dispositions  Respect for the law - willingness to abide by laws, even though one may not be in complete agreement with every law; willingness to work through peaceful, legal means to change laws which one thinks to be unwise or unjust.  Honesty - willingness to seek and express the truth.  Open mindedness - willingness to consider others' points of view.  Critical mindedness - openness to questioning the validity of various positions on issues, including one's own. Civic dispositions  Negotiation and compromise - making an effort to come to agreement with those with whom you may differ, when it is reasonable and morally justifiable to do so.  Persistence - being willing to attempt again and again to accomplish worthwhile goals.  Civic mindedness - paying attention to, and having concern for, public affairs.  Compassion - having concern for the well-being of others, especially for the less fortunate. Civic dispositions  Patriotism - being loyal to the values and principles underlying democracy and your country.  Courage - the strength to stand up for one's convictions.  Tolerance of ambiguity - the ability to accept uncertainties that arise, e.g. from insufficient knowledge or understanding of complex issues.  Other civic values: dedication, responsiveness, accountability, solidarity, equal consideration, etc. Civic dispositions involve:  Developing confidence to be able to participate in civic life;  Engaging in political processes;  Assuming the roles, rights and responsibilities usually associated with citizenship in democratic systems;  Being open, tolerant and responsible in exercising their rights and Responsibilities. Civic duties, responsibilities, activities, programs and organizations  Civic duties also called obligations: things citizens are required to do, by law (e. g. paying taxes, obeying laws, serving in a jury and military service in some countries).  We must fulfill duties required by national, state, and local governments or face fines or imprisonment.  Civic responsibilities: things we should do but are not required by law, obligations that we fulfill voluntarily. Examples: serving the government, voting, attending civic meetings, joining a political party, petitioning the government, helping others in need in your community, volunteering, engagement in or advocacy for various causes, etc.  Civic activities: eg. ‘umuganda’, voting in elections, holding public office, signing up for the military, attendance in fora, involvement in community activities.  Civic programs/organizations: ‘ingando’, ‘isibo’, ‘umugoroba w’ababyeyi’, forums, clubs, volunteer groups, rescue groups, etc.  Citizenship  Etymologically, citizenship comes from two Latin words, ‘Civis’ (citizen), and ‘Civitas’ (city)  In that sense, citizens are members or inhabitants of a city, or a state making a political community, and are distinguished with aliens or foreign citizens.  Citizenship  Citizenship is the status of being a citizen: a person recognized under the custom law (or law of a state) that confers (gives) on that person (called a citizen) the rights and duties of citizenship.  Therefore, citizenship refers to the legal relationship between the individual and the state, and among individuals within a state. The state recognizes and guarantees the individual’s rights.  We say ‘legal’ to mean formal status (with prior registration, recognition, and publication by civil status services). Determining factors of citizenship or ways of acquiring citizenship Citizenship by descent (in Latin Jus sanguinis): that is citizenship ‘by blood’, from one or both parents.  Today, the citizenship laws of most countries are based on jus sanguinis. It is automatic, only to be recognized.  In many cases, this also extends to children born outside the country or descendent people born outside their ‘mother’ countries.  Some states (eg. UK, and Canada) limit the right to citizenship by descent to a certain number of generations born outside the state. Others request for registration to each generation. Others have no generation-based limitation. Citizenship by birth on the country's territory (jus soli).  Canada, the United States and many Latin American countries grant unconditional birthright citizenship.  To stop birth tourism (travel to another country for the purpose of giving birth in that country), most countries have abolished it;  but other countries like Australia, France, Germany, Ireland, New Zealand, South Africa, and the United Kingdom have modified jus soli, which requires at least one parent to be a citizen of the country (jus sanguinis) or a legal permanent resident who has lived in the country for several years. Determining factors of citizenship  Citizenship by marriage (Jus matrimonii): fast-track naturalization based on marriage with a citizen.  In some countries, the request must come from a permanent resident;  In other countries, regulations try to detect sham marriages, putting to scrutiny proofs of cultural integration, marriage history, duration of residence, and the like.  Citizenship by naturalization (or Grant): acquired after political asylum, residence permit, good conduct, faithful allegiance and outstanding national interests, and with possibility of dual citizenship in some countries.  Citizenship by investment (Economic citizenship): asset- based, for generous donors or wealthy investors. Citizenship by adoption  A minor adopted from another country when at least one adoptive parent is a citizen (International adoption ).  International adoption (also referred to as inter-country adoption or transnational adoption): an individual or couple becomes the legal and permanent parent(s) of a child who is a national of a different country.  In general, future adoptive parents must meet the legal adoption requirements of their country of residence and those of the country whose nationality the child holds. Citizenship by holding an office (jus oficii)  In the case of Vatican City State, citizenship is based on holding an office.  The Vatican citizenship held by the Pope, cardinals residing in Vatican City, active members of the Holy See's diplomatic service, and other directors of Vatican offices and services.  Vatican citizenship is lost when the office term comes to an end, and children cannot inherit it from their parents.  Since Vatican citizenship is time-limited, dual citizenship is allowed, and persons who would become stateless because of loss of Vatican citizenship automatically become Italian citizens. Determining factors of citizenship or different ways of acquiring citizenship  A person may be a citizen of more than two countries under the laws of those countries.  In that case, we say that the person have multiple citizenship, dual citizenship, dual nationality or multiple nationality.  Multiple or dual citizenship is a person's status of being a citizen of two or more countries at the same time, under the laws of those countries.  A person who does not have citizenship of any country is said to be stateless person. Four styles of citizenship  Dutiful citizenship: is dependent, a ‘yes-man’.  Pragmatic citizenship: he/she just conforms to situations.  Outsider citizenship: inactive, he/she behaves like a stranger.  Society critic citizenship: is responsible, and independent-minded. Alternative description of citizenship styles  Ethno-national, associated with genealogical links  Civic, associated with social rights and welfare  Cultural, associated with participation and/but with self- reliance. Three types of political culture  Parochial citizens: much deferential, with little interested in politics, especially at the national level. Otherwise, only local and direct personal interests.  Subjects: interested in national politics but only as observers. Leave decisions to the elites.  Participant citizens: strong feeling that they are entitled to and should actively contribute to national-decision making in a sustainable way. Models or traditions in citizenship thought How each model in the classical world history used to speak to citizenship, its pros and cons:  Liberalism advocates individual rights/interests, self-help, formal equality, tolerance, a market economy and a minimal state. Citizens tend to be politically passive.  Republicanism: Sometimes distinguished with communitarian/group citizenship. Emphasis is on ‘public thing’ and civic values, beyond rights claims.  Assimilationism: the practice (current in France, for eg.) of requiring minorities and immigrants to adopt the customs and practices of the majority population. Models or traditions in citizenship thought  Multiculturalism: diverse ethnic and cultural groups receive equal treatment and are entitled to maintain their differences (e.g. Canada).  Cosmopolitanism all human beings belong to a single community, a world state, or a decentralized and inclusive global structure. State building and nation building  Nation, state and nation state? State and Nation  The terms State and Nation are often used as synonyms.  For example, when we say ‘Western nations’ or ‘Asian nations’ or ‘African nations’, we do not mean nations but States.  Similarly, the ‘United Nations’ is in reality an organization of nation-states.  However there exist some important distinctions between the State and the Nation  A state and a nation  A state is an independent, sovereign government exercising control over a certain spatially defined and bounded area, whose borders are usually clearly defined and internationally recognized by other states.  The State has four elements: population, territory, government, and sovereignty. In the absence of even one element, a state cannot be really a state. A state is always characterized by all these four elements.  On the contrary, a nation is a group of people who have a strong sense of unity and common consciousness (The consciousness of a group of people is their set of ideas, attitudes, and beliefs).  Common territory, common race, common religion, common language, common history, common culture and common political aspirations are the elements which help in the formation of a nation, and yet none of these is an absolutely essential element. The elements which go to build a nation keep on changing. A state and a nation  Nation can be wider than the state: The State is limited to a fixed territory. Its boundaries can increase or decrease but the process of change is always very complex.  However a nation may or may not remain within the limits of a fixed territory. Nation is a community based on common ethnicity, history and traditions and aspirations. Its boundaries can easily extend beyond the boundaries of the State.  Nation is more stable than State: When sovereignty ends, the State dies, but not the nation. A nation can survive even without sovereignty.  This is why we say a nation is a stable community of people, formed on the basis of a common language, territory, history, ethnicity, or psychological make-up manifested in a common culture. A state and nation  There can be two or more nationalities living in one State: two or more than two nations within a single state.  Before the First World War, Austria and Hungary were one state, but two different nations.  Most of the modern states are multinational states. Nation- state  State and nation do not have the same boundaries, and yet there is a tendency for a nation and state to be one.  Most of the nations today stand organized into different states.  The modern state is called a nation-state because all the (nationalities) living in one state stand integrated into one nation.  A state continuously pursues the objective of national- integration. The State tries to secure this objective by securing a willing blending of the majority nationality and all the minority nationalities, through collective living, sharing of all the ups and the downs in common and development of strong emotional, spiritual and psychological bonds.  Unity in diversity or more really, unity in plurality stands accepted as the guiding principle by all the modern civilized multinational states like India, USA, Russia, China, Britain and others. A Nation-State?  A Nation-State is the idea of a homogenous nation governed by its own sovereign state—where each state contains one nation. This idea is almost never achieved.  The nation state is a system of organization in which people with a common identity live inside a country with firm borders and a single government.  The nation state is held together by its physical boundaries, its government, and the fact that the people believe they are connected to each other.  Nation states must also have a shared national culture. This is often achieved through common language, history, holidays, and education.  The idea that people of a nation are connected to each other is called nationalism. Is Rwanda a nation, a state or a nation-state? Justify your answer.  Remember, Nation-state is a state (usually sovereign) in which the great majority identify as a single culture (often defined as an ethnic group).  Rwanda can be conceived as a nation-state because majority of Rwandan people identify themselves as a single culture with common customs, beliefs, values and taboos.  They identify themselves as Abanyarwanda. State-building and nation building  How are nations formed? How are states built?  State-building  State building refers to the process creating and strengthening the institutions necessary to support long-term economic, social, and political development;  It also refers to activity of building or strengthening the institutions and infrastructure of a weak or failing state, typically by a foreign power. In many countries, institutions are weak or absent.  State institutions include:  Legislatures, like the Rwandan parliament, to make laws  Judicial systems, like the Rwandan court systems, to interpret laws  Executive agencies, such as the ministries and others, to administer the laws which control the domestic economy, education, trade, and diplomacy, for example  Police and military forces, to provide security  State-building  State-building is the process through which states enhance their ability to function.  State-building takes place in all states, whether rich or poor, resilient or fragile, all states are seeking to make their structures better at delivering on the goals of government.  Importantly, members of the international community, collectively or individually, do not `do’ state-building outside their own borders.  State-building is a national process, a product of state-society relations that may be influenced by a wide variety of external forces (including trade or the media aid, etc), but which is primarily shaped by local dynamics.  State building  According to Whaites (2008), states never finish enhancing their ability to function.  They are never “finally” built, they change and adapt over time.  State building is an iterative process. It is shaped by elite interaction, and by state-society relations.  States vary in the degree to which they manage state-building  Nation-building  The process of fostering a common identity among the governed who come to see themselves as Tanzanians, Rwandans or British.  It is the broad process through which nations come into being.  Nation-building aims at the unification of the people within the state so that it remains politically stable and viable in the long run.  Nation- building  Nations are often formed in two ways: Internal process: Family lineage clan tribe nation. The first way nations have formed is through family, lineage, clan, ethnic group to nations. External process: States resulting from colonization nation People were regrouped into political entities by colonial powers. These states later may develop into nations after decolonization. This is the case of states formed by the colonial powers which now evolved to become nations. However, in most of the cases, these nations are actually multi-national entities. They regroup various nations in one state-nation.  Nation building  In both processes, nations are reinforced by the development of common values, beliefs, customs, laws and principles that are taught to citizens through the socialization process (family, community, media, propaganda, school).  Currently, with globalization, nations tend to come together and regroup into regional integration communities and some people foresee the future of nations as integrating to form a global nation though other people fear the danger of the disintegration and development of extreme nationalism and populist (anti-elastic) ideologies (Hüsamettin İnaç& Feyzullah Ünal, 2013).  Nation building  Nation formation process is iterative: nation rise, grow, integrate with others, disintegrate, diffuse into others or even disappear.  Nations are constantly formed, reshaped, integrated and disintegrated throughout the history.  Some nations have formed, got fame, then after integrated other nations and later disintegrated and remained a small nation or even completely disappeared.  For example the great Roman Nation under Roman Empire has now narrowed to the Italian nation! The great catholic nation which in the middle age was a powerful multi-national nation-state covering almost the whole Europe and Middle East has now reduced to a small state within the City of Roma (the Vatican)!  The genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda as well as the recurrent problems experienced by the Sudan can also be related to a lack of ethnic, religious, or racial cohesion within the nation.  Nation building  Nation-building includes the creation of national symbols such as flags, anthems, national days, national stadiums, national airlines, national languages, national myths, etc. and at a deeper level, the creation of national identity. Nation-building and state- building Nation-building is seen as a distinct activity that normally parallels state-building. Where the state deliberately excludes its own people from its nation-building agenda (such as the religious minorities) then the state-building process will carry an ongoing risk of challenge (example the 1994 genocide against Tutsi was a result of exclusion). Success in nation building offers no guarantees of easier state-building, surveys in DRC suggest a strong sense of national pride despite great scepticism (doubt) about the state.  Nation-building and state- building Important: Success in nation building should go together with success in state building.  The process of state building parallels that of nation building.  Once a nation has formed, some kind of organization raises leading to the state.  In the past, nations have developed parallel to kingdoms, monarchies and empires.  However, these forms of state have progressively changed into modern states in form of constitutional monarchies and democracies. Nation-building and state- building  Often state building precedes (comes first) nation building or re-building.  This is the case for example of states resulting from conflicts (secession war, annexation war, regime change through liberation war,…).  The newly created state engages in ideological creation or recreation of the nation by promoting new common values, principles, customs and cultural norms.  This is a process of shaping or re-shaping social interrelations among the people within the state.  National identity  The basic meaning of identity refers to where one (a person or a group) belongs.  On the other hand, identity is something unique to each of us that we assume is more or less consistent (and hence the same) over time.  For instance, our identity is something we uniquely possess: it is what distinguishes us from other people.  Yet on the other hand, identity also implies a relationship with a broader collective or social group of some kind.  When we talk about national identity, cultural identity, or gender identity, for example, we imply that our identity is partly a matter of what we share with other people.  Here, identity is about identification with others whom we assume are similar to us (if not exactly the same), at least in some significant ways.  Identity refers to how people answer the question, " Who are you? " This question may be posed at a personal or a collective level, to others or to oneself. Types of identities Different types of identities fall into three categories:  The universal identity : some traits which distinguish the people from the non-people.  Social/Group identity: shared identity by some people ( religious, ethnic and cultural , professional, social class, gender, sex, racial, political, national, regional identity).  Individual identity. How individuals see and define themselves and how others see and define them  Identity  Our identities are developed in social interactions  Identity is therefore a socially and historically constructed concept. Anybody learns about his or her own identity and the identity of others through interactions with family, peers, role models, school, organizations, institutions, media and other connections of everyday life.  Key facets of identity—like gender, social class, age, race and ethnicity, religion, etc.—play significant roles in determining how people understand and experience the world, as well as shaping the types of opportunities and challenges they face.  Social and cultural identity is linked to issues of power, value systems and ideology.  Identity When we think about identity, we may focus on cultural markers, like clothing, or biological and physiological markers as skin color. However, it’s also important to understand that our identities are comprised of shared ideas, ideologies, biases and ways of seeing the world around us. Our identities, therefore, are socially constructed, and our biological attributes are only one part of who we are.  National identity.  National identity is a person's identity or sense of belonging to one state or to one nation.  It is defined in terms of sense of belonging to one state or nation; cohesion in terms of traditions, culture, language and politics.  A set of cognitions (thoughts, understandings) and emotions that express an individual’s relationship with a nation.  National identity may refer to the subjective (personal/individual) feeling one shares with a group of people about a nation, regardless of one's legal citizenship status.  “National identity” is a subjective construction, differing from the concept of “nationality,” which is an objective marker of an individual’s belonging to a nation. Nationality is usually prescribed by the nation through official registration and issuing of relevant documents.  National identity  National identity is not an inborn trait and it is essentially socially constructed.  A person's national identity results directly from the presence of elements from the "common points" in people's daily lives: national symbols, language, colors, nation's history, blood ties, culture, music, cuisine, radio, television, cultural artifacts and so on. Components of national identity  National identity includes some seven components: 1. A subjective conviction, also called self-categorization, as to which nation one belongs 2. A strong sense of national affiliation as part of the individual’s identity 3. Emotions (positive or negative) toward the nation 4. Stereotypes about the typical characteristics and traits of people belonging either to their own national group or to other national groups. 5. A subjective experience of inclusiveness and the perception of oneself as similar to other group members along important group defining characteristics 6. Subjective opinions regarding the current aims and problems of the nation 7. Knowledge of and a willingness to internalize the national culture and values and to follow national behavioral norms.  National identity National identity is a social construct; therefore, it may change depending on psychosocial circumstances. Most people express some degree of national identity; however, its expression increases in situations where belonging to a nation becomes particularly salient, such as during international sport events, or when there is a potential threat to one’s national identity, such as during a cross-cultural encounter. Although, most people have a single national identity, others, who either by birth or by choice, belonging to multiple nations may have separate national identities that relate to each of these nations. For example, people whose parents come from different nations, as well as first- and second-generation immigrants may have multiple national identities. Measures of national identity Three measures of national identity: 1) Identification with the nation  Being of this nationality is an important part of my self- definition”;  “When I talk about this nation, I say ‘we’ and not ‘they’”;  “When this nation is criticized, I take it personally”; in other words, you can’t tolerate someone insulting your nation,  “It is important for me to think about myself as a member of this nation.” Measures of national identity 2) Attitudes toward the country:  I would rather be a citizen of this country than of any other country in the world,”  There are some things about the country that make me ashamed of the country,” “The world would be a better place if people from other countries were more like the citizens of this country,”  “Generally speaking, this country is a better country than most other countries”. Measures of national identity 3)National stereotypes  Individual’s opinions on other members of their nation and on members of other nationalities.  National stereotypes consist of two main factors: competence (efficiency, intelligence, self-confidence, competitiveness and clumsiness and morality (honesty, tolerance, modesty, aggressiveness, selfishness and rudeness). Note: The expression of one's national identity seen in a positive light is patriotism which is characterized by national pride and positive emotion of love for one's country. The extreme expression of national identity is chauvinism, which refers to the firm belief in the country's superiority and extreme loyalty toward one's country. Elements of National identity: National symbols 1) National flag: brief history and meaning  Objects that resemble flags were in use across the world in ancient times. In Europe, flags became widespread during the Crusades under the influence of Arab military banners.  Islam iconoclasm: Because of the prohibition of figuration, Arabs had to rely on abstract patterns.  In the Christian world, the first flags were called cross flags because they carried an image of the cross. National flag  Thus, in medieval Europe, flags were religious and found in a military context. For the first time, flags were flown outside the context of religion and warfare in early modern Europe during the age of sailing, when trading companies started to use banners to identify themselves at seas.  National flag indicating a sovereign nation is a relatively modern phenomenon. It was invented only during the American and French revolutions. The latter revolution in particular attached great importance to the creation of a new symbolic universe, legitimize the new political and social order. Thus the French revolution was full of symbolic conflicts that played an important role in it, sometimes they even acted as the driving force responsible for the revolution’s dynamic. Significance of Rwandan flag  What does the flag of Rwanda look like? The Rwandan flag is a large horizontal blue band and two smaller horizontal yellow and green bands. There is a yellow sun in the top right of the flag.  The colours of the Rwandan flag hold great significance for the nation. The colours are designed to represent happiness, peace, economic development and the hope of prosperity. In addition to the horizontal tricolour bands, a sun emblem is also located in the top right corner of the flag. This sun was added to the design to represent enlightenment. The flag as a whole is designed to represent the unity of the nation, heroism, confidence and hope for the future. Steps to current Rwandan flag  One of the first flags flown in Rwanda was the flag of the German East Africa Company. This flag was later replaced with the flag used by German East Africa; the first European colonial power. When Rwanda became known as Ruanda-Urundi, the flag of Belgium was used until 1959 to be in parallel with the flag of the Kingdom of Rwanda. This flag was used for just two years until another flag was adopted. This one was a tricolour using the Pan-African colours of red, yellow and green, with a black letter “R” distinguishing it from the flag of Guinea. This flag was used until 2001, changed to mark the unity of Rwandans after genocide committed against the Tutsi. The new flag was precisely adopted on October 25, 2001. Importance of a National flag  To represents the tradition, history, and beliefs of a nation and its people.  To help evoke feelings of patriotism among the country’s citizens and reminds them of their nation’s glory, beauty, and rich heritage.  To helps unite the citizens of the country by one single song or music.  Students who listen to the national anthem in their schools learn to respect their nation and develop a sense of unity among themselves. 2. National anthem A patriotic song or musical composition that is either recognized officially by a nation’s government and constitution or is accepted as such by convention through popular use.  The national anthem reflects the history, struggles, and traditions of a nation and its people and serves as an expression of national identity.  The concept of a national anthem was first popularized in 19th century in Europe.  After their independence from European colonial powers, many of the newly-independent nations also composed their own national anthems and today, virtually every sovereign nation in the world has its own national anthem 3. State emblem  Abstract or representational pictorial image that represents a concept, like a moral truth, or an allegory, or a person, like a king or saint. Since the 15th century, the term of emblem belongs to the technical expression in architecture.  Emblems are certain gestures which have a specific meaning attached to them. These meanings usually are associated with the culture they are established in. Using emblems creates a way for humans to communicate with one another in a non-verbal way.  In Rwanda, it is known as seal or coat of arms (Ikirangantego cya Repubulika y’u Rwanda) 4. National calendar  A system of organizing days for social, religious, commercial or administrative purposes. This is done by giving names to periods of time, typically days, weeks, months and years. A date is the designation of a single, specific day within such a system.  A calendar is also a physical record of such a system.  A calendar can also mean a list of planned events, such as an academic calendar or a chronological list of documents, such as a calendar of wills. Periods in a calendar such as years and months are usually synchronized with the cycle of the sun or the moon. National calendar National calendars have a strong relationship with identity formation especially in postcolonial nations. After colonisation, several nations emphasised certain aspects of the past for commemorative or celebratory purposes, while suppressing or ignoring the memories of some other event or historical figure. Both these processes, in different ways, seek to give a certain direction to the narrative about the history of the nation and the nation‐state. hese aspects of national memory and amnesia have been explained through the prism of national holidays. Shaping a specific narrative is common to every project of identity formation, its peculiarity is more pronounced in a postcolonial state, which has certain cut‐off dates and ruptures but is, simultaneously, eager to emphasise continuities in its trajectory and antiquity in historical tradition. Activity 1) Read the whole 2003 constitution of Rwanda as amended in 2015 and describe:  The form of the government of Rwanda;  The national symbols of Rwanda;  The fundamental principles of the state of Rwanda;  Fundamental duties of a Rwandan citizen. 2. Describe the nation symbols of the Republic of Rwanda 3. Discuss the law related to Rwandan citizenship Overview of the history of Rwanda in connection with nation and state building Nation formation and state building in the Rwandan context Four phases have marked Rwanda’s nation formation and state building:  Nation formation in the pre-colonial period (the great work of national ancestral heroes: Gihanga and successors)  State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period: divide and rule (disruption of national cohesion)  Nation and state building under the first and the second republic (discriminative politics)  Nation and state (re) building after the liberation war (peace building, unity, reconciliation,…) Nation formation in the pre-colonial period  In the region that later developed into the kingdom of Rwanda, there were other kingdoms said to have been founded by Bantu groups.  They (bantu groups) settled in small organized states made of families (lineages).  Gradually, these families made clans under the absolute authority of the head of the clan.  They (clans) were: Abenengwe, Abasinga, Ababanda, Abongera, Abazigaba, Abahinda and Abagara.  Around the 12th century, the actual Rwanda was made of a variety of small kingdoms.  On their arrival, Abanyiginya clan fought with those lineages or clans and defeated them progressively and came to get superiority over those clans.  It installed a small kingdom at Gasabo around Lake Muhazi. From there, the small kingdom expanded to covering the territory far larger than the current Rwanda. Factors that facilitated Nyiginya expansion  Fertile soils and a long rainy season (from September to June) that were favorable for both cattle keeping and cultivation;  Able, courageous and resilient kings (Abami) who ruled the kingdom and expanded it from its nucleus at Gasabo on the shores of L. Muhazi up to its climax by 1900;  It had a centralized monarchical system;  It had well organized armies (militias or ‘Ingabo’) who were used in defense and expansion of the kingdom;  High population density in the region (REB,2016) Nation formation in the pre-colonial period  According to the legend, the most distant ancestor of Abanyiginya clan is the mythical personality called Kigwa or Sabizeze.  But, it was Gihanga (one of the successors of Kigwa, the 10th of the genealogical list) who is considered as the founder, not only of the nyiginya dynasty, but also of other dynasties which were found in the majority of the kingdoms of the region.  Indeed, he shared his “empire” between his sons who founded different dynasties in the region. Nation formation in the pre-colonial period The kings of Rwanda were in three categories or series:  Ibirali or Ibimanuka (the fallen from the Sky): these are ancestors of the kings of Nyiginya dynasty and their names are Kigwa or Sabizeze, Muntu, Kijuru, Kobo, Merano, Randa, Gisa, Kizira and Kazi.  It is not clear whether they ever lived or exercised political power.  Abami b’Umushumi (Kings of the Belt): these are the ones who worked hard and laid the foundation for Rwanda at Gasabo. Their list starts with Gihanga Ngomijana and ends with Nsoro Samukondo.  Gihanga is the one said to have made great achievements among all of them. Nation formation in the pre-colonial period  Abami b’Ibitekerezo (Kings of historical accounts): i.e. those to whom it was composed the historical accounts transmitted to the following generations.  The list starts with Ruganzu I Bwimba and ends with the advent of the republic in 1962 with Kigeli V Ndahindurwa.  Abami b’Ibitekerezo are the ones who expanded Rwanda from Ruganzu I Bwimba up to Kigeli IV Rwabugili.  The main kings of historical accounts with great achievements include: Ruganzu I Bwimbwa (1482 - 1506), Kigeli I Mukobanya (1528 - 1552), Ruganzu II Ndoli (1624 – 1648), Cyilima II Rujugira (1744 – 1768), Yuhi IV Gahindiro (1797 - 1830), Mutara II Rwogera (1830 - 1860) and Kigeli IV Rwabugili (1860 - 1895). Nation formation in the pre-colonial period  Other kings dedicated their lives to building the nation in its economic, cultural and religious aspects such as carrying out rituals for cattle prosperity and organizing other rites for wealth and wellbeing such as organizing harvest rituals “umuganura: first fruits festival” and other political activities for nation stability.  They managed to unify the country around strong cultural values which were transmitted from generation to generation through family socialization and youth education institution “Itorero”: a channel through which the nation could convey the messages to the people regarding national culture in different areas such as language, patriotism, social relations, sports, dance, songs and the defense of the nation (Republic of Rwanda, 2011). Nation formation in the pre-colonial period The kingdom of Rwanda had a political vision in connection with citizenship, state-building and national identity: There was a vision about territory expansion and a vision about people or social incorporation in power structures. 1) Missions of kings Cycles of kings had existed prior to the Mutara Semugeshi reform. For instance, we see the repetition of reign names such as Yuhi, Ndahiro , Nsoro and Ruganzu up to Semugeshi. But it is Semugeshi who decided over names to keep, and kings’ mission from his reign onwards. Prior to Semugeshi, Rwanda had had kings who had implemented significant reforms. For example, Kigeri I Mukobanya is said to have initiated the process of centralization of the country. Ruganzu II Ndori had rescued the monarchy of Rwanda. Mutara I Semugeshi came as a monarch who made more reforms in the esoteric code and in the royal ideology. Abiru consider him as the genial innovator (Kagame, 1951, p.48). Semugeshi took a very strong decision of suppressing some of the existing names of reign. He put away the following names: Ndahiro, Ruganzu and Nsoro. Succession order of dynastic names  Mutara I Semugeshi determined the succession order of the five remaining dynastic names:  each king had a dynastic name in a specific successive order and according to a cycle which was repeated after four reigns:  Mutara or Cyilima were at the beginning of the cycle, then Kigeli, Mibambwe and finally Yuhi. Succession order of dynastic names Kings of the 1st Kings of the 2nd Kings of the 3rd Kings of the 4th generation generation generation generation Mutara Cyilima Mutara Cyilima Kigeli Kigeli Kigeli Kigeli Mibambwe Mibambwe Mibambwe Mibambwe Yuhi Yuhi Yuhi Yuhi Missions of kings  A symbolic function was attributed to these five dynastic names.  The kings Mutara and Cyilima accomplished ceremonies related to the cattle prosperity.  The royal names of Kigeli and Mibambwe were kings of war, in charge of expanding and defending the kingdom while  Yuhi was in charge of the perennity of the dynasty and was in fact the king of fire. 2) Military ideology The practice of kings of creating a military unit at their advent to be added to the existing ones led to the increase of military recruits. This shows some kind of military vision for reaching a bigger size of military recruits in future. But most importantly, the ideological part of military activities reveals to what extent the military vision was elaborated. Through the ibyivugo and inzira z’ubwiru we get a grasp of this ideology. The ibyivugo trace psychological mobilization at individual and social levels. They also place military exploit at the top of the ideals of ingabo (Kagame, 1969, p.15-88). In dynastic poetry, the King is presented as the most powerful warrior. Sometimes he is compared with the thunder such as the King Mazimpaka. Military ideology  Mazimpaka has been considered as the thunder when he defeated the Burundian King Ntare. A poet celebrated the event in his poem in following terms: “The day when the thunder defeated the lion.”(Kagame, 1951, p. 137).  Besides, naming male children followed sometimes military exploits. For example: Nshozamihigo, Rugamba, Mutiganda, Ntaganda, Rudahunga, Mulindabyuma, Mutabazi, Mukotanyi, Makuza, etc. This practice may have played both a psychological role (self-fulfilling mission), but also an educative role (socialization).  The Ubwiru rituals also elevate the king at the level of a great conqueror of other kingdoms. The ritual of enthronement, inziray’ubwimika, socializes, obliges and instills the new king to be an extraordinary warrior. He is young, so the Abiru, through this ritual, are trying to instill in him all these ideals. 3)Unifying vision Many clans happen to have been incorporated in organs of power and they remained within those positions for centuries. Key to this feature was the adoption and implementation of the principle of hereditary political positions. Some keepers of power were getting dismissed (kunyagwa) but their successors would keep positions. For example, in the Abiru college, we find following clans and lineages: Abatsobe (umwiru w’umutsobe), Abakono/umwiru wa Nyamweru, Abatege ,Abaheka, Abakobwa, Abatandura, Abenemuhinda, etc. Another unifying feature is that several clans intervened in the rituals of Ubwiru to make the rituals more ‘national’. Indeed, the reading of inzira y’umuriro, inzira y’umuganura, inzira y’ishora and inzira y’ubwimika indicates that many geographical places, many people of different clans or lineages appear or play a role in a ritual. Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda Some of the factors that united Rwandans- Hutu, Tutsi,Twa social groups-, prior to colonial and missionary arrival, are:  1) Clan: Hutu, Tutsi and Twa—identified themselves by a social organization based primarily on the clan or clans.  The clan was by far the most important social organization in pre-colonial Rwanda.  The Hutu, Tutsi and Twa constituted social classes and that all the three mix in the same clans. Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda  The presence of the three social classes—Hutu, Tutsi and Twa—in each of the clans is one of the significant facts characterizing unity of Rwandan people.  Irrespective of being Hutu, Tutsi and Twa, the members of the same clan had in common many factors such as totems, religious beliefs and ritual functions.  Thus, clans brought all Rwandans together, irrespective of their either Hutu, Tutsi or Twa social categories, and enabled them to help one another. Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda 2) Common language—Kinyarwanda  In Rwanda, the Kinyarwanda language—mother tongue for Rwandans—unites all Rwandans.  The uniqueness of the national language underlies this cultural homogeneity of Rwanda.  Not only the Kinyarwanda, as a language, is a communication tool but also a real vehicle of the same wisdom, the same vision of the world and the same perception of the political life.  Distinctive language has often been taken as a criterion for belonging to a separate ethnic group Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda 3) Cultural unity, shared beliefs and ethics (moral values)  The socio-cultural harmony and the ethics led everyday life in pre-colonial Rwanda.  In fact, life in Rwanda was characterized by a shared religion—the belief in the Supreme being, the Creator—and respecting ancestors while appeasing their spirits.  These beliefs, among many others, implied the Unity of life, or vital life in horizontal (between people that are relatively equal in knowledge, wisdom, or technique) and vertical relationships (between superiors and inferiors) in which each person relates to descendants, family, ancestors, the cosmos and God.  It was a participatory life because members of a clan knew that they lived not just for themselves but also for their community, participating in the sacred life of the ancestors and preparing for one‘s future life through their descendants.  This community of life was managed by a “relational harmony” Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda  Shared values such as patriotism, integrity, heroism, excellence, protection of those in need and who seek protection from imminent danger, preservation of life and certain taboos, like killing children and women, were inscribed in the Rwandan culture. Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda 4) A shared land and life were also united by the shared land, on which they always lived together, side by side.  There was neither region for Hutu, Tutsi or Twa. All of them had a mixed housing.  They helped one another based on being neighbors. Rwandans were living peacefully together and got married with one another without distinction.  There was also something particular, which Rwandans were doing without discrimination, and which shows how they loved one another: exchanging blood (drinking your friend‘s blood as a proof that nothing will separate you from him). Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda 5) The monarch/King  Prior to colonization, Rwanda was a politically and culturally unified entity ruled by Umwami (the Monarch or King).  The society had thus its own institutions and a culture, which united Rwandans of different social categories (Hutu, Tutsi and Twa).  The Monarch/King was identified as the cordon (line, ring) of cohesion, as he was called Umwami wa rubanda‘, meaning the ―King of the people.  The monarch, did not belong to any distinct social group, he was above the social groups because he represented the nation and the mediator between people and God. Unifying factors in ancient Rwanda  All Rwandans, without distinction, were convinced that the King was benevolent; that is, a King who always wanted, and was responsible for, the good for all.  Rwandans were also aware that by taking this responsibility to strive for the good, no Rwandan was excluded.  In fact, the King was the crux for all Rwandans. Poets called him Sebantu (to mean father of all people‘ of Rwanda).  After the King was enthroned, he was no more belonging to any social category or group, but he became the King of all Rwandans, without distinction.  In their daily life, Hutu,Tutsi and Twa were familiar with the King.  It was also forbidden to keep somebody away because of his height or color. Anyone who wanted could meet the King and none was kept away from the royal court.  The King was thus bringing all Rwandans together, and all Rwandans were equal before the King.  In short  Before the colonial period (1897), and the arrival of catholic missionaries, Rwandan people—Hutu, Tutsi and Twa social groups—were strongly united, and had the feeling of protecting their country together—a sense of national identity.  In pre-colonial Rwanda, Hutu, Tutsi and Twa social categories or groups, knew that they were above all Rwandans, that Rwanda was their country, and that nobody could say that s/he had the right to it more than the other.  Differences only referred to the socio-economic life in relation to cattle raising (cows) and the land use, whereby cows culturally and comparatively represented wealth  All the above-described cultural factors that were uniting Rwandans were unfortunately eroded with the advent of western culture, colonial rule and the policies of post independence regimes. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  On the arrival of the Europeans at the end of the 19th century, Rwanda was already a respectful nation highly organized, politically, militarily, economically, socially and culturally unified.  Colonial authorities, with assistance from the Catholic Church and Hutu extremists, gradually increased the importance of ethnic divisions in order to keep Rwandans divided so that it was easier to maintain control  Both colonizers and the missionaries deteriorated the social relationships among Rwandan people and led to an identity crisis (loss of the sameness quality of Ubunyarwanda‘ (Rwandanness).  The colonization period (1897-1962) was characterized by a disintegration of Rwandan unity, social cohesion, heritage, unity and socio-political structures, leading to divisionism.  The King‘s uniting authority was taken away and a social inequality ideology that split up Rwandans, coupled with forced labor for colonial interests, was established and taught in schools. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962  In fact, at the end of the 19th century, Rwanda had become a colony first to the Germans (1897-1916) and then to the Belgians (1916-1962), with serious and permanent changes that affected leadership, economy, society and last but not least culture.  The Germans adopted an indirect rule; they interfered little with nation building but took some important decisions like banning the Itorero, Rwandan army and establishing a legal state on their model. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  After the defeat of Germans in the World War I, Belgians worked themselves in re-shaping the Rwandan state as a mandate under the League of Nations and as trust territory under the UN trusteeship and disrupting the Rwandan nationhood and national unity.  Divisionism was particularly institutionalized by the Belgians, right after the Germans handed over Rwanda to Belgium under the League of Nations.  The administrative reforms introduced by the Belgian colonizers (Mortehan’s reforms) has seriously modified the traditional structures and has instituted an exceptional phenomenon consisting to progressively impact an ethnic color (paint, mark) to the administration.  Belgians introduced the notion of ethnicity for groups which initially were social classes, not ethnic groups as they spoke the same language, had same beliefs, same culture and had intermarriage links. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  Since 1923, Belgians introduced discriminatory policies amongst Rwandans on the basis of ethnicity.  Social classes (Hutu, Tutsi and Twa) were turned into ethnic groups.  In 1931, they officially introduced identity cards based on the abovementioned false ethnic groups, which also became mandatory in every administrative document that detailed each person‘s ethnicity.  The above policy manipulated and institutionalized divisionism in the country and it was the beginning of ethnic identity differences amongst citizens. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  This manipulation was based on the false Hamitic theory or Hamite thesis introduced by the Belgians, which brought about ethnicity, divisionism and hatred among the Rwandans. According to this false thesis ―whatever value that existed in Africa was brought by hamites, a branch that is supposed to be a Caucasian race.  Hamites were supposed to have inborn leadership qualities;  The Belgians defined the Tutsi as not only an foreign group with superior qualities.  The Hutu were described with inferior attributes.  It was a characteristic of that period in Europe to classify people and to then attribute superior or inferior qualities to them. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  The introduction of identity cards has stimulated the ethnic extremism and distorted the sense of the Rwandan history, causing an alienated (separated) identity which served as a starting point of a grave crisis and Genocide crimes.  Advised by the Catholic hierarchy, the Belgian colonial administration replaced all the Hutu and Twa chiefs and sub-chiefs by Tutsi Chiefs and Sub-Chiefs and limited access to the colonial schools to children of some Tutsi Chiefs and Sub-chiefs only.  Tutsi chiefs and sub-chiefs were then charged with the responsibility of implementing the colonial harsh policies, drawing resentment (hatred) of the mass against them. Hutu and/or Twa chiefs and sub-chiefs were thus dismissed from their posts and replaced by Tutsi. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  The predominance of Tutsi senior workers in the administration was strengthened and sustained by creating in 1932 an administrative section at Groupe Scolaire d‘Astrida (now Groupe Scolaire Officiel de Butare), uniquely planned for sons from Tutsi high ranked families, who were given the name of Indatwa (the prestigious ones).  This has given a profile to ethnic groups as relevant political categories, something inexistent in the past.  By promoting elements of one social category, and by introducing forced labor executed by Tutsi sub/chiefs—hence reinforced divisions between Tutsi and Hutu—the colonial power had created a potentially antagonism situation.  Belgians, helped by Tutsi auxiliaries, unkindly forced Rwandans to work in colonial coffee and tea plantations and used to beat or kill people who refused to work in these plantations, which also led to the increased number of non-collaborators as time went on.  Antagonisms take birth and develop around the fact that some persons can access to advantages, while others encounter lots of handicaps. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  Likewise, the colonial system introduced the school, which was conducted by missionaries.  Its objective was to evangelize and to train the administrators of the colonial power.  Education in Rwanda was thus characterized by mistrust (doubt) of traditional values and knowledge, and a literature that conveyed division of the people was extensively distributed.  Another element used by the colonizer in tearing apart the social relationships (especially after Tutsi elite‘s disagreement with colonial divisive policy) consisted in including the ethnic ideology of numeric representativity (Hutu, majority-85% and Tutsi, minority-14%), which was institutionalized and politicized.  The figures came into play for the first time during the 1953 and 1956 so-called elections‘ organized by the colonizer.  This numeric system has also been used as a means of trickery stressing that democracy as government system in which the population‘s sovereignty belongs to the majority ethnic group. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  In fact, in 1950s, realizing that the Tutsi elite group was increasingly gaining ideas of nationalism and independence, the Belgian colonizers and the Catholic missionaries changed plans and quickly set up preparations to create an alternative Hutu elite, while putting all the blame of ill treatment/cruelty and all frustration of colonization on the head of his former Tutsi allies.  The political solution of the Belgian administration became thus to ally (associate, cooperate) with the Hutu “majority” as a way to continue serving colonial interests, which the Hutu, unfortunately, adhered to.  The Belgians, thus turned against the Tutsi elite, and slowly started allying with the Hutu elites to overrun Tutsi elite demands.  They mobilized the Hutu against the Tutsi and planned, organized, coordinated, and supported a Hutu uprising known as “the 1959 Hutu Revolution” which resulted in the persecution and killings of thousands of Tutsi, as wells of hundreds of thousands of Tutsi sent into exile, especially in Burundi, Tanzania, Uganda, former Zaïre, etc. State building and nation re-shaping during the colonial period (1897-1962)  During the Belgian rule, the Rwandan nation was divided to the extent that the independence process was marked by ethnic violence which led to seizure of power by Hutu elite with ethnic ideology with part of the Rwandans (Tutsi) fleeing the country (1959-1962).  Nation and state building under the two republics  At the independence, the new state inherited a divided nation.  Instead of promoting a nation building process inclusive of all Rwandans, the two successive regimes (first Republic of Gregoire Kayibanda and the second Republic of Juvenal Habyalimana Juvenal) continued the divisionism politics with a systematic exclusion of the Tutsi.  Nation and state building under the two republics  The first republic, under Grégoire Kayibanda‘s presidency, based on the social and political persecution of the Tutsi and its power on the ethnic colored party, called MDR-PARMEHUTU. This racist/divisive party:  (1) openly preached hatred against Tutsi, calling them snakes, cockroaches, untrustworthy, and foreigners, who should be sent back where they supposedly came from (Abyssinia-Ethiopia), and  (2) organized cyclical killings of Tutsis (1963-1967, 1973, etc.) that further sent waves of Tutsi into exile.  Intense anti-Tutsi propaganda used to constitute the most important part of the rulers‘ speeches, of radio broadcasts, popular songs, school classes, etc.  Such propaganda was aimed at explaining that the Tutsi were foreigners, who had conquered and dominated the Hutu people four centuries long.  For example, the former Préfet André Nkeramugaba addressed citizens in the former Prefecture of Gikongoro and said: ―we are expected to defend ourselves. The only way to go about it is to paralyze the Tutsi. How? They must be killed.  Nation and state building under the two republics  The Tutsi who remained in the country were excluded from political and civil rights. Particularly, they were denied the right to education, right to employment, right to civil participation, as well as other human rights;  In the eyes of President Kayibanda himself, the issue of co-existence and pacific cohabitation between Hutu and Tutsi required the establishment of two separate zones; otherwise one ethnic group should disappear on behalf of the other.‘  Kayibanda went further by submitting to the UN and the former Belgian metropolis a proposal of zone redistribution, the Hutu-land and the Tutsi-land.  The Tutsi-land would be part of Bugesera, Buganza and all the territory, which had become the provinces of Kibungo and Umutara (the Eastern-part of Rwanda); and the remaining part of the country would be the Hutu Zone‘.  Unity, concord (harmony), mutual assistance, trust, collaboration, patriotism among Rwandans had thus lost their value and no longer existed.  Nation and state building under the two republics  The second Republic (1973-1994) pursued the same discriminatory policies against the Tutsi but also introduced regional discrimination against regions other than those of the north.  At political and social levels, the regime elaborated the policy of regional and ethnic balance.  It strived to set up quotas for different social groups, and to regions, proportionate to the  population representativity as regards access to education and employment.  Accordingly, administrative structures, including a Ministry in charge of education, were established and diverse laws securing the general regulation of education were introduced.  Rather than correcting the errors of the colonial era, education remained very discriminatory and was not relevant to Rwandan society, culture and values, which resulted in the people losing their patriotism.  This was indeed one of the contributing factors to the Genocide against Tutsi in 1994.89  Nation and state building under the two republics  The Hutu in general, and particularly those of the North, were sensitized by the regime that they have been historically disadvantaged and so were attributed the lions share.  Habyarimana indeed publicly announced the general orientations of regional and ethnic political equilibrium in these terms: ―it is comprehensible that admission in different schools will take into consideration the social, ethnic and regional composition of the Rwandan community.  From 1986 to 1990, the economic crisis and power monopolization started also to break the foundations of the Habyarimana regime.  Beside impunity, the regime became featured by fraud, corruption and all sorts of abuses and exactions.  This resulted into a rapid weakening of the state.  Nation and state building under the two republics  The second republic was also alleged to have a tough political and social control.  In fact, all governors of provinces (Prefets) and Bourgmestres (Mayors) were appointed by the President of the Republic.  The Bourgmestres, in their turn, were entitled to appoint the chiefs of sectors and cells.  Such a network constituted the corner stone to the exacerbation of the hatred between Hutu and Tutsi and the reinforcing of control over the community.  This network also greatly served the purpose and the implementation of the 1994 Genocide of Tutsi.  Nation and state building under the two republics  Through it, the political authorities sensitized the population to carry out what they had named “the final solution”; that is, the extermination of the Tutsi.  Via the radio, slogans, organized popular meetings or gatherings directed to the large public, authorities, at the grassroots or higher politico- administrative hierarchy, invited the Hutu population to massacres, and organized them into trained militia with the purpose of Tutsi extermination as well as of the Hutu, and whoever else, who did not support the Genocide ideology.  Nation and state building under the two republics  The discriminatory policies and MRND‘s lack of respect of democracy, basic human rights and rule of law, led to the formation of Rwanda Alliance for National Unity (RANU) later transformed into Rwandese Patriotic Front (RPF), in 1987, with the intent to fight for human rights and democratic change in Rwanda.  After the failure of all peaceful means to reform the MRND regime, RPF eventually resorted to the liberation war in 1990.  The MRND regime responded by organizing and committing acts of Genocide against Tutsi and opposition in 1990, 1991, 1992, which climaxed in the 1994 Genocide against Tutsi, which was repeatedly referred to, by the Genocide planners, as an apocalypse.  Nation and state building under the two republics  Though the national unity was claimed to guide the national socio- economic and political development, the policies and practices contradicted that principle.  There were ethnic divisions, and regional divisions (for example the policy of regional and ethnic quota in education, army and public labor, IRINGANIZA).  Divisionist politics culminated into genocide ideology that led to the genocide against the Tutsi in 1994.  The political elite in Rwanda, since independence up to 1994, chose divisions and Genocide as a political strategy to monopolize power;  The divisionism, discrimination and hatred against Tutsi in Rwanda from 1990 to 1994 were indeed totally brutal and not human in nature in comparison with the 1959, 1963, 1967, and 1973 Tutsi killings.  Nation and state building after the liberation war  At the eve of 1990s, Rwandan who had been in exile for almost three decades decided to fight for their rights to return and for the instauration of democracy in Rwanda.  After trying all diplomatic and pacific means without success, they opted for a liberation war which started on 1st October 1990.  After the liberation war that ended the genocide against the Tutsi on 4th July 1994, a national unity government was established with a huge task of both nation rebuilding and state building.  In fact, the war and genocide against the Tutsi left a Rwanda that was nearly a failed state with disintegrated social fabric.  Nation and state building after the liberation war  The Government of Rwanda put in place mechanisms for reconstruction and nation rebuilding. These include:  Ensuring security of people and properties,  Promoting the repatriation and reinsertion of refugees,  Promoting peace and reconciliation,  promoting justice for survivors of the genocide against the Tutsi,  promoting economic growth, etc.  Nation and state building after the liberation war  Among the measures to rebuild the nation, there is:  The establishment of a national unity and reconciliation commission with “the overall mission of promoting national unity and reconciliation among Rwandans (Republic of Rwanda, 2013).  One of its specific objectives is developing strategic measures designed to eradicate divisions among Rwandans within and outside the country for the reinforcement of national unity and reconciliation.  Beside the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, there was the re- establishment of Itorero as a means from the Rwandan culture and history to teach about Rwandan values as pillars of nation building.  In the same line of promoting home grown solutions to problems left by the genocide, Rwandan Government established Community and participatory justice called Gacaca Courts which helped to solve the problem of providing justice to genocide survivors which could not have been done using the Western model of justice (ordinary courts of justice).  Nation and state building after the liberation war  According to reports from the National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, great progress has been done in terms of nation building through unity and reconciliation though there are still things to be done particularly in eradicating genocide denial and ideology and divisionist ideologies in order to ensure that a genocide never occurs again. History of genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda  The term "genocide" did not exist before 1944. It was coined in 1944 by Raphael Lemkin (a Polish-Jewish legal scholar of international law), firstly from the Greek root génos (race, tribe); secondly from Latin-cidium (cutting, killing) via French – cide.  He wanted to describe Nazi policies of systematic murder of minority groups, including the destruction of the European Jews.  In his book “ Axis Rule in Occupied Europe” (1944), Lemkin wrote, "New conceptions require new terms. By 'genocide' we mean the destruction of a nation or an ethnic group.  Raphael Lemkin spent 4 years pushing for genocide to be added to international law.  Finally, in 1948, the United Nations Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of Genocide was adopted, and it entered into force in 1951.  In 1946, the first session of the United Nations General Assembly adopted a resolution "affirmed" that genocide was a crime under international law, but did not provide a legal definition of the crime.  On December 9, 1948, the UN General Assembly adopted the Convention on the Prevention and Punishment of the Crime of Genocide which legally defined the crime of genocide for the first time.  The CPPCG contains an internationally-recognized definition of genocide which was incorporated into the national criminal legislation of many countries, and was also adopted by the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court (the treaty that established the International Criminal Court (ICC). Definition of “Genocide” The CPPCG (in article 2) defines genocide as any of the following acts committed with intent to destroy, in whole or in part, a national, ethnical, racial or religious group, as such:  (a) Killing members of the group;  (b) Causing serious bodily or mental harm to members of the group;  (c) Deliberately inflicting, on the group, conditions of life calculated to bring about its physical destruction in whole or in part;  (d) Imposing measures intended to prevent births within the group;  (e) Forcibly transferring children of the group to another group.  It is often the dispute of one of these acts which makes debate for the official recognition of a crime as genocide. History of genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda  The history of the genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda can be traced back from the colonial period especially from Belgium colonial rule.  The Germans (1897-1916) adopted an indirect rule; they interfered little with nation building but took some important decisions like banning the Itorero, Rwandan army and establishing a legal state on their model.  Divisionism was particularly established by the Belgians (1916-1962).  It all started with the Mortehan administrative reforms that established a national identity card (Ibuku) separating Rwandan among three so-called ethnic groups (Hutu, Tutsi, Twa) and consecutive divisionism policies and ideologies. History of genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda  In fact, Since 1923, Belgians introduced discriminatory policies amongst Rwandans on the basis of ethnicity through administrative reforms introduced by the Belgian colonizers (Mortehan’s reforms).  These administrative reforms seriously modified the traditional structures.  Belgians introduced the notion of ethnicity for groups which initially were social classes, not ethnic groups as they spoke the same language, had same beliefs, same culture and had intermarriage links.  Social classes (Hutu, Tutsi and Twa) were turned into ethnic groups. History of genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda  In 1931,belgians officially introduced identity cards based on the abovementioned false ethnic groups, which also became mandatory in every administrative document that detailed each person‘s ethnicity.  The above policy manipulated and institutionalized divisionism in the country and it was the beginning of ethnic identity differences amongst citizens.  The colonization period (1897-1962) was characterized by a disintegration of Rwandan unity, social cohesion, and socio-political structures, leading to divisionism.  Colonial authorities, with assistance from the Catholic Church and Hutu extremists, gradually increased the importance of ethnic divisions in order to keep Rwandans divided so that it was easier to maintain control  Both colonizers and the missionaries deteriorated the social relationships among Rwandan people and led to an identity crisis (loss of the sameness quality of Ubunyarwanda‘ (Rwandanness). History of genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda  After the independence of Rwanda in 1962, political power fell into the hands of the Hutu  Genocide ideology (the belief in Hutu supremacy) was propagated in Rwandan schools;  Hundreds of thousands of Tutsis were periodically murdered between 1963 and 1973;  From 1962 to 1994, Presidents Kayibanda and Habyarimana enacted policies that discriminated against Tutsi in the workforce and schools (Policy of iringaniza).  The Liberation War, fought between government forces and the Rwandan Patriotic Front (RPF), was used as a pretext (excuse, cause) for the further propagation of an ideology of Hutu supremacy and for human rights abuses  Hutu Interahamwe militia were trained and armed so that they could carry out the genocide;  Lists of Tutsi to be killed were made;  Hutu extremists used the death of President Habyarimana in a plane crash on 6 April 1994 as a pretext to begin the genocide Execution of the genocide against the Tutsi  Because the identity card system originally implemented by the Belgians included the bearer’s ethnicity on IDs, the government already had the names and addresses of almost every Tutsi;  Ammunition was cost-prohibitive (too expensive), so most Tutsis were killed with weapons like machetes, often by Hutu neighbors who they knew well  The genocide lasted from April to July 1994. In those 100 days, more than 1,000,000 Tutsi were killed  The genocide finally came to an end with the victory of the RPF over government forces in July 1994. History of genocide against the Tutsi 12th century 1895: nation building: unity 1895 1962: colonial divisionism 1962 1994: exclusion, divisionism, hatred and genocide against the Tutsi, genocide 1994 to date: national reconciliation, managing consequences of the genocide, fighting its ideology and denial , making never again a reality Root causes, various explanations Naturalist Explanation: Traditional hate between Hutu and Tutsi throughout the whole history of Rwanda (P. Erny) Structural Explanation: Life Space, Economic misery, land question, demographic explosion (F. Reyntjens, P.Uvin, S. Marlysse, etc., Culturalist Explanation: Strong obedience to Authority as a culture of Rwandans has played a key role in the commission of the genocide against Tutsi (Straus S.). Contingent Genocide: resulting from popular anger caused by the death of President Juvénal Habyarimana (denial literature). Struggle for Power: War between RPF and Governement (F. Reyntjens, Lugan Bernard, Defence Lawyers at ICTR). Bad governance theory (Ntaribi Kamanzi, Servillien Sebasoni): divisionism politics and dictatorship. Power of Ideology: Hatred Propaganda, Manipulations of History, Construction of Myths and Beliefs (Faustin Rutembesa, Jacques Sémelin, J-P Chretien, etc). Which of these explanations do you agree with? Main cause  The main cause of the genocide against tutsi in Rwanda was the ideology of hate taught for a long time with an intention of isolating Tutsi from the rest of the Rwandan community.  People were taught that Tutsi was their enemy and that they should fight him/her and kill him/her if necessary.  Some indicators of the teaching of that ideology of hate:  Hutu manifesto: a notorious document of 1957 emphasized the policy of excluding tutsi.  Hutu 10 commandments of September 1959, written by Joseph Habyalimana Gitera, were the basis of mass mobilization for hatred against the tutsi.  Forbade Hutus from marrying, doing business with, or employing Tutsis;  Advocated for restricting Tutsis from serving in the military or occupying important government positions; This resulted into acts of killing one part of Rwandans and denying them rights to their country since 1959. Some indicators of the teaching of that ideology of hate:  Writing inciting hatred and speeches by politicians full of ideology of hatred against the tutsi and calling on their killing.  For example, in launching those 10 hutu commandments in a meeting at Ngoma on 27/09/1959, Joseph Gitera said” a relationship between tutsi and hutu is impossible. It is like a chronic wound on one’s leg, a leech in one’s body or pneumonia in one’s rib”(Umubano w’umuhutu n’umututsi ni umufunzo ku kaguru, ni umusundwe mu mubiri, ni umusonga mu rubavu).  False propaganda and ideology of hate spread by media (RTLM,Kangura newspaper) and political parties including CDR, MRND, MDR power and some artistes like Simon Bikindi. Specific features of the 1994 Genocide ’ Perpetrated Against the Tutsi in Rwanda  Done by Rwandans (hutu extremists) and ended by Rwandans (RPF- inkotanyi);  Popular participation;  Mass killings in short time (rapid):over one million killed Tutsi in less than 100 days (7April- 4 July 1994);  Extreme forms of violence (rape, torture, etc.);  Use of traditional weapons and every thing that could kill;  International involvement: the role of UNO, USA, France and the Holy see) (National Commission for the Fight against Genocide/CNLG, Kwibuka 23, 2017). International involvement: The United Nations  The United Nations Assistance Mission for Rwanda (UNAMIR) was deployed in 1993 in order to oversee the implementation of the Arusha Accords, which ended the Rwandan Civil War.  UNAMIR commander Gen. Roméo Dallaire was aware of weapons stores gathered for the coming genocide but his requests to raid them were denied by the UN;  Because its mandate did not allow for intervention, UNAMIR did almost nothing to stop the killings or protect Tutsis—although it did provide secure refuge for a few thousand Tutsis in UN safe zones International involvement: France  France materially supported the Habyarimana’s government before and during the genocide;  French troops evacuated members of the Habyarimana regime (including the deceased president’s wife) along with French nationals once the killings began;  France refused to rescue any Tutsis, even those with French spouses, leaving them to near-certain death;  Under a UN mandate, the French carried out Opération Turquoise, with the supposed purpose of creating a safe zone in southwest Rwanda;  Many allege France’s true intention was to support the Hutu regime and that killings continued within the safe zone with French approval and participation;  France officially denies all such allegations. International involvement: The United States  The US, troubled by its disastrous intervention in Somalia, chose not to intervene to stop the genocide, despite advance warning that it would occur  Then-President Clinton regards this lack of action as one of his main foreign policy failings, and he came to Kigali on a state visit to apologize in March 1998  International involvement: The Holy See  Many Catholic priests and nuns actively participated in the Genocide, either by promoting genocide ideology or carrying out killings themselves  Pope Francis formally apologized for the Church’s role to President Kagame on 20 March 2017, asking forgiveness for its “sins and failings”  Consequences of the genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi Social Consequences: more than 1 million of men, women and children were killed; increase in the number of widows and widowers of any age; orphans; many physical mutilations (casualties); disabled persons for life, displaced, refugees and famine for all. Increase in the prevalence of the HIV /AIDS during the post-genocide period (the rate of prevalence of the HIV/AIDS passed from 1, 3% in 1986 to 10, 8% in 1997 in the country). There were dislocation of families or communities (dispersion, separation, etc. ), victims of rape. Psychological consequences: traumatisms of all kinds. There were serious cases of psychological traumatisms resulting from bad experiences such as sexual abuses. For example, the rape during the genocide and the exile of the populations towards the neighboring countries left the victims (women and children) with permanent after-effects and extreme feeling of deterioration of their human dignity; Consequences of the genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi  Cultural consequences: the sufferings, deaths, displacements, the prolonged stays in the refugee camps cause also damage by replacing the culture of peace by a culture of the war accompanied by cynicism (pessimism).  Spiritual consequences: the meaning of values and life were deeply affected with mistrust, despair, blind hatred and revenge feelings instead of confidence, hope and a commitment to work together to build the future. Consequences of the genocide perpetrated against the Tutsi Economic consequences:  Destruction of the economy of the country: Destruction of economic infrastructures, equipments; the loss of earnings in tourism, the disintegration of the school system, etc.  Destruction of the environment: destruction of the vegetation, animals but also exposure of the arable land to erosion.  The refugee camps resulting from the genocide went hand in hand with the deforestation. Political consequences:  The image of Rwanda was tarnished (state as a killer); the loss of the support of the world public opinion, the dismantling of the democratic process, the disintegration of the legally constituted state of Rwanda, the installation of a general political discontent, the rise of the extremists from all sides.  Rwanda as an epicenter of the spread of genocide ideology and practices in the region),  failure of international community; never again as a myth). Severe and lasting consequences at different levels : Individual (physical, psychological) wounds, ’ National :Political (state as a killer, extremist political parties, etc); Social (intergroup divisions, mistrust), Economic (destruction of physical and economic infrastructure…), Moral (failure of all references, questioning of traditional values), Regional (Rwanda as an epicenter of the spread of genocide ideology and practices in the region), International (failure of international community; never again as a myth). Never again: Genocide prevention Can “never again” become reality? What could be the role of nation and state building? What are the achievements? Never again: Genocide prevention  After the genocide committed by Nazi during the WWII, the International Community promised that the genocide crime would not happen again.  Unfortunately in 1994 the same international community played a bystander’ role and did not intervene to stop the genocide against the Tutsi.  As Rwandans we need to contribute to the fighting against genocide denial and ideology from any corner they may come from.  We should not rely on others; we have to engage ourselves in the fight against the genocide, its denial and ideology. Particularly youth must take the lead. Never again: Genocide prevention  The Government of Rwanda has put in place mechanisms to support Rwandans in making the “Never Again” a reality.  These include the following measures:  the establishment of a legal framework : Law Nº 59/2018 of 22/8/2018 on the Crime of Genocide ideology and related crimes;  the establishment of institutional framework: National Commission for fighting against the genocide(CNLG), National Unity and Reconciliation Commission, National Itorero Commision and the Fund for assistance to the genocide survivors (FARG).  These institutions work hand in hand to fight against genocide, its ideology and overcome its consequences.  National citizenship policies  The Government of Rwanda has established citizenship education policies and programmes aiming at promoting the Rwandan national identity so as to re-unite the Rwandan nation which has suffered from distortions brought about by colonial power and the post independence regimes.  These include the Itorero policy and Ndi Umunyarwanda programme among others. Itorero  A Rwandan civic education institution which aims mainly at teaching all Rwandans to keep their culture through its different values such as national unity, social solidarity, patriotism, integrity, bravery, tolerance, the dos and don’t of the society, etc.  Through this instrument, Rwandans will also keep informed of Government policies and programmes; which will strengthen ownership of these policies and promote the role of the population in the implementation of these social- economic development programmes (National Itorero Commission-NIC,2019).  To support the National Itorero Commission two policies have been enacted by the Government of Rwanda: Itorero Strategy and volunteerism policy.  Itorero strategy determines the framework for organizing Itorero in its two components: voluntary training and compulsory national service ( Urugerero) which targets the youth between 17 to 35 after completion of secondary education. Ndi Umunyarwanda programme  Ndi Umunyarwanda means “I am Rwandan”.  It is a programme initiated to (re)build a national identity based on trust and dignity.  It aims at strengthening unity and reconciliation among Rwandans by providing a forum for people to talk about the causes and consequences of the genocide as well as what it means to be Rwandan. Conclusion  As Rwandans we have a strong cultural heritage “the Rwandan identity spirit” to base on for developing a socially, economically and politically resilient nation.  Citizenship education is important for the nation and state building.  It is important for a sustainable development of the nation to develop the strong sense of nation identity among citizens  This education has to start from the heart of every Rwandan, particularly the youth elite. END! CTE1111/ UNIT 2: INTEGRITY SYSTEMS Learning outcomes By the end of this unit, you should be able to:  Explain the integrity and its related concepts;  Discuss mechanisms of promoting integrity;  Relate the integrity system and its mechanisms into Rwandan context. Introduction  The concept of integrity has clearly become more important in all sectors of activities (being in professional sector, academic community, business, governance, government. …) as well as at all levels. The meaning of Integrity  The word integrity evolved from the Latin adjective integer, meaning whole or complete.  In this context, integrity is the inner sense of "wholeness" deriving from qualities such as honesty and consistency of character.  As such, one may judge that others "have integrity" to the extent that they act according to the values, beliefs and principles they claim to hold.  When you are in integrity, people should be able to visibly see it through your actions, words, decisions, methods, and outcomes.  When you are ‘whole’ and consistent, there is only one you.  You bring that same YOU wherever you are, regardless of the circumstance.  You don’t leave parts of yourself behind. You don’t have a ‘work you,’ a ‘family you,’ and a ‘social you.’ You are YOU all the time. The meaning of Integrity  Integrity: being straightforward and honest in professional and business relationships, fair dealing and truthfulness, not being associated with information that contains materially false or misleading statements or information provided carelessly.  Integrity is the practice of being honest and showing a consistent and uncompromising adherence to strong moral and ethical principles and values.  In ethics, integrity is regarded as the honesty and truthfulness or accuracy of one's actions.  Integrity can stand in opposition to hypocrisy, in that judging with the standards of integrity involves regarding internal consistency as a virtue, and suggests that parties holding within themselves apparently conflicting values should account for the discrepancy or alter their beliefs.  The key words in the definition of integrity are: Consistency, Honesty, and Truthfulness or Accuracy of one’s actions. What characterize the integrity of people?  What characterizes the integrity of a person, official, employee, or organization?  For example, how a politician acts with integrity? How a professional businessman acts with integrity? How about a researcher in the academic professional?  From here it is possible to distinguish at least Eight perspectives, using the keywords: wholeness and coherence, professional responsibilities, moral reflection, values like incorruptibility, laws and rules, moral values and norms, and exemplary behaviors. Cont..  A dominant perspective, Montefiore and Vines (1999), considered integrity in line with the meanings of the latin “INTEGRAS”: intact, whole, harmony, with considers integrity as wholeness or completeness.  Another view sees integrity as professional wholeness or responsibility (including a view with a focus on taking into account environment)  Other views are more characterized by the relationship between integrity and morals; in other words, what is right and wrong, good or bad. Cont…  Others stresses that integrity is something to strive for—integrity as the “stuff of moral courage and even heroism” (Brenkert, 2004, p. 5), which means that it “stands for complying in an exemplary way with specific moral standards” (Van Luijk, 2004, p. 39).  Other perspectives focus on one or more other specific values (Dobel, 1999, 2016); for example, incorruptibility; honesty; impartiality; accountability (as also in many codes of conduct).  A view that fits into this category relates integrity to virtues, with integrity as acting in line with virtues such as wisdom; justice; courage; and temperance (Becker & Talsma, 2016; van Tongeren & Becker, 2009). Let give an example on moral  In judging the integrity of a government minister for example, one should concentrate on his or her behavior as a politician; hence, a first element of integrity is whether the minister is consistent and whole, not changing viewpoint every day or saying one thing and doing something else. Consistency  Consistency is about being the same regardless of the situation. For example, do you know some leaders whose mood changes by the day and make rash (sudden) decisions on certain days, yet calm and engaging on other days? This would be an example of inconsistency of actions and outcomes.  Consistency is a choice that we make as leaders or as human being every single day, even when the situation or environment is not great. If you just had an argument with someone before walking into your next meeting, consistency means that you will make a con