CSNB123: Computer Organization PDF

CSNB123: Computer Organization Chapter 2 Computer Evolution 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 1 Coverage 1. Evolution 2. Design for Performance 3. Multicore 4. Evolution Intel x86 Architecture 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN...

CSNB123: Computer Organization Chapter 2 Computer Evolution 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 1 Coverage 1. Evolution 2. Design for Performance 3. Multicore 4. Evolution Intel x86 Architecture 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 2 Evolution of Electronic Computer First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 3  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 4 First Generation Vacuum tubes technology was used in 1st generation of computers. Lee De Forest, an electrical engineer invented vacuum tube. It produced a large amount of heat and was very costly to operate; also, it consumed high electricity. During the first half of the 20th century, the vacuum tube was generally used to build a wide variety of other electronic devices, including televisions, radar, radios, and X-ray machines, as it was the fundamental technology. Additionally, this technology was also used with the computers made in the first generation. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 5  First Generation The first generation of the computer was dependent upon the lowest-level programming language known as machine language, which was used by the computer (first-generation) to perform different kinds of operations. This was not able to perform multitasking work and capable of solving only one problem at a time. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 6  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 7 ENIAC ENIAC stands for Electronic Numerical Integrator and Computer. It was one of the earliest general-purpose electronic digital computers. ENIAC was built during World War II and completed in 1945. It was used primarily for calculating artillery firing tables for the United States Army. ENIAC was a massive machine, occupying a large room, and it one of the first electronic computers. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 8  ENIAC Physicist John Mauchly and electrical engineer J. Presper Eckert designed ENIAC and were instrumental in its creation. They worked alongside a team of engineers, mathematicians, programmers, and other experts. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 9 ENIAC – Physical Characteristics Weight: 30 tons Size: 1,500 square feet Number of tubes: 18,000 vacuum tubes Power consumption: 140 kilowatts occupying a large room 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 10 ENIAC – Performance Capability: 5,000 additions per second Decimal machine Decimal number representation Arithmetic operation Memory: 20 accumulators 1 accumulator – hold 10-digit decimal number 1-digit – uses 1 vacuum tube Main problem : Only one vacuum tube – ON No memory to store a state program. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 11 YouTube Video THE ENIAC:Electronic Numerical Integrator And Computer https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=goi6NAHMK og&t=281s 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 12  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 13  Von Neumann / Turing Machine Stored-Program concept A program – represented → storing in memory alongside the data Get instructions from memory A program – set / altered by setting the values of a portion of memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 14 Von Neumann / Turing Machine 1945 – Electronic Discrete 1946 – New Stored-program Variable Computer (EDVAC) Computer, IAS computer IAS : Institute of Advanced Study Prototype of all subsequent general purpose computers 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 15 IAS Computer - General Structure Central Processing Unit (CPU) Arithmetic Logic Unit (CA) I/O Main Equipment Memory (M) (I,O) Program Control Unit (CC) Components Description Main memory Stores data and instruction Arithmetic and logic unit (ALU) Operating on binary data Control unit Interprets the instructions in memory → execute Input/output (I/O) Equipment operated by control unit 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 16  IAS Computer – Main Memory Central Processing Unit (CPU) Characteristics: Arithmetic Logic Format: Binary Unit (CA) I/O Storage locations: Main Memory (M) Equipment (I,O) 1,000 locations 1 storage location Program Control Unit (CC) (word) : 40 bits Store Data Instructions 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 17 IAS Computer – Memory Format Contain of 4096 storage locations (called words) of 40 bits each Both instruction and data stored there. Data (e.g. number) represented in binary form Instruction is represented in binary code, consisting of opcode and address 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 18  IAS Computer – Expended Structure Central Processing Unit (CPU) Arithmetic Logic Unit (CA) AC MQ Arithmetic-logic Circuits Main MBR I/O Memory Equipment (M) (I,O) Program Control Unit (CC) IBR PC IR MAR Control Circuits 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 19  IAS Computer – Expended Structure Central Processing Unit (CPU) Component Description Arithmetic Logic Unit (CA) Memory buffer Consists word to be; AC MQ register (MBR) Stored in memory or sent to I/O unit Arithmetic-logic Circuits Used to receive a word from memory or from I/O unit MBR Accumulator (AC) Hold temporarily operands and results of ALU and multiplier operations quotient (MQ) Program Control Unit (CC) Memory address Specifies – address in memory of the word to register (MAR) be written from or read into the MBR IBR PC Instruction Contains the 8-bit opcode instruction being IR MAR register (IR) executed Control Circuits Instruction buffer Hold temporarily the right-hand instruction register (IBR) from a word in memory Program counter Contains the address of the next instruction (PC) pair to be fetched from memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 20  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 21 Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) Late 1950 UNIVAC II Part of Sperry- 1947 Rand UNIVAC I Corporation Eckert-Mauchly Faster & more Computer memory Corporation 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 22 Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) UNIVAC I First successful commercial computer Scientific and commercial Late 1950 application UNIVAC II Part of Sperry- Matrix algebraic computation Rand 1947 UNIVAC I Corporation Statistical problems Eckert-Mauchly Computer Faster & more memory Premium billing – life Corporation insurance company Logistical problems 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 23 Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) UNIVAC II Enhancement Greater memory capacity Late 1950 Higher performance UNIVAC II Part of Sperry- Rand New trends 1947 UNIVAC I Eckert-Mauchly Corporation Faster & more Advances in Computer Corporation memory technology Backward compatible 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 24 Universal Automatic Computer (UNIVAC) – 1100 series UNIVAC 1103 First model Scientific applications – long and complex calculations 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 25  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 26 IBM 1955 The 702 1953 The 701 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 27 IBM IBM 701 IBM 1st stored program computer 1955 The 702 Scientific Calculations 1953 The 701 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 28 IBM IBM 702 Business Applications 1955 700/7000 series The 702 1953 The 701 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 29  https://www.javatpoint.com/first-generation-of-computer 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 30  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 31 Second Generation Major change Transistor – replace vacuum tube Performance enhancement More complex arithmetic and logic units, and control units High-level programming languages System software 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 32 Transistors Characteristic; Solid-state device - made from silicon 1947 - Invented at Bell Labs William Shockley et al. The Transistor: a 1953 documentary, anticipating its coming impact on technology (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v= V9xUQWo4vN0) 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 33 Transistors - Advantages Smaller Cheaper Dissipates less heat 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 34 Transistors Based Computers Second generation machines Front-runners - NCR & RCA produced small transistor machines IBM 7000 series 1957 - Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) Produced PDP-1 computer 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 35 Transistors Based Computers IBM 7000 Series DEC PDP-1 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 36  https://www.javatpoint.com/second-generation-of-computer 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 37  Computer Generations 1946 - 1958 - 1965 1971 1971 - 1978 - 1991 1957 1964 1977 1991 Vacuum Transistor Small Medium Large Very large Ultra large tube scale scale scale scale scale integration integration integration integration integration 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 38  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 39 Third Generation Used integrated circuits instead of transistor technology 1964 – 1970 An integrated circuit is a small chip The integrated circuit used in 3rd generation computers can work as computer memory, microprocessor or even an amplifier 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 40 Integrated Circuits Robert Noyce of Fairchild Semiconductor and Jack Kilby (American electrical engineer) of Texas Instruments in 1959. Discrete component – self- contained transistor Problem with transistors Requires soldering to a circuit board – expensive Invention - microelectronics 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 41 Microelectronics Literally - “small electronics” Persistent and consistent trend → reduction in size of digital electronic circuits Fundamental components; Gates – implement a simple Boolean or logical function Memory cells – store one bit of data 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 42 Moore’s Law Number of transistors on a chip will DOUBLE every year 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 43 Moore’s Law (Cont.) Gordon Moore – co- founder of Intel Increased density of components on chip Since 1970’s development has slowed a little Number of transistors doubles every 18 months 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 44 Moore’s Law profound Cost of a chip has remained almost unchanged Higher packing density means shorter electrical paths, giving higher performance Smaller size gives increased flexibility Reduced power and cooling requirements Fewer interconnections increases reliability 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 45 Growth in CPU Transistor Count 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 46 IBM 360 series 1964 Replaced (& not compatible with) 7000 series First planned “family” of computers Characteristics; Similar or identical instruction sets Similar or identical O/S Increasing speed Increasing number of I/O ports (i.e. more terminals) Increased memory size Increased cost Multiplexed switch structure 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 47 DEC PDP-8 1964 First minicomputer Did not need air-conditioned room Small enough to sit on a lab bench $16,000 $100k+ for IBM 360 Embedded applications & original equipment manufactures (OEM) Bus Structure - Omnibus 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 48 DEC PDP-8 – Bus Structure Consists of 96 separate signal paths, used to carry control, address, and data signals. All system components share a common set of signal paths, their use can be controlled by the CPU. This architecture is highly flexible, allowing modules to be plugged into the bus to create various configurations. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 49  https://www.javatpoint.com/third-generation-of-computer 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 50  First Generation Von ENIAC Neumann UNIVAC IBM Machine Second Generation Third Generation Transistors Integrated Circuits Later Generation Semiconductor Microprocessor Memory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 51 Later Generation There have been a number of later generations, based on advances in integrated circuit technology. Large scale integration (LSI), more than 1,000 components can be placed on a single integrated circuit chip. Very-large-scale integration (VLSI) achieved more than 10,000 components per chip, Ultra-large-scale integration (ULSI) chips can contain more than one billion components Two of the most important of developments in later generations Semiconductor memory Microprocessor 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 52 Semiconductor Memory 1970 – Fairchild produces the first relatively capacious semiconductor memory Size of a single core 16 inch in diameter Holds 256 bits Non-destructive read Much faster than core Capacity approximately doubles each year 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 53  Microprocessor – Intel Year Computer Description Name 1971 4004 First microprocessor All CPU components on a single chip 4 bit Designed for specific applications 1972 8008 8 bit Designed for specific applications 1974 8080 Intel’s first general purpose microprocessor 8-bit 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 54 YouTube Video How a CPU is made From Sand to Silicon: the Making of a Chip | Intel 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 55 Coverage 1. Evolution 2. Design for Performance 3. Multicore 4. Evolution Intel x86 Architecture 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 56 Design for Performance 1. Microprocessor Speed 2. Performance Balance 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 57  Microprocessor Speed – Techniques built into contemporary processor Pipelining Processor moves data or instructions into a conceptual pipe with all stages of the pipe processing simultaneously Branch prediction Processor looks ahead in the instruction code fetched from memory and predicts which branches, or groups of instructions, are likely to be processed next Superscalar execution ability to issue more than one instruction in every processor per clock cycle Data flow analysis ability to issue more than one instruction in every processor per clock cycle Speculative execution Using branch prediction and data flow analysis, some processors speculatively execute instructions ahead of their actual appearance in the program execution, holding the results in temporary locations, keeping execution engines as busy as possible 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 58 Performance Balance Processor speed increased but other components of the computer are not kept up → need to look for performance balance. Adjustment/tuning of the organization and architecture to compensate for the mismatch among the capabilities of the various components Critical at the interface between processor and main memory. The speed with which data can be transferred between main memory and the processor has lagged badly. The most crucial pathway in the entire computer because it is responsible for carrying a constant flow of program instructions and data between memory chips and the processor. If memory or the pathway fails to keep pace with the processor’s insistent demands, the processor stalls in wait state – the valuable processing time is lost. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 59 Logic and Memory Performance Gap 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 60 Logic and Memory Performance Gap - Solutions Increase number of bits retrieved at one time Make DRAM “wider” rather than “deeper” Change DRAM interface Cache Reduce frequency of memory access More complex cache and cache on chip Increase interconnection bandwidth High speed buses Hierarchy of buses 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 61 I/O Devices Handling the I/O devices As computers become faster and more capable, more sophisticated applications are developed that support the use of peripherals with intensive I/O demands. Current generation of processors can handle the data pumped out by these devices, there remains the problem of getting that data moved between processor and peripheral. 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 62 Typical I/O Device Data Rates 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 63 I/O Devices - Solutions Caching Buffering Higher-speed interconnection buses More elaborate bus structures Multiple-processor configurations 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 64 Key is Balance Designers constantly strive to balance the throughput and processing demands of the processor components, main memory, I/O devices, and the interconnection structures. This design must constantly be rethought to cope with two constantly evolving factors: The rate at which performance is changing in the various technology areas (processor, buses, memory, peripherals) differs greatly from one type of element to another. New applications and new peripheral devices constantly change the nature of the demand on the system in terms of typical instruction profile and the data access patterns 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 65 Improvements in Chip Organization and Architecture - Increase Processor Speed Increase hardware speed of processor Fundamentally due to shrinking logic gate size More gates, packed more tightly, increasing clock rate Propagation time for signals reduced Increase size and speed of caches Dedicating part of processor chip Cache access times drop significantly Change processor organization and architecture Increase effective speed of execution Parallelism 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 66 Problems with Clock Speed and Logic Density Power Power density increases with density of logic and clock speed Dissipating heat RC (Resistor Capacitor) delay Speed at which electrons flow limited by resistance and capacitance of metal wires connecting them Delay increases as RC product increases Wire interconnects thinner, increasing resistance Wires closer together, increasing capacitance Memory latency Memory speeds lag processor speeds Delay in transmitting data between a computer’s RAM and processor 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 67  Problems with Clock Speed and Logic Density - Solution More emphasis on organizational and architectural approaches 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 68 Intel Microprocessor Performance 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 69 Increase Cache Capacity Typically two or three levels of cache between processor and main memory Chip density increased More cache memory on chip Faster cache access Pentium chip devoted about 10% of chip area to cache Pentium 4 devotes about 50% 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 70 More Complex Execution Logic Enable parallel execution of instructions Pipeline works like assembly line Different stages of execution of different instructions at same time along pipeline Superscalar allows multiple pipelines within single processor Instructions that do not depend on one another can be executed in parallel 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 71 Limitations of the Single Core Processor Internal organization of processors complex Can get a great deal of parallelism Further significant increases likely to be relatively modest Benefits from cache are reaching limit Increasing clock rate runs into power dissipation problem Some fundamental physical limits are being reached 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 72 Coverage 1. Evolution 2. Design for Performance 3. Multicore 4. Evolution Intel x86 Architecture 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 73 Multicore ▪ As per Moore’s Law, the number of transistors on a single chip continues to grow exponentially. Meanwhile, the clock speed has leveled off, in order to prevent a further rise in power ▪ To continue to increase performance, designers have had to find ways of exploiting the growing number of transistors other than simply building a more complex processor 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 74 New Approach – Multiple Cores Multiple processors on single chip Large shared cache Within a processor, increase in performance proportional to square root of increase in complexity 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 75 New Approach – Multiple Cores (Cont.) If software can use multiple processors, doubling number of processors almost doubles performance So, use two simpler processors on the chip rather than one more complex processor With two processors, larger caches are justified Power consumption of memory logic less than processing logic 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 76 YouTube Video The Power of Small - 3rd Generation Intel® Core | Intel 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 77 Graphics Processing Units (GPUs) Core designed to perform parallel operations on graphics data – repetitive computation Video processing Vector processor General-purpose Computing on GPUs (GPGPUs) 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 78 YouTube Video Mythbusters Demo GPU versus CPU 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 79 Coverage 1. Evolution 2. Design for Performance 3. Multicore 4. Evolution Intel x86 Architecture 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 80 Evolution of Intel x86 Architecture 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 81 x86 Evolution x86 architecture dominant outside embedded systems Organization and technology changed dramatically Instruction set architecture evolved with backwards compatibility ~1 instruction per month added 500 instructions available See Intel web pages for detailed information on processors 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 82  x86 Evolution (Cont.) Ver. Description 8080 first general purpose microprocessor 8 bit data path Used in first personal computer – Altair 8086 5MHz – 29,000 transistors much more powerful 16 bit instruction cache, prefetch few instructions 8088 (8 bit external bus) used in first IBM PC 1Mb 80286 16 Mbyte memory addressable up from 1Mb 80386 32 bit http://www.antiquetech.com/pictures%20full-size/C8080A.jpg Support for multitasking 80486 sophisticated powerful cache and instruction pipelining built in maths co-processor 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 83 x86 Evolution (Cont.) Version Description Pentium Superscalar Multiple instructions executed in parallel Pentium Pro Increased superscalar organization Aggressive register renaming branch prediction data flow analysis http://www.notebookcheck.net/upl speculative execution oads/tx_nbc2/intel_pentium_e570 0_03.jpg Pentium II MMX technology graphics, video & audio processing Pentium III Additional floating point instructions for 3D graphics Pentium 4 Note Arabic rather than Roman numerals Further floating point and multimedia enhancements 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 84 x86 Evolution (Cont.) Version Description Core First x86 with dual core Core 2 64 bit architecture Core 2 Quad 3GHz – 820 million transistors Four processors on chip http://www.starbaseonline.com/hardware/Core2Duo.jpg 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 85 YouTube Video Intel Multicore Hyperthreading Intel: The Making of a Chip with 22nm/3D Transistors | Intel 45nm -- Biggest Change to Transistor in 40 Years Get Inside an Intel 45nm Chip Factory 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 86 Additional Reference William Stallings, Computer Organization and Architecture: Designing for Performance, 10th. Edition, Prentice-Hall Inc., 2010 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 87  This teaching material is belongs to Computing Department College of Computing and Informatics Universiti Tenaga Nasional (UNITEN) Malaysia (2020) 2024 Computer Organization | Computing | UNITEN 88